Neoclassicism - Boundless Art History

22/4/2019 Neoclassicism | Boundless Art History
Boundless
Art History
European and American Art in the
18th and 19th Centuries
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/neoclassicism/ 1/56
Neoclassicism refers to
movements in the arts that
draw inspiration from the
“classical” art and culture of
ancient Greece and Rome.
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Identify attributes of
Neoclassicism and
some of its key
gures
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
The height of
Neoclassicis
m coincided
with the 18th
century
Enlightenmen
t era, and
continued
into the early
19th century.
With the
increasing
popularity of
the Grand
Tour, it
became
fashionable
to collect
antiquities as
souvenirs,
which spread
the
Neoclassical
style through
Europe and
America.
Neoclassicis
m spanned
all of the arts
including
painting,
sculpture, the
decorative
arts, theatre,
literature,
music, and
architecture.
Generally
speaking,
Neoclassicis
m is de ned
stylistically by
its use of
straight lines,
minimal use
of color,
,
simplicity of
form and, of
course, an
adherence to
classical
values and
techniques.
Rococo, with
its emphasis
on
asymmetry,
bright colors,
and
ornamentatio
n is typically
considered to
be the direct
opposite of
the
Neoclassical
style.
Key Terms
Grand Tour:
The
traditional
tour of
Europe
undertaken
by mainly
upper-class
European
young men of
means. The
custom
ourished
from about
1660 until the
advent of
large-scale
rail transit in
the 1840s.
Enlightenme
nt: A concept
in spirituality,
p y,
philosophy,
and
psychology
related to
achieving
clarity of
perception,
reason, and
knowledge.
Rococo: A
style of
baroque
architecture
and
decorative
art, from 18th
century
France,
having
elaborate
ornamentatio
n.
The classical revival, also

known as Neoclassicism,
refers to movements in the
arts that draw inspiration from
the “classical” art and culture
of ancient Greece and Rome.
The height of Neoclassicism
coincided with the 18th
century Enlightenment era,
and continued into the early
19th century. The dominant
styles during the 18th century
were Baroque and Rococo.
The latter, with its emphasis
on asymmetry, bright colors,
and ornamentation is typically
considered to be the direct
opposite of the Neoclassical
style, which is based on order,
symmetry, and simplicity. With
the increasing popularity of
the Grand Tour, it became
,
fashionable to collect
antiquities as souvenirs. This
tradition of collecting laid the
foundations for many great art
collections and spread the
classical revival throughout
Europe and America.
Neoclassicism grew to
encompass all of the arts,
including painting, sculpture,
the decorative arts, theatre,
literature, music, and
architecture. The style can
generally be identi ed by its
use of straight lines, minimal
use of color, simplicity of form
and, of course, its adherence
to classical values and
techniques.
In music, the period saw the

rise of classical music and in
painting, the works of Jaques-
p g, q
Louis David became
synonymous with the classical
revival. However,
Neoclassicism was felt most
strongly in architecture,
sculpture, and the decorative
arts, where classical models in
the same medium were fairly
numerous and accessible.
Sculpture in particular had a
great wealth of ancient
models from which to learn,
however, most were Roman
copies of Greek originals.
Rinaldo Rinaldi, Chirone

Insegna Ad Achille a
Suonare La Cetra: Executed
in a classical style and
adhering to classical themes,
this sculpture is a typical
example of the Neoclassical
style.
Neoclassical architecture was

modeled after the classical
style and, as with other art
forms, was in many ways a
reaction against the exuberant
Rococo style. The architecture
of the Italian architect Andrea
Palladio became very popular
in the mid 18th century.
Additionally, archaeological
ruins found in Pompeii and
Herculaneum informed many
of the stylistic values of
Neoclassical interior design
based on the ancient Roman
rediscoveries.
Villa Godi Valmarana,

Lonedo di Lugo, Veneto,
Italy: Villa Godi was one of
the rst works by Palladio. Its
austere facade, arched
doorways and minimal
symmetry re ect his
adherence to classical stylistic
values.
Neoclassical
Paintings
Neoclassical painting,
produced by men and women,
drew its inspiration from the
classical art and culture of
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
Discuss the
overarching themes
present in
Neoclassical
painting
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Neoclassical
subject
matter draws
from the
history and
general
culture of
ancient
Greece and
Ancient
Rome. It is
often
described as
a reaction to
the
lighthearted
and
“frivolous”
subject
matter of the
Rococo.
Neoclassical
painting is
characterized
by the use of
straight lines,
a smooth
paint surface,
the depiction
of light, a
minimal use
of color, and
,
the clear,
crisp
de nition of
forms.
The works of
Jacques-
Louis David
are usually
hailed as the
epitome of
Neoclassical
painting.
David
attracted
over 300
students to
his studio,
including
Jean-
Auguste-
Dominique
Ingres, Marie-
Guillemine
Benoist, and
Angélique
Mongez, the
last of whom
tried to
extend the
Neoclassical
tradition
beyond her
teacher’s
death.
Key Terms
Enlightenme
nt: A
philosophical
movement in
17th and 18th
century
Europe. Also
known as the
Age of
Reason, this
,
was an era
that
emphasized
rationalism.
Background and
Characteristics
Neoclassicism is the term for

movements in the arts that
draw inspiration from the
classical art and culture of
The height of Neoclassicism
coincided with the 18th
century Enlightenment era
and continued into the early
19th century. With the advent
of the Grand Tour—a much
enjoyed trip around Europe

intended to introduce young
men to the extended culture
and people of their world—it

became fashionable to collect
antiquities as souvenirs. This
tradition laid the foundations
of many great collections and
ensured the spread of the
Neoclassical revival
throughout Europe and
America. The French
Neoclassical style would
greatly contribute to the
monumentalism of the French
Revolution, with the emphasis
of both lying in virtue and
patriotism.
Neoclassical painting is
characterized by the use of
straight lines, a smooth paint
surface hiding brush work, the
depiction of light, a minimal

use of color, and the clear,
crisp de nition of forms. Its
p
subject matter usually relates
to either Greco-Roman history
or other cultural attributes,
such as allegory and virtue.
The softness of paint
application and light-hearted
and “frivolous” subject matter
that characterize Rococo
painting is recognized as the
opposite of the Neoclassical
style. The works of Jacques-
Louis David are widely
considered to be the epitome
of Neoclassical painting. Many
painters combined aspects of
Romanticism with a vaguely
Neoclassical style before
David’s success, but these
works did not strike any
chords with audiences.
Typically, the subject matter of

Neoclassical painting
consisted of the depiction of
p
events from history,
mythological scenes, and the
architecture and ruins of
ancient Rome.
The School of David
Neoclassical painting gained

new momentum with the great
success of David’s Oath of the
Horatii at the Paris Salon of
1785. The painting had been
commissioned by the royal
government and was created
in a style that was the perfect
combination of idealized
structure and dramatic e ect.
The painting created an
uproar, and David was
proclaimed to have perfectly
de ned the Neoclassical taste

in his painting style. He
thereby became the
y
quintessential painter of the
movement. In The Oath of the
Horatii, the perspective is
perpendicular to the picture
plane. It is de ned by a dark
arcade behind several
classical heroic gures. There
is an element of theatre, or
staging, that evokes the
grandeur of opera. David soon
became the leading French
painter and enjoyed a great
deal of government
patronage. Over the course of
his long career, he attracted
over 300 students to his
studio.
Jacques-Louis David. The

Oath of the Horatii (1784): Oil
on canvas. Musée du Louvre,
Paris.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique
Ingres, a Neoclassical painter
of history and portraiture, was
one of David’s students.
Deeply devoted to classical
techniques, Ingres is known to
have believed himself to be a
conservator of the style of the
ancient masters, although he
later painted subjects in the
Romantic style. Examples of
his Neoclassical work include

the paintings Virgil Reading to
Augustus (1812), and Oedipus
g ( ), p
and the Sphinx (1864). Both
David and Ingres made use of
the highly organized imagery,
straight lines, and clearly
de ned forms that were
typical of Neoclassical
painting during the 18th
century.
Virgil Reading to Augustus

by Jean-Auguste-Dominique
Ingres (1812): Oil on canvas.

The Walters Art Museum.
While tradition and the rules

governing the Académie
Française barred women from
studying from the nude model
(a necessity for executing an
e ective Neoclassical
painting), David believed that
women were capable of
producing successful art of
the style and welcomed many
as his students. Among the
most successful were Marie-
Guillemine Benoist, who
eventually won commissions
from the Bonaparte family,
and Angélique Mongez, who
won patrons from as far away
as Russia.
Self-Portrait by Marie-
Guillemine Benoist (1788): In
this untraced oil on canvas,
Benoist (then Leroulx de la
Ville) paints a section from
David’s acclaimed
Neoclassical painting of
Justinian’s blinded general
Belisarius begging for alms.
Her return of the viewer’s
gaze and classical attire show
her con dence as an artist
and conformity to artistic
trends.
Mongez is best known for
being one of the few women

to paint monumental subjects
that often included the male
nude, a feat for which hostile

critics often attacked her.
Theseus and Pirithoüs

Clearing the Earth of
Brigands, Deliver Two
Women from the Hands of
Their Abductors by
Angélique Mongez (1806):
Oil on canvas. Hermitage
Museum, St. Petersburg,
Russia.
Mongez and Antoine-Jean

Gros, another of David’s
students, tried to carry on the
Neoclassical tradition after
David’s death in 1825 but
were unsuccessful in face of

the growing popularity of
Romanticism.
Neoclassical
Sculpture
A reaction against the

“frivolity” of the Rococo,
Neoclassical sculpture depicts
serious subjects in uenced by
the ancient Greek and Roman
past.
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Explain what motifs

are common to
Neoclassical
sculpture
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Neoclassicis
m emerged
in the second
half of the
18th century,
following the
excavations
of the ruins of
Pompeii,
which
sparked
renewed
interest in the
Graeco-
Roman world.
Neoclassical
sculpture is
de ned by its
symmetry,
life-sized to
monumental
scale, and its
serious
subject
matter.
The subjects
of
Neoclassical
sculpture
ranged from
mythological
gures to
heroes of the
past to major
contemporar
y
personages.
Neoclassical
Neoclassical
sculpture
could capture
its subject as
either
idealized or
in a more
veristic
manner.
Key Terms
verism: An
ancient
Roman
technique, in
which the
subject is
depicted with
“warts and
all” realism.
As with painting,
N l i i d i
Neoclassicism made its way

into sculpture in the second
half of the 18th century. In
addition to the ideals of the
Enlightenment, the
excavations of the ruins at
Pompeii began to spark a
renewed interest in classical
culture. Whereas Rococo
sculpture consisted of small-
scale asymmetrical objects
focusing on themes of love
and gaiety, neoclassical
sculpture assumed life-size to
monumental scale and
focused on themes of
heroism, patriotism, and
virtue.
In his tomb sculpture, the

Enlightenment philosophe
Voltaire is honored in true
Neoclassical form. In a style
in uenced by ancient Roman
y
verism, he appears as an
elderly man to honor his
wisdom. He wears a
contemporary commoner’s
blouse to convey his
humbleness, and his robe
assumes the appearance of
an ancient Roman toga from a
distance. Like his ancient
predecessors, his facial
expression and his body
language suggest an air of
scholarly seriousness.
Voltaire’s tomb.: Panthéon,

Paris.
Neoclassical sculptors
bene ted from an abundance
of ancient models, albeit
Roman copies of Greek
bronzes in most cases. The
leading Neoclassical sculptors
enjoyed much acclaim during
their lifetimes. One of them
was Jean-Antoine Houdon,

whose work was mainly
portraits, very often as busts,
p , y ,
which do not sacri ce a strong
impression of the sitter’s
personality to idealism. His
style became more classical
as his long career continued,
and represents a rather
smooth progression from
Rococo charm to classical
dignity. Unlike some
Neoclassical sculptors he did
not insist on his sitters
wearing Roman dress, or
being unclothed. He
portrayed most of the great
gures of the Enlightenment,
and traveled to America to
produce a statue of George
Washington, as well as busts
of Thomas Je erson,
Benjamin Franklin, and other
luminaries of the new

republic. His portrait bust of
Washington depicts the rst
g p
President of the United States
as a stern, yet competent
leader, with the in uence of
Roman verism evident in his
wrinkled forehead, receding
hairline, and double chin.
Bust of George
Washington by Jean-
Antoine Houdon (c
Antoine Houdon (c.

1786)
National Portrait Gallery,

Washington, DC.
The Italian artist Antonio

Canova and the Danish artist
Bertel Thorvaldsen were both
based in Rome, and as well as
portraits produced many
ambitious life-size gures and
groups. Both represented the
strongly idealizing tendency in
Neoclassical sculpture.
Hebe by Antonio Canova

(1800–05).: Hermitage State
Museum, St. Petersburg,
Russia.
Canova has a lightness and

grace, where Thorvaldsen is
more severe. The di erence is
exempli ed in Canova’s Hebe
(1800–05), whose
contrapposto almost mimics
lively dance steps as she
prepares to pour nectar and
ambrosia from a small
amphora into a chalice, and
p ,
Thorvaldsen’s Monument to
Copernicus (1822-30), whose
subject sits upright with a
compass and armillary sphere.
Monument to Copernicus by
Bertel Thorvaldsen (1822–
30).: Bronze. Warsaw, Poland.
Neoclassical
Architecture
Neoclassical architecture
looks to the classical past of
the Graeco-Roman era, the
Renaissance, and classicized
Baroque to convey a new era
based on Enlightenment
principles.
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
Identify what sets

Neoclassical
architecture apart
from other
movements
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Key Points
Neoclassical
architecture
was
produced by
the
Neoclassical
movement in
the mid 18th
century. It
manifested in
its details as
a reaction
against the
Rococo style
of naturalistic
ornament,
and in its
architectural
formulas as
an outgrowth
of the
classicizing
features of
Late
Baroque.
The rst
phase of
Neoclassicis
m in France
is expressed
in the “Louis
XVI style” of
architects like
Ange-
Jacques
Gabriel (Petit
Trianon,
1762–68)
while the
second
phase is
expressed in
the late 18th-
century
y
Directoire
style.
Neoclassical
architecture
emphasizes
its planar
qualities,
rather than
sculptural
volumes.
Projections
and
recessions
and their
e ects of
light and
shade are
more at,
while
sculptural
bas- reliefs
are atter
and tend to
be enframed
in friezes,
tablets, or
panels.
Structures
such as the
Arc de
Triomphe, the
Panthéon in
Paris, and
Chiswick
House in
London have
elements that
convey the
in uence of
ancient
Greek and
Roman
architecture,
as well as
some
in uence
from the
Renaissance
and Late
Baroque
periods.
Neoclassical architecture,
which began in the mid 18th
century, looks to the classical
past of the Graeco-Roman era,
the Renaissance, and
classicized Baroque to convey
a new era based on
Enlightenment principles. This
movement manifested in its
details as a reaction against
the Rococo style of naturalistic
ornament, and in its
architectural formulas as an
outgrowth of some
classicizing features of Late
Baroque. In its purest form,
q p ,
Neoclassicism is a style
principally derived from the
architecture of Classical
Greece and Rome. In form,
Neoclassical architecture
emphasizes the wall and
maintains separate identities
to each of its parts.
The rst phase of

Neoclassicism in France is
expressed in the Louis XVI
style of architects like Ange-
Jacques Gabriel (Petit Trianon,
1762–68). Ange-Jacques
Gabriel was the Premier
Architecte at Versailles, and
his Neoclassical designs for
the royal palace dominated
mid 18th century French

architecture.
Ange-Jacques Gabriel.
Château of the Petit Trianon.:
The Petit Trianon in the park
at Versailles demonstrates the
neoclassical architectural
style under Louis XVI.
After the French Revolution,

the second phase of
Neoclassicism was expressed
in the late 18th century
Directoire style. The Directoire
style re ected the
Revolutionary belief in the
values of republican Rome.

This style was a period in the
decorative arts, fashion, and
, ,
especially furniture design,
concurrent with the post-
Revolution French Directoire
(November 2, 1795–
November 10, 1799). The style
uses Neoclassical
architectural forms, minimal
carving, planar expanses of
highly grained veneers, and
applied decorative painting.
The Directoire style was
primarily established by the
architects and designers
Charles Percier (1764–1838)
and Pierre-François-Léonard
Fontaine (1762–1853), who
collaborated on the Arc de
Triomphe in Paris, which is
considered emblematic of
French neoclassical
architecture.
Arc de Triomphe: The Arc de

Triomphe, although nished in
the early 19th century, is
emblematic of French
neoclassical architecture that
dominated the Directoire
period.
Though Neoclassical
architecture employs the
same classical vocabulary as
Late Baroque architecture, it
tends to emphasize its planar
qualities rather than its
sculptural volumes.
p
Projections, recessions, and
their e ects on light and
shade are more at. Sculptural
bas-reliefs are atter and tend
to be framed in friezes,
tablets, or panels. Its clearly
articulated individual features
are isolated rather than
interpenetrating, autonomous,
and complete in themselves.
Even sacred architecture was

classicized during the
Neoclassical period. The
Panthéon, located in the Latin
Quarter of Paris, was originally
built as a church dedicated to
St. Geneviève and to house
the reliquary châsse
containing her relics.
However, during the French

Revolution, the Panthéon was
secularized and became the
resting place of Enlightenment

icons such as Voltaire and
Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
Designer Jacques-Germain
Sou ot had the intention of
combining the lightness and
brightness of the Gothic
cathedral with classical
principles, but its role as a
mausoleum required the great
Gothic windows to be
blocked. In 1780, Sou ot died
and was replaced by his
student, Jean-Baptiste
Rondelet.
Jacques-Germain Sou ot
(original architect) and Jean-
Baptiste Rondelet. The
Panthéon.: Begun 1758,
completed 1790.
Similar to a Roman temple, the

Panthéon is entered through a
portico that consists of three
rows of columns (in this case,
Corinthian) topped by a
Classical pediment. In a
fashion more closely related
to ancient Greece, the
pediment is adorned with
reliefs throughout the
triangular space. Beneath the
pediment, the inscription on
the entablature translates as:
“To the great men, the grateful
homeland.” The dome, on the
,
other hand, is more in uenced
by Renaissance and Baroque
predecessors, such as St.
Peter’s in Rome and St. Paul’s
in London.
Intellectually, Neoclassicism
was symptomatic of a desire
to return to the perceived
“purity” of the arts of Rome.
The movement was also
inspired by a more vague
perception (“ideal”) of Ancient
Greek arts and, to a lesser
extent, 16th century
Renaissance Classicism,
which was also a source for
academic Late Baroque
architecture. There is an anti-
Rococo strain that can be
detected in some European

architecture of the earlier 18th
century. This strain is most
y
vividly represented in the
Palladian architecture of
Georgian Britain and Ireland.
Lord Burlington. Chiswick

House: The design of
Chiswick House in West
London was in uenced by
that of Palladio’s domestic
architecture, particularly the
Villa Rotunda in Venice. The
stepped dome and temple
façade were clearly
in uenced by the Roman
Pantheon.
The trend toward the classical
is also recognizable in the

classicizing vein of Late
Baroque architecture in Paris.
q
It is a robust architecture of
self-restraint, academically
selective now of “the best”
Roman models. These models
were increasingly available for
close study through the
medium of architectural
engravings of measured
drawings of surviving Roman
architecture.
French Neoclassicism
continued to be a major force
in academic art through the
19th century and beyond—a
constant antithesis to
Romanticism or Gothic
revivals.
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22/4/2019 Neoclassicism | Boundless Art History

The classical revival, also

In music, the period saw the

Rinaldo Rinaldi, Chirone

Neoclassical architecture was

Villa Godi Valmarana,

Neoclassicism is the term for

enjoyed trip around Europe

and people of their world—it

depiction of light, a minimal

Typically, the subject matter of

The School of David

Neoclassical painting gained

de ned the Neoclassical taste

Jacques-Louis David. The

his Neoclassical work include

Virgil Reading to Augustus

Ingres (1812): Oil on canvas.

While tradition and the rules

Mongez is best known for

being one of the few women

nude, a feat for which hostile

Theseus and Pirithoüs

Mongez and Antoine-Jean

were unsuccessful in face of

A reaction against the

Explain what motifs

Neoclassicism made its way

In his tomb sculpture, the

Voltaire’s tomb.: Panthéon,

was Jean-Antoine Houdon,

luminaries of the new

Antoine Houdon (c.

National Portrait Gallery,

The Italian artist Antonio

Hebe by Antonio Canova

Canova has a lightness and

Identify what sets

The rst phase of

mid 18th century French

After the French Revolution,

values of republican Rome.

Arc de Triomphe: The Arc de

Even sacred architecture was

However, during the French

resting place of Enlightenment

Similar to a Roman temple, the

detected in some European

Lord Burlington. Chiswick

The trend toward the classical

is also recognizable in the

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