SDGs Guide To Interactions PDF

A GUIDE TO
SDG INTERACTIONS:
FROM SCIENCE
TO IMPLEMENTATION
A GUIDE TO SDG INTERACTIONS:
FROM SCIENCE TO IMPLEMENTATION
A GUIDE TO
SDG INTERACTIONS:
FROM SCIENCE
TO IMPLEMENTATION
04
07 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SDG INTERACTIONS
18 I NTRODUCTION
A FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT GOAL INTERACTIONS
Måns Nilsson (sei), David Griggs (Monash University),
Martin Visbeck (geomar and cau), Claudia Ringler (ifpri),
David McCollum (iiasa)
S DG 2
31
END HUNGER, ACHIEVE FOOD SECURITY
AND IMPROVED NUTRITION AND PROMOTE
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Ludovic Mollier (ird), Frédérique Seyler (ird),
Jean-Luc Chotte (ird), Claudia Ringler (ifpri)
34 I NTRODUCTION
35 KEY INTERACTIONS AT GOAL LEVEL
43
K EY INTERACTIONS AT TARGET LEVEL
SDG 2 + SDG 1
SDG 2 + SDG 3
SDG 2 + SDG 5
SDG 2 + SDG 6
SDG 2 + SDG 7
SDG 2 + SDG 13
SDG 2 + SDG 15
73 KNOWLEDGE GAPS
75 CONCLUDING COMMENTS
S DG 3
81
E NSURE HEALTHY LIVES AND PROMOTE
WELL-BEING FOR ALL AT ALL AGES
Philippa Howden-Chapman (New Zealand Centre for Sustainable Cities),
José Siri (unu-iigh), Elinor Chisholm (New Zealand Centre for Sustainable
Cities), Ralph Chapman (New Zealand Centre for Sustainable Cities),
Christopher N.H. Doll (unu-ias), Anthony Capon (University of Sydney)
84 I NTRODUCTION
91
SDG 3 + SDG 2
SDG 3 + SDG 3
SDG 3 + SDG 8
SDG 3 + SDG 11
SDG 3 + SDG 13
119 KNOWLEDGE GAPS
05
S DG 7
127
E NSURE ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE, RELIABLE,
SUSTAINABLE AND MODERN ENERGY FOR ALL

David McCollum (iiasa), Luis Gomez Echeverri (iiasa),
Keywan Riahi (iiasa), Simon Parkinson (iiasa)
130 I NTRODUCTION
136
SDG 7 + SDG 1
SDG 7 + SDG 2
SDG 7 + SDG 3
SDG 7 + SDG 6
SDG 7 + SDG 8
SDG 7 + SDG 13
167 KNOWLEDGE GAPS
S DG 14
174
ONSERVE AND SUSTAINABLY USE
C
THE OCEANS, SEAS AND MARINE RESOURCES
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Stefanie Schmidt (iass), Barbara Neumann (cau),
Yvonne Waweru (iass), Carole Durussel (iass), Sebastian Unger (iass),
Martin Visbeck (geomar and cau)
177 INTRODUCTION
183
SDG 14 + SDG 1
SDG 14 + SDG 2
SDG 14 + SDG 8
SDG 14 + SDG 11
SDG 14 + SDG 12
SDG 14 + SDG 13
212 KNOWLEDGE GAPS
L OOKING
215 AHEAD
N EXT STEPS
226 NNEX
A
T HREE ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF INTERACTIONS
BETWEEN SDG 2 AND THE OTHER SDGS
I MPRINT
237
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EXECUTIVE
S U M MA RY
The United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was
adopted in September 2015. It is underpinned by 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (sdgs) and 169 targets. National policy-
makers now face the challenge of implementing this indivisible
agenda and achieving progress across the economic, social
and environmental dimensions of sustainable development world-
wide. As the process moves towards implementation, there is
a need to address the scope and systemic nature of the 2030 Agenda
and the urgency of the challenges. This requires a wide range
of tools and science-based analysis to navigate that complexity and
to realise the ambition.
This report explores the nature of interlinkages between
the sdgs. It is based on the premise that a science-informed
analysis of interactions across sdg domains – which is currently
lacking – can support more coherent and effective decision-
making, and better facilitate follow-up and monitoring of progress.
Understanding possible trade-offs as well as synergistic relations
between the different sdgs is crucial for achieving long-lasting
sustainable development outcomes. A key objective of the scoring
approach described here is to stimulate more science-policy
dialogue on the importance of interactions, to provide a starting
point for policy-makers and other stakeholders to set their
priorities and implementation strategies, and to engage the policy
community in further knowledge developments in this field.
UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES
All sdgs interact with one another – by design they are an integra
ted set of global priorities and objectives that are fundamentally
interdependent.
Understanding the range of positive and negative interactions
among sdgs is key to unlocking their full potential at any scale,
as well as to ensuring that progress made in some areas is not made
at the expense of progress in others. The nature, strengths and
potential impact of these interactions are largely context-specific
and depend on the policy options and strategies chosen to pur-
sue them. sdg 16 (good governance) and sdg 17 (means of implemen-
tation) are key to turning the potential for synergies into reality,
although they are not always specifically highlighted as such
throughout the report. For many if not all goals, having in place
effective governance systems, institutions, partnerships, and
intellectual and financial resources is key to an effective, efficient
and coherent approach to implementation.
08 Policymakers, practitioners and scientists working at the global,
regional, national and local levels on implementing or supporting
the implementation of the sdgs are the intended au-
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
dience for this report.
KEY FINDINGS
The four sdgs analysed in detail in this report (sdg 2, sdg 3,
sdg 7, sdg 14) are mostly synergistic with the other sdgs.
Using a 7-point scale, a team of scientists evaluated the key

target-level interactions between an ‘entry goal’ and all other
goals, and attributed a score to these interactions based
on their expert judgment and as justified through the scientific
literature. The score most often allocated is +2 (‘reinforcing’).
The assessment identified 316 target-level interactions overall,

of which 238 are positive, 66 are negative, and 12 are neutral.
This analysis found no fundamental incompatibilities between

goals (i.e. where one target as defined in the 2030 Agenda
would make it impossible to achieve another). However, it did
identify a set of potential constraints and conditionalities
that require coordinated policy interventions to shelter the
most vulnerable groups, promote equitable access to services
and development opportunities, and manage competing
demands over natural resources to support economic and
social development within environmental limits.
The process of systematically identifying and scoring inter

actions across the 17 sdgs using a common terminology
is very valuable. It allows broad multi-disciplinary and multi-
sectoral conversations, makes it possible to synthesise
knowledge and to scope knowledge needs, and provides rat
ional and concrete focal points (clusters of targets that
need to be addressed together) for an integrated approach to
implementation and monitoring.
This approach provides a basis for a science-policy dialogue on

translating integrated science for the achievement of the
sdgs. As a tool for policy coherence, it provides an understan
ding of the conflicts and synergies to be managed across
government departments and sectors, understanding where the
emphasis should be put for efficient and effective action,
and identifies who needs to be brought to the table to achieve
collective impacts across multiple interacting policy domains.
There is clearly no one-size-fits-all approach to understanding

target interactions, and building on this work will require
a commitment to continuous iteration and improvement.
09 SCIENCE-INFORMED ANALYSIS OF
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
AND THEIR INTERACTIONS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK
The framework on which this work is based identifies causal and
functional relations underlying progress or achievement of the
sustainable development goals and targets: positive interactions
are assigned scores of +1 (‘enabling’), +2 (‘reinforcing’) or +3
(‘indivisible’), while interactions characterised by trade-offs are
scored with -1 (‘constraining’), -2 (‘counteracting’), or -3 (‘cancelling’);
neutral interactions between sdgs are assigned 0. By systematically
assessing the interactions and relationships between goals and
targets, this report supports horizontal coherence across sectors.
The framework informs, but is not in itself a priority setting
exercise nor is it a comprehensive mapping of all potential
interactions. It can be applied at multiple scales (international,
national, sub-national) through a thematic or geographic entry, and
the analysis is based on existing literature and expert judgment.
SCORING EXAMPLE: EFFECTS OF CLEAN ENERGY

ON AIR QUALITY AND HEALTH
Sustainable energy that is carbon-free is largely also pollution-free.
This means that, in most cases, efforts to increase energy access
(target 7.1), expand the share of renewables in the energy mix
(target 7.2), and promote energy efficiency (target 7.3) will lead to a
simultaneous reduction in air pollutant emissions. As a conse-
quence, interaction between the sdg 7 targets and target 3.9 (reduc-
ing air pollution) is considered reinforcing and so is allocated
a score of +2. Nevertheless, achieving sdg 7 may not in itself be
enough to meet the air quality targets of sdg 3: additional pollution
control technologies and measures may be required.
FIRST APPLICATION
Key interactions for Food / Agriculture (sdg 2), Health (sdg 3),
Energy (sdg 7) and Oceans (sdg 14) are tested using the
scoring frame-work. This selection represents a mixture of key
goals aimed at human well-being, ecosystem services and
natural resources – it does not imply any prioritisation. This selection
also covers a range of development and environmental priorities,
including three goals under review at the 2017 High-Level Political
Forum (sdg 2, sdg 3, sdg 14). Each of these goals exhibits both
positive and negative target-level interactions with the other sdgs.
In attempting to combine expert judgment, the seeking of new
evidence in the scientific literature and extensive deliberations about
the character of different interactions, it soon became clear that
despite starting from similar understanding about interactions and
the main conceptual underpinnings of the framework, the different
10 teams quickly developed different interpretations of how to apply
the framework and score the interactions. This poses a challenge in
terms of replicating the study.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Nevertheless, a strength of the approach was that it generated

a highly iterative process for deepening the understanding of target
interactions. Each team had valuable debates about the terms
of the scale and several revisions were made to scores in different
chapters over the course of the work. In fact, in many respects
it could be argued that the process of deciding on the score was
possibly more valuable than the final result, since it required
a detailed study of the literature, a consideration of the issues and
potential context dependencies, a review of limitations and gaps
in current knowledge, and discussion with others. To this extent,
the assessment becomes a vehicle for triggering the conversation,
interpretation and learning process.
SDG 2: END HUNGER, ACHIEVE FOOD

SECURITY AND IMPROVED NUTRITION AND
PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Together with ending poverty, eradicating hunger around the
world is central to the 2030 Agenda. sdg 2 frames this in the
context of eradicating malnutrition through increasing agricultural
production sustainably. sdg 2 in itself is a compelling case for
recognising and managing interdependencies: achieving food and
nutrition security, and increasing agricultural production and
income for farmers, while achieving resilient and sustainable food
systems will be challenging to achieve simultaneously.
KEY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER GOALS
2 + 1
Eradicating poverty cannot be achieved without ensuring food
and nutrition security for all. While sdg 2 is a strong enabler
for sdg 1, increasing agricultural production, productivity and
incomes require complementary policies that benefit the
poor and vulnerable communities in rural areas and reduce their
exposure to adverse environmental shocks.
2 + 3
Health and well-being cannot be achieved without access to a suffic
ient quantity and quality of food. How the sdg 2 targets related
to increasing agricultural production and productivity are implemen
ted, will have a major influence on soil and water quality, land
use, and ecosystem health and functioning, which are key environ-
mental determinants of health. Other factors such as rural income
stability from agriculture and related sectors are also important.
Achieving sdg 3 supports sdg 2, because a healthy population is es-
sential for achieving nutrition and agricultural production targets.
11 2 + 5
Achieving the targets related to access to food, quality nutrition for
all, and agricultural incomes will provide key enabling conditions
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
for women’s empowerment and gender equality as it opens up

development opportunities for women. Conversely, gender equality
and enhancing women’s rights can help achieve the targets related
to sustainable, increased food production and nutrition, and can
enhance the role of women in agriculture.
2 + 6
Food production is strongly dependent on and affects the quality
and availability of water, because boosting agricultural production
can increase water withdrawals and worsen land and water de
gradation. Moreover, achieving nutrition targets requires access to
clean water and sanitation. Counteracting these potential trade-offs
will require sustainable agricultural systems and practices, and
enhanced water governance to manage growing and competing
demands on water resources.
2 + 7
Agriculture, food production and consumption are strongly
dependent on energy services; conversely biomass and agricultural
waste are potential sources of renewable energy. However,
competition over the same resources (land, water) can result in
trade-offs between both goals.
2 + 13
Agriculture is an important source of greenhouse gas emissions
and so contributes to climate change. Conversely, climate change
has wide-ranging impacts on agriculture and food security
through extreme weather events as well as long-term climatic
changes (such as warming and precipitation changes) and will
significantly constrain the achievement of sdg 2. Sustainable
agricultural practices play an important role in climate adaptation
and mitigation (such as improving soils and land quality, genetic
diversity, and bioenergy).
2 + 15
Healthy ecosystems provide vital services, from soil and water
quality, to genetic diversity and pollination. Agriculture is a key
driver impacting ecosystems. Sustainable agricultural systems
and practices contribute to ecosystem health. However, increased
agricultural production and productivity, if not sustainable, can
result in deforestation and land degradation, jeopardising long-
term food security. A careful balance is needed between achieving
food for all and conserving and restoring ecosystems.
75 target-level interactions:
50 (positive), 1 (neutral) and 24 (negative)
12 IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Eradicating hunger and ensuring food security is a bottom-line
requirement for achieving sustainable development and well-
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
being. This will require a careful and context-sensitive assessment

of the needs and critical trade-offs that may occur with other
goals and targets. Multi-level governance and multi-stakeholder
partnerships, capacity development from the institutional to
the individual level, resource mobilisation towards research, inno-
vation and technology development to mitigate trade-offs and
supportive policies and investments are needed to realise the full
potential of sdg 2 and related targets and goals.
SDG 3: ENSURE HEALTHY LIVES AND

PROMOTE WELL-BEING FOR ALL AT ALL AGES
Health is both a key enabler and a critical outcome of sustainable
development. The health of people and the health of the planet
are fundamentally interdependent. Poverty is a structural factor
influencing health. In the future, climate change is likely to
become the key determinant of health. There are strong synergies
among the sdg 3 targets which require progress to be made on all
12 targets to achieve health outcomes for all.
3 + 1
Universal health care linked with a strong workforce and sup-
portive research infrastructure underpins all health targets.
Reducing communicable diseases combined with enhanced sexual
and reproductive health care can reduce newborn, infant and
maternal mortality. Controlling tobacco and reducing substance
abuse and exposure to hazardous chemicals also reduces mortality.
3 + 2
Health cannot be achieved without access to sufficient and quality
nutrition. Moreover, food production and agricultural practices
may also affect health directly, including through improved soil
and water quality, and indirectly through changes in incomes.
But if not properly managed, increasing agricultural productivity
could harm health through, for example, damaging ecosystems
and increasing pathogen habitats.
3 + 8
A healthy population is a prerequisite for development and under-
pins economic growth. The interaction between health and
economic growth is mostly synergistic because economic growth,
when sustainable and equitable, enables health and well-being
through access to decent work, food, housing, medical care
and education, which in turn contribute to higher productivity and
13 income generation. However, the synergies are highly dependent
on economic development being directed towards enhancing
social and natural capital to achieve long-term health gains.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
3 + 11
Cities concentrate a growing part of the global population
and have a critical influence on physical and mental health. Sus-
tainable urban planning, and decent and affordable housing
support mental health and access to health services, and reduce
non-communicable diseases and limit environmental impacts.
3 + 13
Climate change is already having significant impacts on health.
Many of these impacts are direct (such as the effects of heat stress
on ability to work outside), while others are indirect and arise
through climate change that promotes the spread of disease or
contributes to food and water insecurity, or to mass movements
of people. Failure to address the climate action goal will make
achieving the health goal impossible. As well as major long-lasting
health impacts, climate mitigation would have some immediate
health benefits (such as through better air quality).
86 target-level interactions: 81 (positive) and 5 (negative)
IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

Implementing the health dimensions of the sdgs will require
strengthening national health systems, dedicated laws and
regulations to protect people and the natural environment from
harmful substances, increased investment in health but also
infrastructure that supports health and well-being (i.e. sustainable
urban design and planning), and policies that mainstream
health concerns from the local (city planning, health and safety
in work places) to the global scale (preventing and preparing
for large epidemics, engaging in multi-stakeholder alliances to
tackle antimicrobial resistance, preparing for health impacts
of climate change).
14 SDG 7: ENSURE ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE,
RELIABLE, SUSTAINABLE AND MODERN
ENERGY FOR ALL
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Modern energy is fundamental to human development, and the

services that energy makes possible are widespread throughout the
industrialised world. But not everyone has access to the benefits
that modern energy can provide.

7 + 1
Ensuring the world’s poor have access to affordable, reliable and
modern energy services supports the goal of poverty eradication.
However, decarbonising energy systems by promoting renewables
and increasing energy efficiency could cause price shocks, and
so prevent universal access to modern energy supplies. Because
some of the poorest parts of the world have some of the highest
renewable energy potential, making use of this potential could
help to reduce poverty.
7 + 2
Energy supports food production; conversely, agriculture can play
an important role in meeting the energy goal, especially through
biofuels. A well-studied (potential) trade-off is competition between
biomass for energy and crops for food.
7 + 6
Thermal cooling and resource extraction require substantial am
ounts of water; while wastewater from the energy sector
releases large quantities of thermal and chemical pollution into
aquatic ecosystems. In most cases, increasing the share of
renewables in the energy mix and increasing energy efficiency
would support the water targets. However, expanding biofuels
or hydropower use could increase pressure on water resources.
7 + 8
Deploying renewables and energy-efficient technologies can
encourage innovation and reinforce local, regional and national
industrial and employment objectives. Decarbonising energy
systems through greater use of renewables and energy efficiency
could constrain economic growth in some countries.
7 + 13
An immediate and significant increase in renewables and increased
energy efficiency is an essential part of efforts to keep global warm-
ing to well below 2°c above pre-industrial levels. Providing access
to modern energy services to all will not exacerbate climate change.
15 IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
The transition towards clean, efficient and modern energy for all
will require policies geared toward avoiding potential negative
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
impacts as well compensation mechanisms that support the most

vulnerable groups. Policies to manage the energy-land-water nexus
are critical for avoiding competition over resources and adverse
environmental impacts. Policy frameworks that help mobilise invest-
ment would be helpful in achieving each of the three sdg 7 targets.
SDG 14: CONSERVE AND SUSTAINABLY USE

THE OCEANS, SEAS AND MARINE RESOURCES
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The oceans provide vital services to people and the planet.
A decline in ocean health, productivity and resilience due to increas-
ing human pressures by mostly land-based pollution, climate
change-induced warming and sea-level rise, ocean acidification
and over-exploitation of marine resources is a major threat
to achieving sufficient nutrition, livelihoods and economic growth,
especially for coastal communities. Other important ecosystem
services such as recreation and coastal protection are also affected.
Achieving sdg14 strongly depends on progress under other goals.
14 + 1
Healthy, productive and resilient oceans and coasts are a critical
enabler of poverty alleviation, environmentally sustainable
economic growth, and human well-being, especially in coastal
communities. But despite various co-benefits for building resilient
communities, achieving sdg 14 could limit access to the resources
and ecosystem services necessary to alleviate poverty.
14 + 2
Oceans are essential for ensuring food security and meeting nutriti
onal needs. Establishing marine protected areas could limit
access to marine resources for food and nutrition security; however,
fisheries and other natural resource uses generally benefit from
sustainable practices and balanced conservation measures.
Increased agricultural production could damage ocean health
through nutrient run-off and related pollution.
14 + 8
Sustainable growth of marine and maritime sectors supports
employment and economic growth. Short-term resource
exploitation may impact the productivity and resilience of oceans
and coasts while trade-offs are possible where management and
conservation measures limit economic growth.
16 14 + 11
Coasts are attractive for urban development, often due to oppor
tunities for economic activities and the availability of natural
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
resources, but coastal settlements are a major factor in increasing

environmental pressures along the coast-sea interface. Conflicts
may occur where ocean and coastal conservation limit options
for housing, infrastructure or transport upgrading, but achieving
sdg14 also reinforces sustainable urban planning and resilient
coastal settlements.
14 + 12
Achieving sdg 14 and sustainable consumption and production
gohand in hand, not only in ocean-based industries and
coastal communities. Ending overfishing, sustainably managing
marine and coastal ecosystems and reducing marine pollution
supports the efficient use of natural resources and reduces food
loss while sustainable consumption and production patterns
will reduce marine pollution and support sustainable resource
extraction practices.
14 + 13
Oceans and coastal ecosystems both affect and are affected by
climate change. Thus, achieving sdg 14 and sdg 13 is highly
synergistic, such as through conservation of coastal ecosystems
acting as blue carbon sinks. Careful management is needed to
ensure that climate adaptation and coastal and marine protection
measures do not conflict.
IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

Achieving sdg 14 without compromising the achievement of other
sdgs means much needed protection and restoration measures
forcoastal and marine ecosystems must be carefully b alanced against
the sustainable exploitation of marine resources. Integrated man-
agement and planning across geographical scales and a dministrative
silos, particularly at the regional level, will enable coastal states
to better safeguard, conserve and sustainably use ocean resources
within their jurisdiction and in areas beyond national jurisdiction.
The current ocean govern ance framework is fragmented and needs
to be strengthened. In addition, ocean literacy is still poor and
enhanced capacity building and awareness raising are needed to sup-
port the implementation of sdg 14 at all levels. Ocean and coastal
monitoring frameworks need to be further developed, harmonised
and strengthened, since they provide the data to assess progress in
the full implementation of sdg 14.
17
NEXT STEPS
The conceptual framework and assessment of key interactions
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
between the four Sustainable Development Goals presented

here are intended to represent a starting point for further work
towards a more complete understanding of how the full set
of goals fit together. The framework guides a more detailed anal-
ysis and enables structured deliberations on how to implement
the 2030 Agenda coherently, in order to maximise development
outcomes. Making interactions explicit and understanding
the full impacts of policies and actions across goals, stimulates
important knowledge gathering and learning processes and
has very concrete and tangible value for achieving efficiency and
effectiveness in goal implementation, for driving meaningful
multi-stakeholder partnerships, and for country-level monitoring,
evaluation and review.
INTRODUCTION
A FRAMEWORK FOR
UNDERSTANDING
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT GOAL
INTERACTIONS
Måns Nilsson
David Griggs
Martin Visbeck
Claudia Ringler
David McCollum
19
THE SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,

adopted by world leaders in September 2015 at a historic United
Nations Summit and underpinned by 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (sdgs) and their associated 169 targets, began on 1 January
2016. The sdgs are expected to guide governments as they work to
address some of the most pressing challenges facing humanity.
The sdgs were developed following the United Nations
Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012 (‘Rio+20’) and
build on the Millennium Development Goals (mdgs) adopted
in September 2000 as part of the un Millennium Declaration.
The sdgs provide a more holistic and integrated approach
to development than the mdgs, thus continuing the legacy of the
Brundtland Commission (un, 1987) and the RioDeclaration
on Environment and Development (un, 1992). They are designed
to be universal and therefore apply t o all countries – poor, rich
and middle-income alike – and to all segments of society. Although
each focuses on a different topic area, the sdgs are meant to
be integrated, indivisible and collectively support a development
agenda balancing the economic, social and environmental
dimensions of sustainability. (see blue text below)
While not legally binding, the sdgs do provide a globally
endorsed normative framework for development. Governments
and other stakeholders are expected to establish national and
regional plans for their implementation. The 2030 Agenda is
neither a blueprint for specific action nor for navigating the
complexities and trade-offs that will undoubtedly emerge during
implementation.
OVERALL AIM OF THE SDGS

The Sustainable Development Goals (sdgs) promote human dignity
and prosperity while safeguarding the Earth’s vital biophysical
processes and ecosystem services. They recognise that ending pover-
ty and inequality must go hand-in-hand with strategies that
support sustainable economic growth, peace and justice; address
fundamental social needs, including education, health, social
protection, and job opportunities; and do all this while also
tackling climate change and enhancing environmental protection.
Detailed information on the 17 sdgs and their associated 169 targets
is available at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300.
BACKGROUND
Although governments have stressed the integrated, indivisible and
interlinked nature of the sdgs (un, 2015), important interactions
and interdependencies are generally not explicit in the description
of the goals or their associated targets. In 2015, the International
20 Council for Science (icsu) identified some interactions across
sdgs at the goal and target-level (icsu and issc, 2015). This report
goes further, by exploring the important interlinkages within and
between these goals and associated targets to support

a more strategic and integrated implementation. Specifically, the
report presents a framework for characterising the range of
positive and negative interactions between the various sdgs, buil
ding on the work of Nilsson et al. (2016), and tests this approach
by applying it to an initial set of four sdgs: sdg 2, sdg 3, sdg 7 and
sdg 14. This selection presents a mixture of key sdgs aimed at
human well-being, ecosystem services and natural resources, but
does not imply any prioritisation.
While the scientific community has emphasised the need for
a systems approach to sustainable development (e.g. gea, 2012;
pbl, 2012; sei, 2012; Stafford Smith et al., 2012), policymakers now
face the challenge of implementing the sdgs simultaneously with
the aim of achieving progress across the economic, social and
environmental dimensions worldwide.
This work provides a starting point to addressing this challenge.
It has been led by icsu with the support of several internationally
renowned scientific institutes, including the Institute for Advanced
Sustainability Studies (iass), the Kiel based Future Ocean cluster,
the International Food Policy Research Institute (ifpri), the French
National Research Institute for Sustainable Development (ird),
the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (iiasa),
Monash University, the New Zealand Centre for Sustainable
Cities, and the Stockholm Environment Institute (sei). It is based
on the premise that a science-informed analysis of interactions
across sdg domains, and how these interactions might play out in
different contexts, can support more coherent and effective
decision-making, and better facilitate follow-up and monitoring
of progress. Such an analysis will also make it possible to better
highlight inequalities concerning progress made, which will in turn
make it easier to identify corrective measures as well as help to
avoid unintended side-effects.
WHY ARE INTERACTIONS IMPORTANT?

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is often referred
to as an integrated agenda and its advocates frequently describe
it as an ‘indivisible whole’. What does this mean in practice?
First, in contrast to the conception of the Rio ‘pillars’ of economic
development, social development and environmental protection,
the three dimensions of sustainable development are described in
the introductory sections of the 2030 Agenda as intertwined,
cutting across the entire Agenda. These interactions also featured
strongly in the deliberations of the Open Working Group that
developed the sdgs. In fact, while most of the 17 sdgs have a clear
starting point in one of the three pillars, most actually embed
all three dimensions within their targets. For example, sdg 2
21 “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture” contains targets with social
(e.g. malnutrition and vulnerability), economic (e.g. agricultural
productivity and agricultural trade) and environmental dimensions

(e.g. genetic diversity and climate resilience). Second, there
are significant interactions between sdgs. Continuing with the
example of sdg 2, a commonly discussed set of interactions
lies in the nexus between food, water and energy (Weitz et al., 2014)
as reflected in the linkages between sdg 2, sdg 6 and sdg 7.
For instance, water is required in the energy sector for cooling in
thermal power plants and for generating hydro-electricity; energy
is required for residential and industrial water usage, and for
pumping water for irrigation; and water is needed for all food and
bioenergy production. Third, because of the strength of these
linkages, achieving targets under these goals can lead to trade-offs
between competing interests: for example, food production may
compete with bioenergy production for the same land or water.
Finally, the sdg2 targets interact with a much broader set of targets
and goals, such as those preventing childhood death (target 3.2),
reducing food waste (target 12.3), encouraging sustainable business
practices (target 12.6), conserving marine areas (target 14.5) and
ensuring rights to control over land and natural resources (target 1.4).
Articulating and understanding the many interlinkages helps
to explain why the 2030 Agenda must indeed be treated as an
‘indivisible whole’. However, in that phrase there is a hidden
presumption that the interactions between goals and targets are –
for the most part – mutually supporting: in order to make progress
in one area, progress must also be made in others. Yet, both the
research community and policymakers have already highlighted
that there can be conflicts and trade-offs between goals (pbl, 2012;
irp, 2015; LeBlanc, 2015).
Given budgetary, political and resource constraints, as well
as specific needs and policy agendas, countries are likely to prioritise
certain goals, targets and indicators over others. As a result of
the positive and negative interactions between goals and targets,
this prioritisation could lead to negative developments for ‘non-
prioritised’ goals and targets. An example is the potential prioritisa-
tion of sdg 2, whose progress might well lead to adverse impacts
for several of the sdg 15 targets (on terrestrial ecosystems), for
example by converting rainforest to agriculture. Even if countries
continue under business-as-usual conditions for agricultural
production, terrestrial ecosystems could deteriorate below current
levels within a short timeframe. Moreover, due to globalisation and
increasing trade of goods and services, many policies and other
interventions have implications that are transboundary in nature,
such that pursuing objectives in one region can impact on other
countries or regions’ pursuit of their objectives. For example, there
could be increased deforestation in some countries as a result
of enforced logging bans in other, often neighbouring, countries,
or there could be changes in national trading policies that impact
22 on the availability of goods and services in other countries.
Similarly, pursuing a policy for biofuels in one region can drive
up prices of food crops else-where and thus foster hunger for
the poorest – yet, sustainable development of biofuels could also

encourage investment and market developments that improve
overall food security (Osseweijer et al., 2015; Kline et al., 2016).
In the policy arena, most discussions about coherence and
interlinkages in the 2030 Agenda have focused on either simply
establishing that there is a link, or discussing the existence of
trade-offs and synergies between topic areas (representing whether
an interaction is broadly beneficial or adverse) and the need to map
them and identify ways to alleviate or remove trade-offs or their
costs, as well as maximise synergies (e.g. pbl, 2012; irp, 2015).
However, interactions between sdgs currently have a weak
conceptual and scientific underpinning, and there is a clear
need for approaches and tools that can support analysis of the
nature and strengths of these interactions, and the extent to
which they constrain or enable policy and action. Indeed, there
is a need to develop guidance and tools that can help policymakers,
investors and other actors to identify and manage the benefits
and risks of achieving the various goals and targets. In particular,
it is important to deploy a more nuanced view of interactions,
and to move the discourse beyond the simple notion of trade-offs
and synergies. Attempts have been made in recent years. For
example, Weitz et al. (2014) and Coopman et al. (2016) applied an
approach for interlinkages with three categories – supporting,
enabling and relying (with sub-categories). International agencies
have also published increasingly advanced approaches to
identifying and evaluating interactions (e.g. unesco, 2016; un, 2016).
Thinking carefully about sdg interactions and more specifi
cally about the range of different types of interaction is important
because they may have very different implications in terms
of implementation action. The nature and dynamics of the inter-
actions need to be better understood before policy can be
formulated, including the setting of context-specific (such as
national or local) targets and indicators. Such analyses should be
conducted with a view to providing a useable knowledge base
for both policy-level decision support and the design of implemen
tation strategies.
In short, there is a lack of information on this topic and more
research is needed. For this reason, icsu (2016) and Nilsson et al.
(2016) have developed a tool, or framework, whereby interactions
between sdgs and targets are classified on a seven-point ordinal
scale, indicating the nature of the interaction with other targets,
and the extent to which the relationship is positive or negative
(see graphic p. 24). This framework has been applied throughout
the individual chapters of the current report.
23
GOALS SCORING
INDIVISIBLE REINFORCING ENABLING CONSISTENT CONSTRAINING COUNTERACTING CANCELLING

The strongest form of positive One objective directly The pursuit of one objective A neutral relationship where A mild form of negative The pursuit of one The most negative interaction
interaction in which one creates conditions that lead enables the achievement of one objective does not interaction when the pursuit objective counteracts is where progress in one goal
objective is inextricably linked to the achievement of another objective. significantly interact with of one objective sets a another objective. makes it impossible to reach
to the achievement of another. another objective. Developing infrastructure another or where interactions condition or a constraint on Ensuring access to safe, another goal and possibly
Reduction of air pollution Increasing economic benefits for transport (9.1) enables are deemed to be neither the achievement of another. nutritious and sufficient leads to a deteriorating state
(12.4) is indivisible from from sustainable marine participation of women in positive nor negative. Conserving coastal areas food can counteract of the second. A choice has to
improved health and reducing resources use (14.7) the work force and By 2025, prevent and signifi- (14.5) and development of safe sustainable water be made between the two.
non-communicable diseases reinforces the creation of in political life (5.5) cantly reduce marine pollution affordable housing and basic withdrawals (6.4) Developing infrastructure (9.1)
(3.4). decent jobs and small of all kinds, in particular from services (11.1) may constrain and reduction of chemicals could be cancelling the
enterprise in e.g. tourism (8.5 land-based activities, including each other releases (12.4) reduction of degradation of
and 8.9) marine debris and nutrient natural habitats in terrestrial
pollution (14.1) is consistent ecosystems (15.1)
with target 3.5 Strengthen the
+3 prevention and treatment of
substance abuse, including
narcotic drug abuse and
harmful use of alcohol.
+2
+1 0
Outdoor and indoor air pollution Sustainable and diversified Affordable public transport
is responsible for 7 million strategies for using the promotes social inclusion, -1
deaths annually, as marine resource base open more equal access to different
well as respiratory and cardio- up opportunities for small parts of the city, and enabling There is no significant Establishing protection areas in
vascular disease but also enterprises in fisheries or employment for marginalized interaction between the two the coastal zone and expanding
increases in perinatal deaths. other harvesting and groups. In many places, targets. urbanization, infrastructure or
-2
In 2012, ambient (outdoor) air associated value-addition women do not have access to transport risks spatial competition
pollution was responsible for activities, as well as a car and depend on public especially in densely populated Increasing productivity in
3 million deaths, representing activities related to tourism. transport, walking or bicycling areas. Integrated coastal zone agriculture is a necessary -3
5.4% of the total deaths. Many SIDS and LDCs that to get around, to work places management and marine spatial (but not sufficient) condition
Worldwide, ambient air are rich in these resources and to social or political planning tools are readily to improve food security. In underdeveloped regions,
pollution is estimated to cause also have poor, vulnerable activities (NCE, 2016; GSDR, available to mitigate spatial In many places, this might developing roads, dams,
about 25% of the lung cancer and marginalized coastal 2016) competition. entail increased and/or and power grids might be a
deaths. Major urban centers in communities. better irrigation as well as high priority, although it
low and middle-income increased use of agro- will cause some unavoidable
countries are the most exposed chemical inputs. fragmentation of habitats
to this burden. (WHO, 2016). and compromising the integrity
of the natural ecosystem,
leading to risks to biodiversity
as well as social risks.
24
BEYOND TRADE-OFFS AND SYNERGIES –
A SEVEN-POINT SCALE
The framework identifies categories of causal and functional relat-

ions underlying progress or achievement of goals and targets.
The scale ranges from -3 to +3, from instances where progress
on one target acts to cancel progress on another to where
progress on one goal is inextricably linked to progress on another.
Complementing the scale are a number of key dimensions
(time, geography, governance, technology, directionality) that
describe the interactions and define the context in which
they occur. Most interaction scores depend on these dimensions –
and putting in place the right policies and technologies might
shift the score to a more positive one.
To be more specific, positive interactions are assigned scores
of either +1 (‘enabling’), +2 (‘reinforcing’), or +3 (‘indivisible’),
while interactions characterised by trade-offs are scored with -1
(‘constraining’), -2 (‘counteracting’), and -3 (‘cancelling’).
Thus, the magnitude of the score, in whichever direction, provides
anindication of how influential a given sdg or target is on
another. For instance, a value of +1 corresponds to an ‘enabling’
relationship, wherein the achievement of one objective
(such as providing electricity access in rural homes, sdg 7) creates
conditions for furthering another (such as child and adult
education, sdg 4). Meanwhile a higher score of +3 corresponds
to an ‘indivisible’ relationship, wherein one objective is inextricably
linked to the achievement of another. For example, ending
all forms of discrimination against women and girls (target 5.1)
is absolutely necessary for ensuring women’s full and effective
participation in society (target 5.5). As an example of a
negative interaction, the relationship between on the one hand
boosting a country’s economic growth (target 8.1) and on the
other reducing wastegeneration (target 12.5) might be assigned a
score of -2 (‘counteracting’), since the former potentially clashes
with the latter (unless mechanisms are put in place to prevent this,
such as circular economy strategies that include effective
waste prevention or substantially increasing recycling rates).
Finally, for sdgs and targets exhibiting no significant positive or
negative interactions, a score of 0 (‘consistent’) is assigned.
Because interactions can manifest at the broad goal level, the more
detailed target-level and even at the level of individual devel-
opment actions, the framework has been designed to be applicable
across multiple geographic scales (local to global), and for
determining the impacts of planned actions as well as f or evaluat-
ing the wider implications of actions that have already taken place.
Not all linkages between sdgs and targets will fall neatly into
one of the seven points on the scale, but the scale does provide a
sufficiently wide range to classify most relationships.
Choosing the level at which to apply the scale (goal, target or
action) depends on the purpose of the assessment. In some cases,
25 having reached a target, the issue is then whether this will di-
rectly affect another policy area or target under the same goal or
under another goal. The focus then shifts to the physical interaction
– howone set of conditions in society or the environment affects

our ability to attain another set of objectives. In other cases, the
issue could be how policy instruments, actions or investments put
in place to pursue one sdg target would affect the ability to
pursue another policy area. The latter reflects standard impact
assessment procedure, and can be used to mitigate negative
interactions already in the project or policy formulation stage.
In practice, it will usually be a combination of examining
instruments and targets that is required to identify an effective
strategy. For example, the introduction of a fuel tax to promote
energy efficiency (target 7.3) will have certain distributional
(sdg 10) consequences, such that lower income or rural populations
are disproportionately affected by the tax, although improved
energy efficiency in itself may not have such consequences. It
should be possible both to simulate implementation strategies with
integrated assessment models that test the relationship
and monitor empirically the nature of interactions during imple
mentation in reality. Over time, with the support of the
scientific community, those in charge of monitoring the sdgs
should be able to develop an ever improving dataset for syste
matically monitoring progress.
It should be noted that the position of a given interaction on the
seven-point scale is rarely absolute. The position and nature of
the interaction depend on the context within which the interaction
occurs. It should also be clear that a good development action
is one where all negative interactions are avoided or at least min-
imised, while at the same time maximising significant positive
interactions; but this by no means suggests that policymakers
should avoid attempting progress in those targets and goals that
are associated with significant negative interactions – it merely
suggests that in these cases policymakers should tread more care-
fully when designing policies and strategies.
KEY DIMENSIONS THAT SHAPE

INTERACTIONS
A number of dimensions can be used to contextualise the assess
ment of specific synergies and trade-offs, providing deeper
insights into elements and areas that the sdg- and target-level
interactions depend on. These include directionality, place-
specific context dependencies, governance, technology and time-
frame. Each is now discussed in turn, with examples given
to aid the explanation. In case-study analysis, it is important to
discuss these contextual considerations at the same time as
the assigned score. Understanding what interactions depend
on, or whether they are intrinsic, is key to mitigating negative
26 interactions and maximising positive ones. In other words, changes
in these dimensions can often enable a shift from a negative to
a more positive interaction, or vice versa. Also, an analysis of a
given interaction should, if possible, include an assessment of the

uncertainty given the current state of knowledge.
DIRECTIONALITY
Interaction between two sdgs or targets can be unidirectional,
bidirectional, circular or multiple. A unidirectional relationship
means that objective A affects B, but B does not affect A. For
example, electricity access (target 7.1) is needed for powering
clinics and hospitals for the delivery of essential health care
services (target 3.8), but health care services in clinics and hospitals
are not needed for providing electricity access. On the other
hand, a bidirectional relationship means that A affects B, and B
affects A. For example, providing more access to transport today
(target 11.2) is likely to lead to higher greenhouse gas emissions
(target 13.2), thus exacerbating climate change, while measures
taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions can constrain transport
access. In the case of bidirectionality, interactions can also be
symmetrical (where the impact is similar in type and strength)
or, more commonly, asymmetrical, where A affects B more, or
in different ways, compared to how B affects A. In a circular
relationship A affects B, which affects C, which in turn affects A.
In a multiple relationship A affects B, C, D etc.
A comprehensive approach that takes into account direction
ality can be pursued whereby sdg targets are presented in a
matrix and juxtaposed, and all potential interactions are analysed
and scored, including A to B and B to A.
PLACE-SPECIFIC CONTEXT DEPENDENCY

Some relationships are generic across borders while others are
highly location-specific; and the scale of the analysis can have a
significant effect on results. For example, the issue of trade-off
between bioenergy (target 7.2) and food (sdg 2), which has gained
significant attention in policy debates (see for example, Rosegrant
et al., 2008) does not appear prominently in northern European
countries such as Sweden or Finland (Ericsson et al., 2004). On the
contrary, farmers and forest owners can both benefit from the
diversification of markets, because it makes their supply chains less
vulnerable as a whole. As a result, farmers may invest more
and both food systems production and energy systems are stronger
(Kline et al., 2016).
However, such geography-dependent relationships can have
significant spill-over effects, due to international trade. Hence, even
if bioenergy in the Nordic countries is not considered to affect
their food security, a change in their food export patterns in
response to increased national bioenergy production would still
impact food security globally, through changes in trade and
international prices of agricultural commodities. This dependency
27 is not limited to natural conditions, but can include level of
development, configuration of political and economic interests,
social and cultural attitudes, and many other aspects.
Thus, what constitutes a positive interaction and a negative

interaction can differ from one context to another and from
one scale to the next. Hence scientific evidence in one area that
does not hold for a different scale or target area may appear
highly contradictory at first glance. But using the sdgs as a
knowledge management grid could help to clarify what evidence
refers to what context, and how knowledge can be generalised.
GOVERNANCE DEPENDENCY
In some cases, the negative nature of a relationship can be the
result of poor governance. For example, industrialisation (target 9.2)
has sometimes been associated with infringement of rights (target 1.4),
where commercial actors have taken over lands used by local
communities without consultation or compensation and with the
exclusion of those communities from work opportunities. However,
this negative interaction is not necessarily intrinsic to the industrial
activity itself, but rather derives from inadequate governance.
Negative impacts on local communities are more likely to occur, or
tend to be stronger, when institutions and rights are weak.
TECHNOLOGY DEPENDENCY
In some cases, while a strong trade-off may exist, there may be
technologies that, when deployed, will significantly mitigate this
trade-off, or even remove it. One example is growth in mobility
(namely personal motorised transport) which, at present, conflicts
with climate change mitigation efforts. In the future, however,
the transition towards zero-emission cars fuelled by renewable
electricity could largely remove this trade-off. However personal
vehicle impact on land-use change will remain.
TIME-FRAME DEPENDENCY
Some interactions develop in real time, while others show
significant time lags. For example, increases in fertiliser use will
boost agricultural productivity that season (target 2.4), thereby
increasing food availability and contributing to food security
over the short term. Similarly, harvesting remaining fish stocks
can have important food security (target 2.1), nutrition (target 2.2)
and poverty alleviation (target 1.1) benefits in the short term,
possibly to 2030. However, these practices might well have longer-
term adverse impacts on several sdgs, ranging from sdg 14
on the sustainable use of oceans to sdg 2, sdg 15 and sdg 1, among
others. Moreover, some interactions may be restricted in time
to the actual period of intervention (i.e. when the intervention cea-
ses, the interaction stops), while others are irreversible or take
a very long time to dissipate (i.e. until the affected systems recover).
Irreversible impacts are well known in land and ocean ecosystems,
such as species extinction, collapsed fisheries or eutrophication
(e.g. in the Baltic Sea, Lindegren, 2009; helcom, 2010).
28 THE ROAD TO POLICY COHERENCE
By systematically assessing the interactions and relationships bet
ween sdgs and targets, this report aims to support horizontal
coherence across sectors. Coherence can be defined as “an attribute

of policy that systematically reduces conflicts and promotes synergies
between and within different policy areas to achieve the outcomes associated
with jointly agreed policy objectives” (Nilsson et al., 2012:396). However, it
is also important to keep in mind the other dimensions of policy
coherence (oecd, 2016, see graphic). These additional dimensions,
thatbecome visible during implementation, concern alignment
between and across countries, across levels of government, across
governance mechanisms, and across the implementation continuum.
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL INTERACTIONS AND

COHERENCE RELATIONSHIPS
SECTORAL TRANSNATIONAL GOVERNANCE MULTILEVEL IMPLEMENTATION

COHERENCE COHERENCE COHERENCE COHERENCE COHERENCE
from one policy from one jurisdiction from one set of from global/international from policy objective
sector to another to another (PCD) interventions to agreements through instrument
another to national and design to practice
local policy
An important type of coherence relationship exists across trans-

national jurisdictions. This ties in directly to the policy coherence for
development agenda (oecd, 2016) – observing to what extent the
pursuit of objectives in one country has international repercussions
or affects the abilities of another to pursue its sovereign objectives.
In addition, coherence relationships need to be observed across
multiple levels of government. Here, in the context of the 2030
Agenda, there may be a mismatch between the goals and targets
established at the global level, and the agenda as interpreted at
national level and acted upon at the local level.
Coherence can also be examined across governance interventions.
For example, policymakers and planners put in place different
legal frameworks, investment frameworks, capacity development
mechanisms and policy instruments that may or may not pull
in the same direction. In fact, it is often the case that while new
policies and goals can be easily introduced, institutional capacities
for implementation are not aligned with the new policy designs,
because the former are commonly more difficult to develop (oecd,
2016; Gupta and Nilsson, 2017).
Finally, coherence relationships should be considered along
the implementation continuum: from policy objective, through
instruments and measures agreed, to implementation on the
ground. The latter often deviates substantially from the original
policy intentions, as actors make their interpretations and
institutional barriers and drivers influence their response to the
policy (Pressman and Wildavsky, 1973; Nilsson et al., 2012).
29 FIRST APPLICATION OF THE SCALE
Subsequent chapters apply the framework as presented here to
key interactions for sdg 2, sdg 3, sdg 7 and sdg 14. This selection
presents a mixture of key sdgs aimed at human well-being,

ecosystem services and natural resources, but does not imply any
prioritisation.
The chapters follow a similar structure. Each starts by
presenting an overview of interactions between a single sdg (the
‘entry goal’ focus of the chapter) and the other 16 sdgs, staying
at goal level. Taking into account all the underlying targets of the
entry goal, a set of key interactions is then identified between
the entry goal targets and those of numerous other sdgs, principally
interactions within the range of the highest magnitude or
strongest impacts based on available scientific literature and
expert knowledge. Using the typology and seven-point scale
described earlier, the chapter then provides an assessment of the
selected target-level interactions and the context in which
they typically occur. Illustrative examples from different world
regions show how these linkages manifest in practice. Policy
options are identified for how to maximise positive interactions
and minimise negative interactions between now and 2030,
and beyond. Each chapter concludes with a list of key knowledge
gaps related to the interactions studied.
The scoring approach described here offers a means by which
multidimensional, complex and wide-ranging scientific evidence
can be ‘translated’ and summarised in the form of an inter
pretive framework. The end product is such that evidence
gathered from scientific research can be fed into deliberations
between policymakers for different topic areas in an accessible,
understandable and directly comparable form.
The report does not aim to present a fully comprehensive
analysis of all possible interactions for a given sdg and its
underlying targets. Rather, the aim is to illustrate, by focusing on
a subset of the key interactions, how the scoring framework can
be applied in practice. Going forward, a comprehensive analysis
of this type could, and should, be carried out on all sdgs. It is
hoped that this report inspires the development and synthesis of
empirical research on interactions across all the sdgs in different
parts of the world, and among different scientific and policy
communities.
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SDG 2 END
31
HUNGER,
GOAL #7 AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY
ACHIEVE FOOD
SECURITY AND
IMPROVED
NUTRITION
AND PROMOTE
SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
Ludovic Mollier
Frédérique Seyler
Jean-Luc Chotte
Claudia Ringler
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER 32
34
INTRODUCTION
sdg 2 integrates and links food security,

nutrition and a sustainable and climate-
resilient agriculture. A focus on the role of
small producers in the agriculture sectors
is an important element. This multi-dimen-
sional goal encompasses several specific
targets, and these can be subdivided into
three interrelated components: ending
hunger and improving nutrition (social
dimension: 2.1, 2.2), achieving food security
through productivity improvement and
income increase (economic dimension: 2.3,
2.a, and to a certain extent 2.b and 2.c),
and promoting sustainable agriculture (envi-
ronment dimension: 2.4, 2.5).
This brief description of sdg 2 – the
‘entry level goal’ for this assessment –
is followed by an overview of interactions
at goal level between sdg 2 and the
other 16 sdgs. Taking into account all the
underlying targets of this entry goal,
a set of key interactions is then identified
between the sdg 2 targets and those
of other sdgs, focusing on interactions
with high magnitude or strong impacts
based on available scientific literature
and expert knowledge. The typology and
seven-point scale for characterising the
range of positive and negative interactions
described in the opening chapter to
this report is used to assess the selected
target-level interactions and the context in
which they typically occur. Illustrative
examples from different world regions show
how these linkages manifest in practice.
Policy options that can enhance positive
and reduce negative interactions between
now and 2030, and beyond are also
described. The chapter concludes with a list
of key knowledge gaps related to the inter-
actions studied.
35
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
GOAL LEVEL
2 + 1 Africa (World Bank, 2016), South Asia

Ensuring that all people have access to remains home to the largest concentration
safe, nutritious and sufficient food all of undernourished people.
year round is inextricably linked to poverty
eradication and, as such, addressing 2 + 2
undernutrition is indivisible from Synergies and trade-offs can also occur
addressing poverty. According to the World between the five targets and three
Bank (2007), growth in agriculture is at implementation mechanisms of sdg 2.
least twice as effective in reducing poverty Generally the targets of ending
as growth in any other sector. There hunger and achieving food security
are multiple pathways through which benefit from achievements on the
increases in agricultural productivity can economic (productivity improvement)
reduce poverty; key among these are and environmental front (sustainable
increased incomes and associated agriculture) and are supported by
multiplier effects stimulating employment investments in agricultural research,
in the rural and urban non-farm sectors trade and market development. However,
through forward and backward linkages. trade-offs can occur between the agri-
However, success in agriculture does cultural economy versus sustainability
not always reduce poverty and not for focused targets. For example, yield
everyone. This is the case in Brazil where gaps are particularly high in sub-Saharan
agricultural growth in some regions has Africa for some of the region’s major
been concentrated in a dynamic export- staple crops (World Bank, 2007). Closing
oriented sector of large capital-intensive these gaps through agricultural produc-
farms. As a result, agricultural employment tivity improvement can, however,
declined with few poverty reduction constrain the sustainability of agriculture.
effects. Moreover, in pursuing some of the As an example, Duflo et al. (2008) found
sdg2 means of implementation, such as that in the short term, productivity
trade liberalisation, poverty levels might increases in Kenya may be achieved
increase for some strata of society, at most cost-effectively through the use of
least in the short term and if no safety inorganic fertilisers, but this can adversely
nets are established (Winters et al., 2004). affect ecosystems and, in the long-term,
Furthermore, some policies developed the sustainability of the agricultural sector
to improve food security for the poor, and its productive capacity. Based on
such as price controls, may have perverse a comprehensive meta-analysis, Ponisio
impacts, such as depressing farm income. et al. (2015) found a large heterogeneity
Although some evidence indicates a shift in the performance of all types of
in the concentration of poverty levels from production system and that diversification
rural to urban areas, rural people continue practices appear to be key in enhancing
to represent the largest segment of the yields and profit. In this sense, solu-
world’s extreme poor. However, while tions that support both productivity
a large proportion of the world’s extreme enhancements and sustainable agro-
poor are concentrated in sub-Saharan ecosystems do exist. Examples are context-
36 specific and can include crop rotation to of a lifetime is also key to ensure a healthy
enhance soil health, permanent soil and balanced diet and can be influenced
protection by cover crops or residues, no- by the diversity of foods grown. However,
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
till agriculture, increased nutrient use while improving agricultural production is

efficiency, low- or high-tech precision agri essential for nutrition outcome, there are
cultural methods, integrated soil many complementary pathways including
fertility and integrated land and water nutrition education, enhanced childcare
management approaches (Rosegrant practices, and empowerment of women in
et al., 2014). Trade-offs can also occur the household that are important to achieve
between targets for agricultural production nutritional outcomes (Ruel et al., 2013).
and nutrition, because increase in the
agricultural production and affordability 2 + 4
of low-nutrient and energy-rich foods Chronic undernutrition, such as stunting,
can contribute to macro and micronutrient reduces intellectual capacity with possibly
deficiencies (Johnston et al., 2014). In lifelong, irreversible consequences and
addition, trade-offs may arise if rural might also affect subsequent generations
infrastructure development does not pay (Victora et al., 2008). Undernutrition thus
attention to the needs of smallholder food acts as a drag on education: compounding
producers as well as biodiversity pro- the negative effects of many other char-
tection. Lastly, international trade patterns acteristics of poverty, it is associated with
may enhance or constrain the economic delayed school enrolment, impaired
situation of small-scale food producers. concentration, more schooling lost to ill-
ness, and drop-out before completion.
2 + 3 Just as health outcomes and nutritional
Malnutrition remains one of the main con- status are inextricably linked, the ability
tributors to the global burden of disease. to learn and the nutrition of a child are
Globally, 45% of child deaths under the age mutually supportive. Moreover, a mother’s
of five are linked to malnutrition – prom- educational level is an important deter-
inently in sub-Saharan Africa (who, 2016). minant of the nutritional status of her chil-
In other words, being malnourished in any dren. Micronutrient deficiencies also
form carries significant risks to health and affect learning ability. Almost 2 billion
well-being. Agriculture influences mental, people worldwide are believed to be lacking
emotional and physical health directly in dietary iodine, including around
through its ability to provide a sufficient 240 million children, and this is correlated
quantity of nutritious foods for direct with up to a 15-point reduction in iq
household consumption or in the market- levels (who, 2013; Webb, 2014). Tackling
place. Quality food and nutrition status is a undernutrition can reinforce educa-
fundamental and crucial driver for health tional efforts because children can concen-
and well-being. However, unsustainable trate and perform better in school with
agricultural practices can constrain or even potentially lifelong positive impacts
counteract healthy lives as a result of soil on earning capacity and well-being. Equal
degradation and water pollution due to access to education for sustainable
excessive use of chemicals (fertilisers, pes- development and sustainable lifestyles
ticides) and poor crop and livestock man- interacts positively with food and nutrition
agement practices; health risks associated security and also more sustainable agri-
with air pollution (e.g. sugar cane burning, culture. Such education can play a key role
or swamp drainage and clearing for agri- in helping people move towards more
culture), zoonotic diseases and poor food sustainable farming methods, and for under
safety practices. Adequate consumption of standing nutrition information. Similarly,
a range of micronutrients over the course in countries with high obesity rates,
37 nutrition education can reduce the risk sdg2 is also enabling gender equality and
of non-communicable diseases such women’s empowerment.
as heart disease, stroke, diabetes and
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
cancer. Not addressing food security and 2 + 6

nutrition and associated agricultural Progress in working towards ‘zero
production practices also affects education hunger’ is highly dependent on progress
outcomes negatively when children are in ensuring availability and sustain-
kept out of school because they need to able management of water and sanitation.
work on farms for subsistence production Agriculture is by far the main water
or elsewhere to help generate income user. Irrigated agriculture accounts for
to purchase food. Worldwide, 60% of all 70% of water withdrawals and a higher
child labourers in the 5–17 year age group share of water consumption. The inter-
are engaged in agriculture (including actions between sdg2 and sdg6 are
farming, fishing, aquaculture, forestry, and undisputable with some targets enabling
livestock), amounting to over 98 million the achievement of others, while others
girls and boys (ilo, 2016). are constraining and yet others are in
conflict. Two of the most obvious ways
2 + 5 to lift agricultural productivity are to
Gender inequalities are the most pervasive expand access to irrigation and to increase
of all inequalities, and interactions the use of synthetic fertilisers and
between this goal and the other sdgs are pesticides. But unless carefully planned
strong. Ending hunger and improving and managed, both activities have
nutrition is crucial for women due to the potential to undermine the availabil-
their key roles in food production, food ity, sustainability and quality of water
preparation, and child care, but also for agriculture and for other water users.
because of their special vulnerabilities Similarly, livestock waste can constrain
related to reproductive health. the protection of water-based ecosystems.
Furthermore, undernourished girls Ensuring sustainability of agricultural
and women are often least able to take production systems can help address this
advantage of development resources constraint. Currently about 663 million
(be it microcredit, schooling or paid jobs) people still lack access to safe water and
because of lower work capacity due 2.4 billion do not have access to adequate
to undernutrition, sickness and inability sanitation (unicef /who, 2015). Evidence
to travel or join meetings that could suggests a direct link between unsafe
be to their benefit. They are therefore drinking water and adverse nutrition
less able to contribute to the goals of outcomes through various infectious water-
equality and empowerment. Empowering borne and water-related diseases, such
women in agriculture through increasing as malaria, diarrheal disease, and nematode
their decision-making over agricultural infections as well as a more recently studied
production and incomes has been shown phenomenon called environmental
to improve both family health and enteric dysfunction, an acquired disorder
nutrition outcomes. According to the fao, of the small intestine (Dangour et al.,
if women farmers had the same access 2013). Finally, demand for biofuels is pro-
to agricultural inputs, education and mar- jected to increase dramatically in the
kets as men the number of hungry medium-term under different climate miti-
people could be reduced by 100–150 gation strategies; competition for
million in the 34 countries studied (fao, water (and land) with sdg2 targets and sdg6
2011). Thus, through providing greater targets is likely to increase as a result.
access to resources and productive assets
for sustainable agriculture to women,
38 2 + 7 cut off from most alternative employment
Sustainable agriculture as well as food opportunities, agriculture is often the
security and nutrition are highly only viable source of both employment
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
dependent on energy security (affordable, and food and nutrition security. When
easily accessible, and reliable energy rural economies develop, productivity
supplies), because energy is often used growth in agriculture has shown to
to increase food production (agricultural be a key aid to overall economic growth
chemicals, machinery, irrigation, through releasing surplus labour to
post-harvest processing, storage and non-agricultural sectors, thereby spurring
transportation, etc.). Remote agricultural growth in these sectors and in the
areas without access to fertilisers and overall economy. Advances in decoupling
pesticides or electricity connections (or economic growth from environmental
solar pumps) face greater challenges degradation may be constrained by a
in increasing agricultural productivity. focus limited to doubling agricultural
Conversely, agricultural production productivity. Moreover, the agriculture
can play an important role in achieving sector is known to have an important
affordable, reliable, sustainable and buffer function during economic crises,
modern energy for all through the produc- with people losing their jobs in cities
tion of biofuels and biogas. Global during financial turmoil switching to
energy demand is expected to increase temporary employment in the agriculture
by 48% between 2012 and 2040 – with sector. This was well documented
most of the increase among the developing during the Asian financial and economic
non-oecd nations (eia, 2016). The crisis of 1989/1990 (e.g. Rosegrant and
interactions between these trends and Hazell, 2000). Another important linkage
sdg2 depend on (climate) policy and relates to employment. Agricultural
fossil energy prices, but could mean that production strategies and systems can
more crops are diverted for use as constrain the achievement of decent
biofuels. Furthermore, methane production employment as 60% of all child labourers
from agricultural wastes (animal or in the 5–17 year age group are engaged
plant-based) can contribute to meeting in agriculture (ilo, 2010). Moreover, the
the renewable energy targets set for 2030, agriculture sector in some countries
as can dedicated bioenergy resources thrives on temporary migrant workers,
(agroforestry or biofuels crops). often with limited legal and other
protection. Finally, some economic growth
2 + 8 strategies can constrain advancement
Agriculture provides a livelihood for many of the agriculture sector, for example,
of the most poor and vulnerable people if countries choose import-substitution
and supports pro-poor economic develop- industrialisation policies to move agrarian
ment. By increasing sustainable agri- into industrialised economies, by taxing
cultural productivity and incomes of the agricultural surplus and moving
smallholder women and men, sdg2 the resources to the industrial sector
can participate in sustainable economic (Rosegrant and Hazell, 2000).
growth. Key areas for women’s parti-
cipation in economic growth through 2 + 9
agriculture include ensuring their access With changing demographic conditions
to financial services knowledge and and changing patterns of food demand,
markets, strengthening agriculture capac- there is a growing need for the design and
ity to climate adaption, and increasing development of more efficient integra-
investment in rural infrastructure. ted systems of food production, processing,
Especially in remote rural areas that are preservation and distribution as well as
39 reliable transportation and logistics the reduction of inequality. Of note,
infrastructure with roads facilitating access trade liberalisation, an implementation
to markets (Knox et al., 2013). Infras mechanism suggested under sdg2, can
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
tructure including affordable and water- adversely affect achieving the equality
use efficient irrigation, transportation, targets under sdg10, if small-scale
communication (e.g. internet access) and farmers are not linked to value chains
market (e.g. cold chain) facilities, could and markets and other non-competitive
make a major contribution to achieving farming enterprises face import prices
sdg2. Moreover, with growing climate below local and national production costs.
variability and extremes, resilient Trade liberalisation can also constrain
transportation infrastructure, allowing a country’s capacity to provide some
food transport from surplus to climate forms of subsidies to domestic farmers or
stressed areas, will become increasingly consumers to address internal inequalities.
important. Access to physical infras- However, trade liberalisation can also
tructure is in this sense an important support achieving sdg2 through making
factor for the interaction between food more affordable to poor farmers,
productivity and income. From an sdg2 most of whom are net buyers of food, and
perspective, developing and upgrading to consumers.
rural infrastructure, integrating small-
scale enterprises into value chains, and 2 + 11
enhancing investment in agricultural Progress in food security and nutrition,
research are aligned with sdg9; however, increased agricultural productivity
if such infrastructure, research and and more sustainable food production
financial services favours some producers systems will reinforce the inclusive-
over others, then achieving targets under ness and sustainability of cities. Specifi-
sdg 9 might constrain achievement of cally, increased agricultural produc-
some sdg 2 targets and/or reduce equity in tivity – freeing up agricultural land for
access to such infrastructure (un, 2016). urban growth – can support progress
For instance, more resilient infrastructure, on expanding green spaces and other
such as larger dams supporting irrigation city expansion needs. However, cities
infrastructure, or wider, asphalted roads are generally built on prime agricultural
may address the needs of agri-exporters land with stable water resources and
while ignoring those of smallholders and uncontrolled expansion on these areas
the food insecure. Such infrastructure might constrain achieving sdg 2, by
may also accelerate biodiversity loss, over- removing further land resources and by
extract of water resources, and ignite other consuming and polluting water resources.
unsustainable practices. Urban agriculture can address this
potential trade-off to some extent, through
2 + 10 growing food on soil-less agriculture or
Hunger and food security are closely hydroponics, vertical farming, aeroponics,
related to poverty, and thus to inequality. nutrient-film-techniques, aquaponics,
Reduction or elimination of inequality in and through recycling of nutrients in
the policy and legal arenas should en- wastewater. Urban agriculture thus can
hance food and nutrition security as well contribute to social welfare and sustain-
as sustainable agricultural production. able development of cities and can
Empowering small-scale food producers, support development of green spaces.
both women and men (who represent It can also contribute to waste avoidance
an important segment of the world’s and recycling of organic waste in cities
extremely poor) and ensuring their equal (Goldstein et al., 2016). Advancing rural-
access to resources such as land, facilitates urban linkages will support sustainable
40 agricultural productivity and income the implementation mode proposed for
generation – peri-urban environments rationalising inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies
often house high-value vegetable and is implemented in agriculture and the
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
livestock production systems whose food value chain without putting alterna-
sustainable management is key to urban tives in place. The direct elimination
food and nutrition security. Of note, of such subsidies could lead to increased
urban dwellers tend to consume more food prices which, in turn, could constrain
processed foods and, at least in low-income achieving ‘zero hunger’ by making food
developing countries, tend to house more less affordable to the poor.
obese people and in some places (e.g.
cities in Latin America and elsewhere) also 2 + 13
more undernourished people than rural Rising temperatures, changing precipi-
areas. Addressing the triple burden of tation patterns, and the intensity and
malnutrition (obesity, undernutrition and frequency of extreme weather events
micronutrient deficiencies) is therefore an adversely affect agricultural production
important linkage between sdg2 and sdg11 systems, particularly those in developing
that deserves further attention. countries, which in turn constrains
the achievement of ‘zero hunger’ and
2 + 12 nutritional objectives under sdg2.
Most aspects of sdg12 support progress It is important that investments in agri-
in sdg 2 and vice versa. For example, the culture increase the sector’s resilience
10-year Framework of Programmes on and adaptive capacity to climate change;
Sustainable Consumption and Production for example, by mobilising large funds
Patterns is housed at unep (and not at for climate mitigation and adaptation.
un fao) and aims at raising awareness, How climate adaptation and mitigation
building capacity, developing information options are implemented in the agri-
as well as synergies and cooperation culture sector under the climate change
toward more sustainable food systems, frameworks (e.g. through biofuel
which directly strengthen all areas of development, short-term coping mech-
sdg 2. Similarly, the subsequent efficiency, anisms or long-term adaptation /
waste and loss reduction targets and the mitigation strategies) will be decisive
aim to manage chemicals more judiciously for achieving sdg2. At the same time,
directly support sdg2 in terms of increased unsustainable agriculture, deforestation
productivity and more sustainable natural and other types of land use account
resource use. While sdg2 focuses more for about 24% of total anthropogenic
on the production end and nutritional greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions (ipcc,
outcomes, sdg 12 focuses on the processing, 2014). Achieving sdg13 will thus require
distribution and procurement side of the reduction of ghg emissions in
the food system, which complements and agriculture and related activities and
completes the food system perspective. depending on which actions are taken,
However, if developing countries, where ending hunger, doubling agricultural
most food is produced, distributed and productivity and ensuring more
consumed, would use the sdg12 focus on sustainable food production systems
industrialised countries as a reason to may be achieved faster or slower, or not
not make progress on sdg12 themselves at all. A range of actions could be
or would await funding and support impactful in this area, such as a mora-
from industrialised countries before embark- torium on further expansion of
ing on progress, then some aspects of agricultural areas into tropical forests
sdg2 (and sdg12) might not be achieved. or peatlands, a tax on highly emitting
An additional constraint could develop if livestock production systems, increased
41 R&D toward new technologies that 2 + 15
increase fertiliser nutrient use efficiency The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
levels of plants, the accelerated adoption identified agriculture as the major cause
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
of no-till agriculture, and additional of land use change, land degradation

support to agroforestry systems. By and desertification (mea, 2005). As such,
integrating action on sustainability with sdg 15 could constrain the aim of zero
action on productivity improvement hunger, improved nutrition and increased
(smart agriculture) and soil organic matter agricultural productivity, at least in the
sequestration, agriculture could be seen short term. A key trade-off is extensification,
as part of the solution not only to mitigate namely a focus on low-input agriculture
agricultural ghg emissions but also to (e.g. some organic agricultural systems), to
strengthen adaptation strategies. preserve existing agro-ecosystems versus
intensification where inputs per unit of land
2 + 14 are substantially increased with better
More than 3 billion people depend on seed and other technologies and manage-
marine and coastal resources for their ment practices. While intensification
livelihoods (United Nations, 2015b). More reduces the need to expand agricultural
sustainable ocean fisheries and better areas, in many cases water consumption
access for small-scale fishers and residents and pollutant runoff are increased. In
of small-island states to these resources some cases, increased income from inten-
will support food security and nutrition sified agriculture might accelerate
in the long term. More research and deforestation, but globally, the long-term
solutions for ocean acidification would focus on intensification in much of
also support food security and nutrition. the world has reduced deforestation rates
However, strong marine protection dramatically. On the other hand, sdg 15
limiting fisheries development in the short largely supports sustainable agricultural
term, can adversely affect the hunger production and genetic diversity. For
and nutrition targets of sdg 2 and can sdg 2 and sdg 15 to become mutually rein-
constrain livelihoods and food security forcing, sustainable ecological processes
of poor populations in coastal areas. need to be supported, without adverse
Sustainable agricultural practices can impacts on land, water and biodiversity
support the prevention of marine pollution (e.g. pollinators) and without further
from land-based activities, including deforestation and associated biodiversity
nutrient pollution, and can facilitate the losses and climate change impacts.
conservation and sustainable development The conservation of forests, wetlands,
of the oceans. However, poorly managed mountains and drylands can constrain
agricultural processes and activities (such increases in both agricultural production
as nutrient runoff and diffuse pollution) area and crop yield as well as livestock
may have adverse impacts on water supply number and yield, unless this increased
and the oceans. A well-known example production is achieved using more
of largely agricultural-driven pollution sustainable management practices. Other
is the hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico linkages between sdg 2 and sdg 15 concern
(Hufnagl-Eichiner et al., 2011). Similarly, the conservation of genetic diversity
clearing coastal habitats such as mangrove of seeds, plants and animals; an area with
forests that protect coastlines and sustain shared targets.
coastal habitat for intensive aquaculture
production, could help end hunger and 2 + 16
improve nutrition over the short term, Achieving sdg 2 is highly dependent on
but could also exacerbate food security political stability, peace, just and inclusive
concerns over the long term. societies, and effective accountable
42 and inclusive institutions. Hunger and 2 + 17
food insecurity are sources of political sdg 17 lists the main enablers for imple-
instability, conflict and war – to the point menting the entire sdg framework,
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
that hunger is, at times, deliberately with structures around five sub-categories:
used in conflicts as a weapon to starve finance, technology, capacity-building,
opponents into submission (seizing or trade, and systemic issues (including
destroying food stocks, livestock, cutting policy and institutional coherence, multi-
off marketed supplies of food, targeting stakeholder partnerships, data, moni-
farmers, land-mining, etc.). And, if toring and accountability). These are all
food insecurity is not already a factor linked with sdg2. For instance, finance
contributing to war and civil strife, enhancement can reinforce investment
then hunger and undernutrition are often in rural infrastructure for agriculture.
the result of such activities, as farmers Enhancing technology and capacity
need to leave their land to flee insecurity, building can also lead to the strengthening
abuse and destruction and/or agricultural of agriculture’s capacity for adaptation
inputs or outputs cannot be moved to to climate change, extreme weather,
where they are needed, and support drought, flooding and other disasters.
through food aid is often restricted or not Enhancing multi-stakeholder partnerships,
available. On the other hand, effective, data, monitoring and accountability,
transparent and accountable institutions and especially policy and institutional
are needed at all levels of government coherence, should also positively impact
to support sustainable agriculture, food sdg2. Some trade-offs can emerge
and nutrition security and the empow- insofar as trade liberalisation may not
erment of certain marginal groups such fit with some countries’ policy spaces,
as women, indigenous peoples, family if they seek to establish and implement
farmers, pastoralists and fishers. Justice policies for poverty eradication and
for all and non-discriminatory laws lead sustainable development. Furthermore,
directly or indirectly to securing fair non-discriminatory international trade
access to land, other productive resources regulation may limit the capacity for some
and inputs, knowledge, financial services, countries, mostly those in development,
markets and opportunities. Armed to protect their national agriculture
conflict and broader forms of violence production and small-scale food producers.
undoubtedly undermine the achievement
of food security, improved nutrition and
sustainable agricultural systems. Civil
war and conflict are also detrimental to the
preservation of seed and plant banks,
as the impacts on icarda’s (International
Center for Agricultural Research in the
Dry Areas) gene bank in Syria has shown
(Bhattacharya, 2016). Conversely, food
insecurity has the potential to become the
leading cause of conflict in the 21st century
in the absence of national, regional and
global political measures to enhance food
solidarity, particularly in crisis situations.
43
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
TARGET-LEVEL
sdg 2 is an integral part of the 2030 Agenda, Seven goals were selected for detailed
linking to all 16 other sdgs. This section analysis:
analyses some of these interactions, from
the perspective of sdg 2, with a selected SDG 1
set of sdgs in detail at the target-level. SDG 3
sdgs were selected based on the strength SDG 5
of the interactions with sdg 2 and the SDG 6
magnitude and scale of impact in relation SDG 7
to the overall objective of the 2030 Agenda, SDG 13
while ensuring a balanced consideration SDG 15
of the economic, social and environmental
dimensions. Target-level interactions sdgs were selected based on the strength
are judged to fall within one of seven cate- of the interactions with sdg 2, while
gories and are scored accordingly: indi- ensuring a balanced consideration of the
visible (+3), reinforcing (+2), enabling (+1), economic, social and environmental
consistent (0), constraining (-1), counter- dimensions. While there are also obvious
acting (-2), and cancelling (-3). Following linkages between sdg 12 and sdg 2, it
a generic analysis of the selected inter- was considered that these are less insight-
actions, specific examples are provided to ful than those between sdg 2 and the
illustrate how interactions unfold in other sdgs selected for detailed analysis.
different geographical and policy contexts.
Illustrative examples are used to show the
context-dependency of the interactions
and provide a more practical entry point
to characterising sdg 2 interactions among
the ‘integrated and indivisible’ sdgs.
These concern three geographic regions:
West Africa (Senegal)

Amazonia
California (USA)
SDG 2 + SDG 1
TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS
2.1, 2.2 1.1, 1.2 Food and nutrition security are

indivisible from the eradication
and reduction of poverty
+3 Strengthen interaction issues via national, regional
and international governance. Co-design and
co-develop mechanisms to mitigate the negative
interactions and target particular resiliency
2.3
overall SDG 1
Increasing small-scale food
producer productivity and income
reinforce the fight against poverty
+2 needs by ensuring that the poor and small-scale
food producers’ interests are fully addressed
Advance agricultural research and development

2.3 1.4 Equal access to land and other
productive resources is directly
aligned with securing equal rights
+2 with a focus on pro-poor technology development;
with complementary investments in safe drinking
water, social protection systems, and rural roads
to economic resources
Increase small-scale food producer capacities
2.3 1.5 Increasing agricultural productivity
without sustainability (2.4) will
increase vulnerability to climate-
-1/ and empowerment (knowledge, economic
resources, basic services, rights); in particular
put in place the economic mechanisms that
related extreme events and other
shocks – primarily in developing
countries and for poor segments of
-2 increase the wealth of small farmers and reduce
their vulnerability to uncertainties: access to land,
access to productive and non-productive assets
societies. Thus, 2.3 and 2.4 need to
be achieved in tandem Enhance diets and improve nutritional outcomes
of a population to break the intergenerational
0/
2.4 1.5 Enhancing adaptive capacity cycle of poverty and at the same time generate
in agriculture may enhance accelerated shared economic growth.
the resilience of the poor as long Such interactions could be reinforced via social
as they are fully included in
adaptation strategies +1 programmes in nutrition education
Build resilience by setting up pro-poor policy
-1
frameworks and safeguards for poor and
2.b 1.b Removal of trade restrictions could
vulnerable small-scale food producers within
constrain the creation of pro-poor
a competitive market environment
policy frameworks by limiting the
range of policy actions, at least in
Ensure inclusive participation in trade negotiations
the short term
and in addressing trade related issues. Consider
the situation of the poorest countries in the agricul-
ture sector and design trade policy accordingly.
Address factors leading to market failure such as
limited market access. Set up complementary
policies to trade reform – such as strengthening
social protection systems for those losing out from
trade and develop capacities to explore beneficial
changes
Consider the role of diversification in strategies

to improve production, productivity, employment,
income nutrition and sustainability, as well as
to reduce risks associated with market volatility,
climate change and natural disasters
45 KEY POINTS many beneficial impacts on individuals,
families, communities and countries
sdg 2 enables and can reinforce
(ifpri, 2015).
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
sdg 1 through enhanced food and Although recent data show the rural/
nutrition security – which are urban gap in poverty to be declining,
essential to reduce poverty and with the poor urbanising faster than the
population as a whole (Chen and Raval-
eradicate extreme poverty lion, 2007), rural people still represent a
large proportion of the world’s extreme
Supporting small-scale food poor (i.e. those living on less than us$ 1.90
producers can lead to substantial per day). With wide regional variation,
80% of the world’s poor live in rural areas,
poverty reduction as rural people
64% work in agriculture, 44% are 14 years
constitute the largest segment of the old or younger, and 39% have no formal
world’s ultra-poor education (World Bank, 2016).
It is usually assumed that growth in
agriculture is at least twice more effective
A possible constraint is the potential
in reducing poverty than change in any
impact of trade liberalisation, other sector (World Bank, 2007). In this
because small-scale farmers, at sense, a focus on small-scale food producers
least in the short term, might be and aiming at doubling their agricultural
productivity and incomes (through equal
adversely affected by import surges access to land and other productive
and highly competitive foreign resources and inputs) (2.3), and on resilient
products or food dumping practices agriculture and adaptation practices (2.4)
should provide significant means to
achieve sdg 1. Such a focus can even rein-
If targets on agricultural force targets on access to equal rights
productivity and on ensuring to economic resources and basic services
(including control over land) (1.4) and
sustainable food production are not
on building resilience of the poor and those
implemented in tandem, the poor in vulnerable situations (1.5). Women are
and those in vulnerable situations identified in both sdg1 and sdg 2 as a target
group to support and empower.
are likely to be most affected
However, interactions between the
means of implementing sdg 2 and sdg 1,
such as removal of trade restrictions in
KEY INTERACTIONS world agricultural markets (2.b) versus the
There are many pathways through which creation of pro-poor policy frameworks
increases in agricultural productivity (1.b) can be constraining. There is a surpris-
can reduce poverty. Food and nutrition ing number of knowledge gaps about
security (2.1, 2.2) are inextricably linked to trade liberalisation and poverty, with
reducing and eradicating poverty (1.1, 1.2). disputed evidence on ‘automatic’ long-term
Without proper nutrition, humans cannot gains, which remain elusive even though
reach their full potential. Enhancing often asserted (Chabe-Ferret et al., 2007).
diets and improving nutritional outcomes In terms of developing countries, some
of a population is important to break research suggests that the consequences
the intergenerational cycle of poverty and of agricultural trade liberalisation are
at the same time generate accelerated very uneven. In middle-income developing
shared economic growth. Effects will have countries, liberalisation can be a source of
46 substantial growth, particularly in a high- safety nets are put in place and non-compet-
performing export sector. However, itive farmers are successfully integrated
in poorer countries such as Least Developing into other employment opportunities.
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
Countries (ldcs), liberalisation can have

overall negative consequences, owing to KEY UNCERTAINTIES
terms-of-trade effects and supply-side The main uncertainty is that pursuing sdg1
constraints (Bureau et al., 2006). Negative and sdg2 targets does not always reduce
consequences will necessitate further poverty and improve food and nutrition
special and differential measures by coun- security everywhere and for everyone.
tries in trade regulations. Without these, As such, there is no guarantee that pro-poor
target 2.b can constrain the achievement agricultural development policies reduce
of doubling incomes of small-scale food poverty everywhere or that poverty-
producers (2.3) by setting-up a competitive focused policies improve food security
market environment, which might not everywhere. To ensure that pro-poor
be pro-poor unless safeguards, for example policies are always conducive to enhanced
in the form of social safety nets, are food and nutrition security and sustainable
implemented for poor and vulnerable agriculture requires a complex policy
farmers. framework that differs by geography and
Furthermore, targets 2.3 and 2.4 need status of development. There is no one-size
to be achieved in tandem as one can fits all, which is why poverty reduction
counteract the other, and negatively affect policies do not necessarily make everyone
the poor and those in vulnerable situa- food secure.
tions. Unsustainable agriculture, deforesta-
tion and other land use changes, currently KEY DIMENSIONS
responsible for 24% of global ghg emis- Time: The contribution of sdg 2 to sdg 1 has
sions (ipcc, 2014), can counteract target 1.5 different time dimensions depending on
by increasing the exposure of vulnerable the policy instrument or investment made.
populations to climate-related extreme For instance, conventional agriculture
events and other economic, social and based on synthetic chemical inputs could
environmental shocks and disasters – help alleviate hunger and thus help
primarily in developing countries and poor achieve sdg 1 in a shorter time than a focus
segments of societies. In addition, land- on more sustainable agriculture might;
use change, conventional agricultural prac- however, intense agriculture without taking
tices and pesticide use can impact sustainability into account can reduce
negatively on the health and diversity of the long-term ability to produce food for
pollinators and the provision of polli- future generations.
nation. Many of the world’s most important
cash crops are pollinator-dependent – Geography: There is a gradual shift from
crops such as coffee and cocoa in develop- rural to urban for the majority of the
ing countries, or almonds in developed poor and food insecure populations, a tran-
countries, represent an important source of sition that has already happened in Latin
income. Pollinator loss will constrain America and that will soon be complete in
economic development, employment and parts of Asia and especially in Africa.
income for millions of people and limit Nevertheless, remote rural areas are still
capacity to reach sdg1 (ipbes, 2016). Finally, likely to contain some of the poorest
the objective of doubled agricultural pro- and most food insecure people for decades
ductivity (2.3) could, if successfully achieved, to come.
lead to substantial declines in producer
prices, rendering farming non-profitable, Governance: Trade-offs between sdg 2 and
and leave many farmers worse off unless sdg 1 can be mitigated by national,
47 regional and international governance.
Compensation mechanisms can be
designed, if needed, to ensure that the
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
poor and small-scale food producers’

interests are taken into account in the
design of pro-poor policy frameworks.
Furthermore, mechanisms such as
targeted cash and food transfer systems
for the rural and urban poor, market-
based mechanisms to increase demand
for smallholder production through
public procurement (e.g. the National
School Feeding Programme, and Food
Purchase Programme in Brazil) or water
and land rights for rural dwellers, can play
important roles in ensuring convergence
and synergies between the two goals.
Technology: Advances in agricultural

research and development (with a focus
on gender-responsive, pro-poor technology
development), with complementary
investments in safe drinking water, social
protection systems, and rural roads,
would all support poverty alleviation
while also enhancing food and nutrition
security. Supporting institutions, such as
secure land and water rights, and sound
governance mechanisms that ensure
access by the poor to natural resources
to grow and access food, are also crucial.
Technology development, innovative
agricultural practices, and the application
of traditional practices and ancestral
knowledge in agriculture can mitigate
potential constraints between targets
2.3 and 2.4 and thus help reach targets
under sdg1. For instance, Climate Smart
Agriculture could support sustainable
increases in agricultural productivity,
farmers’ incomes, and can help build
resilience to climate change which would
benefit the poorest and most vulnerable.
Directionality: The interactions are close to

being unidirectional, as long as poverty
reduction does not reduce access to food
and nutrition and does not adversely
affect sustainable agricultural production
systems.
48
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
SDG 2 + SDG 3
2.1, 2.2 3.1, 3.2 Ensuring food and nutrition

security directly creates
conditions that lead to the
+1/ Develop strong, open and inde-
pendent institutions that pro-
mote nutritive and healthy food to
reduction of maternal mortality
and preventable deaths of
newborns
+2 reinforce the synergies between
the two goals; implement nutrition-
focused policies; support nutrition
security through complementary
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4
3.3
Food and nutrition security and
stable agricultural employment
help reduce communicable
+1/ pathways such as social and
human capital programme devel
opment, including on nutrition
diseases owing to better nutrition
and health status and because
better rural incomes help prevent
+2 education, enhanced childcare
practices, and empowerment of
women in the household
the pursuit of unsafe practices
leading to communicable diseases Promote sustainable agriculture
including farming diversification
2.3
3.4
3.9, 3.1, 3.2, Increasing agricultural produc-
tivity via conventional agriculture
can increase soil and water
-1/ techniques that reduce use of
hazardous chemical inputs
pollution constraining the

reduction of deaths and illness
caused by hazardous chemicals.
-2 Support better rural incomes,
stable agricultural employment,
nutrition and health status, and
Such chemicals can adversely help prevent the pursuit of unsafe
affect human health, particularly practices leading to communicable
of newborns, but can also affect diseases
perinatal death and cancer
outcomes in the overall population Further support understanding
and raise awareness among
2.3 3.4 Doubling agriculture productivity
by mainly focusing on low-
nutrient and energy-rich foods
-1 governments, industry, and
consumers, that agriculture,
food, nutrition, health, culture,
(calories) will constrain the fight the environment, and the
against non-communicable achievement of SDGs are strongly
diseases. This interaction is also interdependent
counterbalanced by targets on
nutrition Set up appropriate measures to
counteract the increased health
2.3 3.3 Extensification of agriculture
may increase deforestation.
Often accompanied by irrigation,
-2 risks from irrigation services
(e.g. malaria); or other agriculture-
related health risks, such as those
intensification can, in some associated with pesticides and
regions, increase the incidence fertilisers
of waterborne diseases if no
hazard mitigation measures are Set up incentives and regulations
taken, leading to an increase in favour of sustainable agriculture
in communicable diseases such and against uncontrolled defor-
as malaria, counteracting its estation to limit malaria increase
prevention and other diseases
49 KEY POINTS nutrition, both undernutrition and obesity.
Although agricultural productivity
Providing those in vulnerable
improves food availability, better nutrition
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
situations with sufficient, safe for children does not follow automatically
and nutritious food contributes to (Masset et al., 2011). Creating an enabling
reduced maternal mortality and environment for nutrition improvements
requires more holistic approaches, in-
preventable deaths of newborns cluding investment in social and human
and children under 5 years of age. capital programme development, nutri-
Food and nutrition security and tion education, enhanced childcare
practices, and empowerment of women
stable agricultural employment
in the household (Ruel et al., 2013).
can also help reduce epidemics of Food and nutrition security and stable
communicable diseases such as aids, agricultural employment strongly enable
malaria, and tuberculosis, among the reduction of epidemics such as
hiv (3.3) due to better nutrition and health
others status and better rural incomes helping
prevent the pursuit of unsafe practices
Depending on the agricultural leading to communicable diseases. For
practices used, doubling agricultural instance, a recent study in Africa showed
how local rainfall shocks can be a large
productivity may constrain the
source of income variation for rural
elimination of death and illness households and can increase infection
from water and soil pollution rates in hiv-endemic rural areas (Burke et
al., 2015). According to this study, income
and the ending epidemics of
shocks explain up to 20% of variation in
communicable diseases such as hiv prevalence across African countries,
malaria suggesting existing approaches to hiv
prevention could be bolstered by helping
households manage income risk better.
If nutrition security is not fully
There are negative interactions
embraced, a focus on low- between reducing premature mortality
nutrient and energy-rich foods from non-communicable diseases (3.4)
may counteract the reduction and diets dominated by low-cost, highly
processed food, which continue to
of premature mortality from non- increase worldwide. Over the past 50
communicable diseases years, consumption of sugar has tripled
worldwide. Like tobacco and alcohol,
KEY INTERACTIONS ‘added sugar’ has been identified in many
Good health is not possible without good studies as a driver for abuse that could
nutrition – the two are indivisible. lead to diseases such as liver toxicity and
Ending hunger, improving nutrition and other chronic diseases (Lustig et al., 2012).
achieving food security through sustain- Negative interactions are mitigated by tar-
able agriculture reinforces the reduction gets aimed at fighting malnutrition (2.1, 2.2).
of maternal mortality (3.1) and creates Depending on the agriculture practices
positive conditions for ending the used to double productivity, potential
preventable deaths of newborns and constraints can occur for reducing the
children under 5 years of age (3.2). In this number of deaths and illnesses from
sense, a major item of target 2.2 is to hazardous chemicals and air, water and
address the fundamental problem of mal- soil pollution (3.9). For example, forest
50 fires and soil cultivation in Amazonia are obesity. Prevention, including a healthy
responsible for a significant erosion of and well-balanced diet, is pivotal to
land surfaces. Erosion of oxisols was identi- avoiding disease, a worsening of health-
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
fied as one of the main mercury enrich- related conditions and hospitalisation.
ment processes in floodplains. Deforestation While emphasising productivity, the need
thus increases soil mercury mobilisation for diversification of food production
by runoff, which may explain the increase (not mentioned in target 2.3) may provide
in mercury burden in Amazonian aquatic broader options for healthy diets.
ecosystems in newly colonised watersheds Potential trade-offs could arise between
(Roulet and Maury-Brachet, 2001). the target to double agricultural produc-
Chemicals used in pesticides and fer- tivity (2.3), which may lead to practices
tilisers can adversely affect human health, and outcomes such as deforestation or
particularly for newborns, but can also irrigation that, in turn, lead to an increase
affect perinatal death and cancer outcomes in communicable diseases such as malaria
in the overall population – thus constrain- (3.3). Changes in biodiversity due to
ing the achievement of targets concerning deforestation have been reported to have
maternal mortality (3.1), mortality of adverse effects on the risk of malaria
newborns and children under the age of in the Brazilian and Peruvian regions
five years (3.2) and mortality from non- (Whitmee et al., 2015; Li et al., 2016).
communicable diseases (3.4) (Daniels Mosquitoes that transmit malaria can
et al., 1997; Vinson et al., 2011; Brainerd benefit from deforestation due to the
et al., 2014). In addition, conventional creation of new breeding sites, a reduction
agricultural practices leading to in biodiversity (including impacts on
pollinator loss may constrain production predators/prey relations), and the creation
of pollinated crops such as vegetables, of favourable microclimates for
fruits, nuts, seeds, and oils. Many of these mosquitoes to survive and reproduce
pollinator-dependent food products (e.g. by increasing humidity). Past studies
are important dietary sources of vitamins, have shown that increased numbers
micronutrients and minerals, without of vectors following irrigation can lead to
which the risks of malnutrition could increased malaria in areas of unstable
increase (ipbes, 2016). transmission, where people have little or
Doubling agricultural productivity (2.3) no immunity to malaria parasites, such
could constrain the reduction of prema- as in the African highlands and desert
ture mortality from non-communicable fringes (Ijumba and Lindsay, 2001). For
diseases (3.4) if this increase focuses on low- instance, in northern Ethiopia, the
nutrient and energy-rich foods, such as construction of micro-dams and irrigation
cereals, tubers, and fats. These agricultural systems to minimise dependence on
products are contributing to the triple rainfed agriculture and improve food
burden of undernutrition, micronutrient production systems led to an increase in
deficiency, and obesity with its associated the incidence of malaria among chil-
health issues, such as stunting, anaemia, dren under 10 years of age living near
and diabetes (Tappy et al., 2010). The poor dams (Ghebreyesus et al., 1999). Similarly,
are adversely affected in this respect failures in agriculture and vulnerability
because energy-rich, low-nutrient foods of the poorest to agricultural shocks
are becoming more affordable to them can increase hiv aids infection rates,
worldwide (Bernard, 2015). Target 2.1 with further increases driven by poor
aims to limit this negative interaction nutritional status.
by pointing to the need for safe and nutri-
tious food and target 2.2 focuses on
eliminating both under-nutrition and
51 KEY UNCERTAINTIES Directionality: Mostly unidirectional – sdg2
How consumer behaviour and preferences affects sdg 3, but poor health status can
might change over time is unclear, espe- also reduce the absorption of food; here
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
cially regarding the adoption of healthier health-based solutions can help improving
consumption patterns, and might affect sdg2 outcomes.
or be affected by trends and methods for
agricultural intensification and land use.
KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: Changes toward more sustainable
and nutrition-sensitive agriculture to
support healthy lives can be implemented
in a relatively short period – focusing
on agricultural products that enhance
nutrition, without adversely affecting
overall food availability. However, changing
dietary patterns to address obesity can
take much longer to achieve; similarly
adverse impacts from poor agricultural
practices can be quickly visible but might
be difficult to address.
Geography: Remote rural areas contain

some of the poorest and most food
and health insecure people (75%).
Although all regions are affected by non-
communicable diseases, chronic disease
disproportionately affects low- and middle-
income countries where nearly three
quarters of deaths occur (28 million) (who,
2014). Once considered a high-income
country problem, overweight and obesity
are now an increasing issue in low- and
middle-income countries, especially in
urban settings.
Governance: Strong and open institutions

in favour of promoting nutritious and
healthy food can play a significant role in
reinforcing the synergies between sdg2
and sdg3. Incentives and regulations in
favour of sustainable agriculture and
against uncontrolled deforestation would
mitigate some of the trade-offs.
Technology: Innovation in agricultural

practices, or in highly nutritive (new) food
products (insects, etc.) can also address
some of the trade-offs between sdg2 and
sdg5.
52
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
SDG 2 + SDG 5
2.1, 2.2
overall SDG 5
Ensuring food and nutrition secu-
rity reinforces women’s
empowerment. In turn, women’s
+2 Support policies that ensure
adequate and sufficient diets for
everyone; as well as policies that
empowerment is enabling nutrition strengthen women’s empowerment
security due partly to their role in agriculture. Promote equal
in food production and preparation access to productive resources,
and their greater inclination to rights and services in agriculture
spend resources they control on can reinforces the synergetic
family nutrition and health interactions between women’s
empowerment and food and
2.3 5.5, 5.a Promoting investment in rural
infrastructure, securing equal
access to productive resources
+2 nutrition security
Further explore and invest in in

(including land), and increasing gender-equitable agricultural
income strengthens women’s innovations. Technologies that
empowerment and gender equality improve access to assets and
resources and save women’s
2.a 5.b Access to technology is an
important lever to enable women’s
empowerment in agriculture
+1 time are particularly important for
women’s empowerment
and overall – the two means of

implementation mutually reinforce
each other
53 KEY POINTS Smallholder female farmers face specific
barriers to increasing agricultural
sdg 2 interacts with and reinforces
productivity, such as restricted access to
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
the achievement of sdg 5 in information, technologies, finance,

many ways, ranging from food and voice in farmer-related associations,
and nutrition security for all, compounding restrictions imposed by
unequal access to education in many coun-
and especially for women and tries and regions. Since women’s lack of,
girls, to gender equality in access or limited access to, productive resources
to productive resources, and is among the main reasons why they
are poorer and often less efficient than
to promoting gender-equitable
men as economic agents (Asian Devel-
investment in rural infrastructure opment Bank, 2013), by promoting
investment in rural infrastructure with
equal access to productive resources
sdg 2 facilitates the use of
(including equal access to land, technolo-
technologies to promote women’s gies and financial services), target 2.3 can
empowerment along agricultural help increase women’s full and effective
value chains, for enhanced nutrition participation at all levels of decision-
making (5.5), and can reinforce women’s
outcomes, and in the maintenance equal right to economic resources as
of genetic resources well as access to financial services and
ownership over their land and other forms
of property (5.a). Unequal access to land
KEY INTERACTIONS is a major factor limiting empowerment of
Targets 2.2 and 2.3 include a specific women farmers because land is a pivotal
reference to the need for gender equality resource for meeting subsistence needs,
for achieving the full agricultural and and for accessing other goods and services,
nutrition potential envisioned. Ensuring such as credit. If women farmers had
food security with a special focus on the same access to agricultural inputs,
reducing undernutrition in adolescent education and markets as men the number
girls and women of childbearing age will of hungry people could be reduced by
support them to take full advantage of 100–150 million in the 34 countries studied
development resources. Empowering (fao, 2011).
women is crucial for achieving sdg 2 due By promoting investment in agricul-
to the important role many women tural research and extension services, as
have in food production, food preparation, well as technology development, target 2.a
child care and for overall nutritional enhances the use of enabling technologies
outcome in families, as well as their spe- to promote women’s empowerment (5.b).
cific vulnerabilities related to repro-
ductive health (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2011;
Duflo, 2012). Recognising that women KEY UNCERTAINTIES
are often over-represented among the There is insufficient knowledge about links
rural poor, target 2.3 calls for a doubling between gender equality and several
of the agricultural productivity and aspects of sdg 2. Food systems and gender
incomes of small-scale food producers, equality are highly location-specific and
particularly women. Target 2.3 links therefore require contextualised and
investment in sustainable agriculture integrated research, policies and investments.
with the establishment of pro-poor and
gender sensitive development strategies.
54 KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: For improvements in sdg 5 to translate
into improvements of sdg 2 may take
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
generations because social norms related

to gender inequality change slowly.
Geography: Linkages between sdg 5 and

sdg 2 are highly location-specific.
Governance: Strong institutions establishing

gender responsive development strategies
are key to capitalising on synergies between
sdg 2 and sdg 5.
Technology: Gender-responsive agricultural

technologies and innovations have a large
potential to bridge the gender gap in
agricultural productivity, food security and
nutrition, and can reinforce positive
synergies between sdg 2 and sdg 5. Tech-
nologies that improve access to assets and
resources and save women’s time are
particularly important for women’s empow-
erment in agriculture.
Directionality: The tendency is a bidirec-

tional positive interaction between sdg 2
and sdg 5.
55
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER SDG 2 + SDG 6
2.4 6.3 Sustainable agriculture enables

the improvement of water quality
by reducing pollution
+1 Promote sustainable agricultural
technologies that support land
and soil quality improvement
and the protection/restoration of
2.4 6.6 Sustainable agriculture, improving
land and soil quality reinforces
the protection/restoration of water-
+2 water related ecosystems. For
instance: more diverse rotations
and associations in agriculture
related ecosystems (including industrial agriculture) are
often less energy-consuming and
2.2, 2.1 6.1, 6.2 Safe and affordable drinking
water and adequate and equitable
sanitation are essential to address
+2 use fewer pesticides and fertilisers,
lowering freshwater toxicity
undernutrition Promote sustainable agricultural

technologies and research/
2.3 6.1, 6.2, 6.4 Competition over water can
result in trade-offs. Intensive
conventional agriculture can
-1/ technology activities, such as
breeding of drought tolerant crops,
or use of advanced irrigation
constrain and in some cases
counteract access to safe drinking
water, proper sanitation, and
-2 technologies to reduce water use
in agriculture; develop guidelines
for sustainable agricultural water
the fight against water scarcity use to engage all sectors on the
important topic of water savings
2.3 6.3, 6.6 Pollution due to unsustainable
agriculture can constrain or even
counteract the reduction of water
-1/ Enhance institutional capacity,
and improve communication and
pollution and the protection /
restoration of water and related
ecosystems
-2 coordination between public
departments to design coherent
water resource policies and
regulatory practices to address
water scarcity and pollution
56 KEY POINTS Irrigated agriculture accounts for 70% of
water withdrawals globally, and this
Sustainable agriculture that
can rise to more than 80% in some regions
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
helps maintain ecosystems and (fao-aquastat, 2016). Global demand

progressively improves soil and for water is expected to grow significantly
land quality should lead to the for all major water use sectors, with total
demand expected to increase by about 20%
improvement of water quality and by 2050 (Connor and Webber, 2014). In
quantity through reduced pollution this context, ensuring sustainable agricul-
and should reinforce the protection tural practices that help maintain eco-
systems and progressively improve soil
and restoration of water-related
and land quality (2.4) should lead to
ecosystems improvement of water quality (6.3) and
protection and restoration of water-
related ecosystems (6.6). These positive
Some targets are reinforcing, with
synergies are often bidirectional. For
sdg 6 enhancing access to safe example, ending all forms of malnutrition
and affordable drinking water for (2.2) has strong and direct links with
all, and adequate and equitable enhancing access to safe and affordable
drinking water for all (6.1), and adequate
sanitation for all being essential for and equitable sanitation for all (6.2).
ending all forms of malnutrition Expansion of agricultural land to avoid
overuse of chemicals, can lead to defor-
estation and adverse impacts on water-
Increasing agricultural productivity
based ecosystems. Similarly, unsustainable
can limit access to safe drinking intensification of agriculture (2.3) to
water and adequate and equitable help end hunger can lead to overuse, and
sanitation, which, in turn, can pollution of water resources, which
in turn could exacerbate food security
increase the number of people concerns. Demand for various types
affected by water scarcity and of biomass is projected to increase
pollution dramatically in the medium-term, due
to population growth, growing wealth,
urbanisation, and changing d ietary
Conventional food production and patterns (oecd / fao, 2014). In this context,
processing systems can constrain competition over water can result in
trade-off between sdg 2 (mainly 2.1, 2.2,
the reduction of water pollution
2.3, 2.a) and sdg 6.
and can counteract the protection Conventional food production can
and restoration of water-related deplete groundwater resources, pollute
water bodies (e.g. eutrophication), and can
ecosystems, including aquifers
reduce non-agricultural water availability
and use, such as for drinking water
KEY INTERACTIONS (e.g. through soil degradation and resulting
Pressure on freshwater resources is increas- siltation of downstream reservoirs).
ing throughout the world. With food Reversal of land and water degradation,
production responsible for the largest share and pumping of groundwater from
of freshwater withdrawals, sdg 2 is highly greater depth are generally very costly,
dependent on the achievement of several energy-intensive, and adversely affected
sdg 6 targets. by climate change. Intensification of
57 land use might also reduce water quality hold (i.e. no water, no food unless trade
and availability where rates of water in food is well established). Water
extraction for irrigation exceed rates of productivity in kcal per m³ varies widely
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
replenishment. In this context, doubling among crops, cropping systems, and

agriculture productivity (2.3) could have water and agricultural management prac-
negative impacts on universal access to tices, which are subject to cultural
safe drinking water (6.1), and adequate and preferences and traditions. (2) Global
equitable sanitation (6.2) and counteract trade in goods and water-intensive
the reduction of people suffering from products (virtual water flows) can offset
water scarcity (6.4). high national water consumption levels,
Conventional food production and allowing countries with limited water
processing systems release pollutants that resources to rely on water resources
build up in the environment, including in other countries. Approximately 40%
waste and pollution of water supplies. of the world’s population lives in
They also have negative impacts on overall transboundary river or lake basins with
efficiency of water and land use for other hydrological and associated social and
ecosystem services – which constrain the economic interdependencies. In countries
reduction of water pollution (6.3) and the where competition over and pollution of
protection and restoration of water related transboundary water resources increases,
ecosystems, including aquifers (6.6). tensions and conflicts between countries
Non-achievement of sdg 6, can can arise.
adversely affect food prices and increase
food price volatility (2.c), in addition to Governance: Governance over water
constraining all other targets under sdg2. resources remains relatively weak, partic-
Nevertheless, while food price volatility is ularly in terms of water quality, which
higher with insufficient water availability affects food and nutrition security in many
in agriculture, functioning food markets ways. Strong institutions and policies
can help move food from water abundant as well as regulations on water resources
to more water constrained regions (2.b). are essential for addressing some of the
competition over water use between sdg2
KEY UNCERTAINTIES and sdg6 targets. Good governance and
Water availability for food systems is under strong institutions could also help ensure
growing threat from increasing non- that agricultural productivity is increased
agricultural demands, agricultural uses, through sustainable agricultural practices,
and climate change. How these various which in turn enable the achievement of
factors will play out and what level and some sdg6 targets.
type of investments will be undertaken to
reduce these risks and uncertainties is a Technology: A wide range of technologies
further uncertainty. that affect water use in agriculture are
in use and more are under development.
KEY DIMENSIONS They range from low-cost technologies,
Time: Some elements of the interactions such as rainwater harvesting to the breed-
are short-term (i.e. no water, no food, ing of drought, heat and submergence
no safe drinking water, and no proper tolerant crops, to advanced irrigation tech-
nutrition), while others are longer-term nologies that support irrigation schedul-
(e.g. water pollution and longer-term ing and accurately and on time meet crop
degradation). water demands and the use of precision
agriculture techniques, including the use
Geography: (1) Linkages are geography- and of soil, plant and weather sensors. Further
climate-specific, but some general ‘rules’ observations, technologies, modelling and
58 decision-support systems based on soil
moisture to improve targeted irrigation can
play an important role in enhancing the
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
sustainable use of fresh water.
Directionality: Interactions are bi-direc-

tional. For example, maintaining water
quality might constrain the doubling
of agricultural productivity but would
support nutrition security.
59
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
SDG 2 + SDG 7
2.3, 2.4 7.1, 7.2 Increasing food productivity and

farmers’ revenues may enable the
increase of renewable energy in
+1 Design policies geared toward
avoiding competition for land
between energy and food purposes
the global energy mix via biofuel and ‘land grabbing’
production. This may also increase
access to affordable, reliable and Promote the creation of sustainable
modern energy services bioenergy-related jobs and
diversified income for small food
2.3, 2.1 7.3, 7.1 Affordable energy and improving
energy efficiency for agriculture
may facilitate increases in food
+2 producers
Maximise energy production from

production, farmer revenues, agricultural wastes
and indirectly food and nutrition
security Promote local production of
renewable energy and ensure
2.3 7.1, 7.2 Competition over land and water
can results in trade-offs. Doubling
agricultural production may
-1/ careful planning and multi-
stakeholder participation in large
infrastructure development projects
constrain the use of water at the
expense of increasing renewable
energy sources (e.g. hydropower)
-2 that may impact freshwater
ecosystems, agricultural lands
and local communities’ livelihoods.
or the use of other water-related Further explore technology for
energy sources higher crop yields, and target
bioenergy production on degraded
2.1, 2.2 7.1, 7.2 Food and nutrition security may
constrain the use of water
and land, at the expense of energy
-1 land if competition with land and
water for food can be avoided
production such as bioenergy

60 KEY POINTS KEY INTERACTIONS
Ending hunger, undernutrition and food
Agroforestry, biofuel crops, and the
insecurity through sustainable agri-
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
use of agricultural waste can enable culture interacts at several levels with
an increase in renewable energy in ensuring access to affordable, reliable,
the global energy mix sustainable and modern energy for all.
With worldwide energy demand expected
to increase by 48% between 2012 and
Agriculture aiming at energy pro- 2040 (eia, 2016), agroforestry, biofuel crops,
duction can enable the increase and the use of agricultural wastes (animal
or plant), can support progress on sdg 7.
of small farmers’ revenues through
In this sense, sustainable agriculture,
more diversified production, mainly through doubling agricultural
and support universal access to productivity (2.3) and ensuring sustainable
food production systems (2.4) can help
affordable, reliable and modern
increase the share of renewable energy in
energy services the global mix (7.2). In addition, biofuels
as part of the production mix can lead
to the diversification of agriculture from
Affordable energy and better energy
which farmers can benefit and thus lead
efficiency can enable increased to positive synergies with target 2.3
agricultural productivity and focusing, among other things, on doubling
revenues and by doing so, provide revenues of small-scale food producers.
This can facilitate and enable universal
broader support for ending hunger access to affordable, reliable and modern
and malnutrition energy services (7.1).
Reciprocally, improving energy effi-
ciency (7.3) and better access to affordable,
Competition over the same resources
reliable and modern energy services
(land and water) may result in (7.1) can provide crucial leverage such as
negative interactions between sdg 2 better access to water-pumping and
and sdg 7. Increased agricultural irrigation systems, or other energy-inten-
sive agriculture technologies, such as
production and food and nutrition processing, storage and transportation
security may constrain the use systems for agricultural commodities.
of land and water for bioenergy, thus Such positive interactions should enable
the targets on productivity and enhanced
limiting the increase of renewable
incomes (2.3) and on ending hunger
energy and constraining universal and malnutrition (2.1, 2.2). Competition
access to energy. Similarly, bioenergy over the same resources may result in
development can constrain use negative interactions. Food and nutrition
security (2.1, 2.2) as well as the increase
of agricultural by-products for soil in agricultural productivity and income (2.3)
fertility enhancement and can may constrain the use of land and water
adversely affect food and nutrition at the expense of bioenergy production
and overall renewable energy deployment
security targets through competition
– that is, water is needed for all types
for land, water and biomass of energy production, but particularly for
bioenergy, hydropower, thermal power
production, coal, solar systems (7.1, 7.2).
61 In the case of hydropower production, KEY DIMENSIONS
large dam infrastructure can constrain Time: Interactions between sdg 2 and sdg 7
food systems, both for fisheries and (synergies and trade-offs), can have both
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
for food supply due to changes in the immediate and longer-term impacts. For
timing, quantity and quality of the example, lack of energy availability in
water released for irrigation. Moreover, rural areas prevents the extraction of
similar to other large-scale energy-dense deep groundwater resources for irrigation
agricultural commodities, large-scale until the area is electrified or diesel or
biofuel production systems can adversely solar pumps are accessible, a process that
impact water, soil and land quality and can take time. Application of energy in
would need to be implemented using the form of fertilisers can quickly boost
sustainable management practices. food production with results visible at
Furthermore, raising levels of irrigation the end of the growing season. Bioenergy-
to increase agricultural productivity, but sdg2 linkages have both shorter-term
also the higher energy requirements for and longer-term elements: production of
pumping water over long distances could energy sources can be achieved in a season
exacerbate this competition and further (or a few years depending on the plant)
deepen negative interactions between sdg 2 while longer-term soil, land and water
and sdg 7. quality and sustainability implications
Those interactions are highly context might take years to materialize.
dependent, and synergies or trade-offs
can emerge depending on the type of the Geography: Linkages are highly location-
biomass, the relative shares of food and specific, but changes in one country can
biofuel production (and subsidies), and the also have spill-over impacts on other
potential indirect spillover effects due to parts of the world given the nature of
international trade structures and patterns. international trade structures and patterns.
Good governance and coherence are key
to mitigate negative interactions and Governance: Good governance, careful
explore the synergies between sdg2 and planning designed via inclusive and
sdg 7. In this sense, farm activities could open policymaking are important. Such
be promoted toward maximising energy governance mechanisms need to study
production from agricultural wastes, and potential positive and negative linkages
reinforced synergies between targets 2.3 between sdg 2 and sdg 7 investments.
and 2.4 and targets 7.1 and 7.2. For instance, integrative participation
of local small food producers in renew-
KEY UNCERTAINTIES able infrastructure construction
Key uncertainties remain regarding (e.g. hydropower) or large-scale biofuel
future bioenergy production levels, production is key to ensure coherence
which are currently largely driven by among the goals and identify a wider range
subsidies and climate policies. The role of of impacts.
bioenergy production can both support
and constrain the achievement of sdg 2, Technology: Technological change has a sig-
and can constrain sdg 2 more so than nificant impact on the interactions between
other renewable energy sources. Other sdg 7 and sdg 2. For example, continued
critical uncertainties concern competition energy-based innovation is helping to in-
over natural resources between sdg2 and crease water, land and energy efficiency in
sdg 7, many of which are driven by rapid agriculture. Climate smart agricultural prac-
changes in innovation, and changes in cost tices can enhance the use of agricultural
structures and subsidies for alternative wastes (animal or plant) in support of local
technologies. and sustainable energy production.
62 Directionality: The linkage can be bi-direc-
tional. For example, solar-powered
pumps can deplete groundwater resources
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
that are fundamental to food security;

thus making energy accessible to all might
compete with the sustainability of food
production. But making energy accessible
to all should also put more energy in the
hands of the rural poor for agricultural
use (such as fertilisers). Regarding biofuel,
relations might be asymmetric. For
example, growing bioenergy crops may
undermine the eradication of hunger more
than implementation of sdg 2 would affect
and limit the generation of renewable
energy sources.
63
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
SDG 2 + SDG 13
POLICY OPTIONS –
IN ADDITION TO THE
COMPLEMENTARY ONES
HIGHLIGHTED FOR
TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE SDG 2 / SDG 7 AND SDG 6
2.4, 2.5 13.1 Resilient agricultural practices
and maintaining and giving
access to seeds/plant/animal
+2 Design policies and mechanisms
to foster and support agricultural
action plans with triple wins
genetic diversity should reinforce for food security, adaptation
adaptation to climate change and mitigation. Promote resilient
strategies and practices, including
2.a
13.b
13.2, 13.3, Enhancing international coop-
eration in agriculture research,
science, and services should
+2 market- and regulatory-based
measures
enable climate change measure- Support science and research in

ments and raise awareness on agricultural adaptation and
climate challenges, and promote mitigation. Enhance international
mechanisms to address them cooperation and build scientific
capacity (especially in developing
2.3, 2.4, 2.5 13.b Positive feedback from raising
awareness and capacity on
climate change impacts (mitiga-
+2 countries) in agriculture research,
science, and climate science and
services
tion and adaptation) to setting
up sustainable and productive Support multi-stakeholders platform
agriculture practices, and and science / society / policy
maintaining biodiversity interfaces: including scientists,
civil society organisations, farmers,
2.3 13.1 Unsustainable agriculture focusing
solely on productivity may
counteract climate adaption by
-2 policy decision-makers
increasing climate instability and

extreme events
Agriculture accounts for about 14% of ghg
sdg 2 directly affects sdg 13, since
emissions and 24% when forestry and
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
today’s agriculture directly accounts other land uses are included (ipcc, 2014), a
for about 14% of greenhouse gas close second in global ghg emissions after
emissions. Similarly, sdg 13 directly electricity and heat production. Defor-
estation, livestock emissions, and soil and
affects sdg 2 nutrient management, are some of the
key drivers. At the same time, the challenge
sdg 2 targets on resilient, sustainable is to meet the needs of a growing world
food production and genetic population and rising average incomes per
person which implies an increase in
diversity reinforce resilience and
demand for all agricultural commodities
adaptive capacity to climate change especially livestock products. sdg13 focuses
and risks. Under some conditions, mainly on climate adaptation issues, but
in acknowledging the role of the United
they can also support climate
Nations Framework Convention on
mitigation Climate Change, the goal also indirectly
addresses climate mitigation and the
main aim of the Paris Agreement signed in
By enhancing international coop-
December 2015 to keep global tempera-
eration and building joint initiatives, ture rise this century well below 2°c above
sdg 2 enables the integration of pre-industrial levels (un, 2015a). The
climate change measures into Paris Agreement does not set specific
parameters on climate mitigation targets
national policies, strategies and for the agriculture sector which is very
planning and awareness raising on briefly mentioned within the Agreement
climate mitigation and adaptation preamble, but many of the country-
level strategies (94%) presented through
Nationally Determined Contributions
Boosting agriculture productivity (ndcs) do include mitigation action in the
relying solely on ‘business-as- agricultural sector; albeit without clear
benchmarks. Through the ndcs, the inte-
usual’ agricultural practices may
gration of climate change measures
counteract resilience and adaptive into national planning (13.2) is already
capacity to climate change. Instead, underway but close follow-up work
on the integration of strategies to mitigate
sustainability and productivity
climate change in agriculture are still
improvement within sdg 2 need needed. Overall, sdg 2 targets converge
to be realised in tandem to ensure with the Paris Agreement.
synergies with sdg 13 targets Beyond climate mitigation, sustainable
food productions systems (2.4) that
strengthen capacity for adaptation, and
that progressively improve soil and
land quality will reinforce the pursuit
of resilience and adaptive capacity to
climate change and risks (13.1). Improving
soil properties such as Carbon Stock
will contribute to adaption to climate
variability, that is, higher Soil Carbon stock
65 will improve water availability for crops, synergies with sdg 13 targets. Solutions do
and crops will adapt to adverse and erratic exist to enable a shift from a negative
weather. In addition, by maintaining to more positive interactions. For instance,
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated ‘smart and climate-sensitive agriculture

plants, farmed and domesticated animals approaches, such as the ‘4 per 1000 Initia-
and their wild species (2.5), and ensuring tive’ launched by France on the side of
their access to farmers will offer efficient cop21, or the initiative for the Adaptation
options for adaptation and resilience to of African Agriculture (aaa) launched
climate change. Furthermore, target 2.a upstream of cop22, aim at reconciling
on enhancing international cooperation food security with climate mitigation
might facilitate the integration of climate by engaging in resilient and sustainable
change measures into national policies, agriculture practices. Building capacity and
strategies and planning (13.2) by providing, awareness raising are also key to design
for example, science-based evidence. converging actions in doubling agricultural
International support can also help raise production in a sustainable way, combat
awareness on climate mitigation and climate change, and ensure the use of
adaptation (13.3). Feedbacks from sdg13 well adapted natural resources for better
to sdg 2 are also synergetic as land food climate resilience, such as traditional
production is generally reinforced by a crop varieties as well as new biotechnologies.
stable climate – in contrast to extreme
weather events (droughts, floods). KEY UNCERTAINTIES
Food from fisheries for instance is also The time required to bridge the gap
reinforced by protecting the climate, between sustainable agriculture practices
because that limits ocean warming and and food security worldwide is highly
ocean acidification and, indirectly, the loss uncertain and cannot yet be predicted.
of marine biodiversity and fish resources. There are also uncertainties on climate
In this sense, the positive feedback from variability and its impact on current agro-
target 13.3 on raising awareness and ecology and adaptive agricultural practices.
capacity on climate change mitigation
is very relevant. However, going beyond KEY DIMENSIONS
awareness raising is essential to give Time: Conventional agriculture will
practical effect to this synergy because impact negatively on climate mitigation
agricultural productivity could fall and adaptation over the short, medium
dramatically, especially in developing and long term. Bridging the gap between
countries (Cline, 2007) as well as global sustainable agriculture practices and
food production from marine ecosystems. food security worldwide will take time but
Potential interactions from sdg 2 can be achieved progressively.
achievement may counteract sdg 13.
Should target 2.3 rely solely on ‘business- Geography: There is strong variation in
as-usual’ practices with conventional and country-level approaches to climate and
unsustainable agriculture production agriculture. China, the largest agricul-
driven by short term productivity tural ghg emitter, is followed by India,
improvements and leading to negative and Brazil. Advanced economy agricul-
impacts such as soil quality decrease and/ tural producers such as the usa or Australia,
or deforestation; resilience and adaptive also have large agricultural ghg emissions.
capacity to climate change (13.1) and Indonesia, a large emerging economy, is
climate mitigation efforts will be offset. an important agricultural ghg emitter and
Sustainability and productivity the top emitter in land-use change and
improvement within sdg2 needs to be forestry. Other agricultural ghg emitters
fully realised in tandem to ensure are much smaller, such as those in sub-
Saharan Africa.
66 Governance: Climate Smart Agriculture and
resilient strategies and practices can be
promoted by a range of policy approaches,
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
including market- and regulatory-

based measures. Sustainable practices,
resilient technologies and consumer
preferences can be guided and supported
by policymaking. Furthermore, setting
a carbon price for agriculture could push
forward the adoption of agricultural
productivity measures.
Technology: Science and research play a

major role in agriculture adaptation and
mitigation. Biotechnology, and location-
appropriate crop varieties that are resistant
to fluctuations in temperature and
precipitation are key to provide climate
adaptation solutions to farmers. Land
management to maintain and increase soil
organic carbon stock should be promoted
to reinforce synergies between adaptation
and mitigation. Climate Smart Agriculture
can help provide practical solutions to
climate change challenges, as well as
food security through the use of farming
methods that match local conditions
(e.g. agroecology, agroforestry, conservation
agriculture, landscape management).
Directionality: Bidirectional. A change in

agriculture practices is necessary to limit
global climate change over the long term,
and food production is reinforced by a
stable climate.
67
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
SDG 2 + SDG 15
POLICY OPTIONS – IN
ADDITION TO THE
COMPLEMENTARY ONES
HIGHLIGHTED FOR SDG 2 /
TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE SDG 13
2.4 15.1, 15.2,
15.3, 15.4
Agriculture impacts on the well-
being of terrestrial ecosystems
(sustainable food production
+2 Maintain and provide access
to seeds/plant/animal genetic
diversity
system and agriculture practices)
should reinforce the maintenance Set up appropriate monitoring
of terrestrial ecosystems and systems at the correct scales
the prevention of land as well as to understand how agriculture
biodiversity erosion impacts on land degradation
and biodiversity loss. Developed
2.3, 2.4
15.8
15.3, 15.5, Combatting desertification,
restoring degraded land, and
reducing the impact of invasive
+1 landscape-scale management
approaches to address some of
the trade-offs between biodiversity
species as well as fair and better conservation and agriculture
access to genetic resource enable development
sustainable agriculture
Support multi-stakeholder platforms
2.a 15.a, 15.b Enhancing investment in
international agriculture
cooperation can participate
+1 and science / society / policy
interfaces: including scientists,
civil society organizations, farmers,
in resource mobilisation for policy decision-makers. Giving
sustainable management of space to traditional knowledge is
ecosystems key in this regard
2.3 15.1, 15.2,

15.3, 15.5
Intense agriculture and revenue
increase based solely on
agricultural productivity without
-2
sustainability may counteract
ecosystem protection/restoration,
and increase deforestation and
land degradation
Agriculture is one of the key drivers of
Sustainable and resilient agri-
change in biodiversity, ecosystems,
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
culture practices aligned to forests, desertification, and land and soil

ecosystems protection can reinforce quality. Those interactions are usually
conservation, restoration and closely related to the relationship between
productivity and income, with a grow-
sustainable use of terrestrial eco- ing need for sustainable agriculture prac-
systems, sustainable forestry tices. sdg 2 has many direct interactions
and arresting deforestation, and with sdg 15. Any actions aiming at
achieving target 2.4 on sustainable and
contribute to the restoration of
resilient agriculture practices aligned
degraded land and soils, as well as to ecosystems protection, and the progres-
combatting desertification sive improvement of land and soil
quality would reinforce the conservation,
restoration and sustainable use of ter-
Maintaining genetic diversity and its
restrial and inland freshwater ecosystems
access is aligned with promoting and their services (15.1 and 15.4 on
the fair sharing of genetic resources, mountain ecosystems); sustainable forestry
and slowing or preventing the and the halt to deforestation (15.2);
and combatting desertification and pro-
extinction of endangered species moting restoration of degraded land
and soil (15.3). In addition, maintaining the
Enhancing investment in interna- genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated
tional cooperation, technology, plants, farmed and domesticated animals
and their wild species and ensuring their
and gene banks could facilitate the
fair access to farmers (2.5), is aligned with
mobilisation of financial resources target 15.6 on the utilisation of genetic
to conserve and sustainably use resources, and the extinction prevention
of threatened species (15.5). Investment
biodiversity
in international cooperation, research and
technology (2.a) can also provide impor-
Extension of agricultural areas can tant resources to conserve and sustainably
lead to an increase in agricultural use biodiversity and ecosystems (15.a, 15.b)
and restore degraded lands and soils, thus
income but can also increase
contributing to a reduction in desertification.
deforestation Similar to several sdg2 interactions
with other goals, sustainability targets
need to be fully integrated with food pro-
If increasing agricultural produc-
ductivity and small-scale farmers’
tivity relies on practices and income improvement targets (i.e. 2.3,
technologies that contribute to and indirectly 2.1 and 2.2). Access to
land and soil degradation and high markets (mainly via roads) can promote
the extension of agricultural areas,
ghg emissions, targets focused particularly for cash crop cultivation, and
on the conservation, restoration might lead to an increase in agricultural
and sustainable use of terrestrial productivity and income (Khandker et
al., 2009). However, this could lead to
ecosystems, forests, soils and
deforestation – counteracting target 15.2
biodiversity might not be achieved on halting deforestation and increasing
69 afforestation and reforestation globally; knowledge should be considered in
and other negative externalities for conservation efforts aimed at preserving
the environment. Furthermore, should the and restoring biodiversity.
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
need for food productivity rely on prac-

tices and techniques responsible for land Governance: Governance can play a signif-
degradation, high ghg emission (i.e. the icant role in developing better interactions
‘business-as-usual’ scenario), and land between sdg2 and sdg 15 through pro-
pollution, this will counteract targets 15.1, gramme and planning settings such as
15.2, 15.3 and 15.5. the plan for Actions launched by the
Intensive agricultural management with un Convention to Combat Desertification,
high use of agrochemicals and intense including targets to achieve land degra-
tillage, grazing or mowing, can counteract dation neutrality (ldn; Orr et al., 2017), and
sdg15 (especially 15.5). Animal pollination Biodiversity (ipbes) aimed at achieving
is a key regulating ecosystem service in food security.
nature – almost 90% of wild flowering
plants depend on animal pollination. Inten- Technology: Sustainable land management
sive agricultural management, pesticide (i.e. the use of land resources, including
use and land-use change are key drivers of soils, water, animals and plants, for
pollinator loss. Insecticides (especially the production of goods to meet changing
neonicotinoids) have been demonstrated human needs, while simultaneously
to have lethal and sublethal effects on ensuring the long-term productive poten-
pollinators. It has been estimated that tial of these resources and the main-
16.5% of global vertebrate pollinators and tenance of their environmental functions;
more than 40% of invertebrate pollinator Dumanski and Smyth, 1993) should be
species such as bees and butterflies are promoted. Sustainable land management
facing extinction (ipbes, 2016). Alternative is a way to harmonize the complementary
forms of agriculture and sustainable pest goals of providing environmental,
control methods need to be promoted economic, and social opportunities for the
to address pollinator decline and benefit of present and future generations,
their multiple implications on terrestrial while maintaining and enhancing the
ecosystems. quality of the land (soil, water and air)
resource.
KEY UNCERTAINTIES Innovative agroecology techniques
The appropriate scale at which to take stock such as ecological pest management can
and analyse interactions between sdg2 play an important role in reinforcing
and sdg 15 is a key uncertainty. Such inter- positive interaction between sdg2 and
actions are highly context dependent sdg 15. For instance, the push-pull system
and require different analytical frames and – using repellent plants (push) and trap
landscape-scale approaches. plants (pull) to control agricultural pests,
or the use of key beneficial insects such as
KEY DIMENSIONS arthropod predators and parasitoids
Time: Restoration of degraded land might for biological control of key pest species.
take several years to achieve lasting
positive impacts. Directionality: Mostly bidirectional. Unsus-
tainable agriculture practices impact local
Geography: Linkages are context dependent and global ecosystems via ghg emissions.
since the level of land degradation and Biodiversity protection should constrain
biodiversity status differ from one region such agricultural practices and could foster
to another. Local and indigenous peoples’ new practices aligned with the sustainable
rights and livelihoods and valuable local use of terrestrial ecosystems.
70 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF IMPLEMENTING CLIMATE SMART
AGRICULTURE TO ADDRESS CALIFORNIA’S
INTERACTIONS BETWEEN WATER CHALLENGES
SDG 2 AND THE OTHER SDGS
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
While California is best known for Silicon

This box presents a summary of the Valley, a dynamic, high-value agriculture
more detailed country analyses of critical sector contributes substantial nutritional
interactions between sdg 2 and the other diversity to the country and to national
goals presented in Annex 1. exports. However, environmental impacts,
such as associated with particulates from
fertilisers and dust, nitrate leaching and
THE COMPOUND CHALLENGES OF substantial water consumption constrain
DEFORESTATION, FOOD AND ENERGY the achievement of health, water quality
PRODUCTION FOR CLIMATE MITIGATION, and availability targets. In a region prone
ECOSYSTEM PROTECTION AND to periodic drought, achieving Climate
HEALTH IN THE AMAZON REGION Smart Agriculture will be key to the
The Amazon, the world’s largest tropical achievement of sdg 2 and other interlinked
rainforest, is subject to intense economic goals and targets.
development to support agriculture,
cattle ranching, large-scale hydropower
generation and biofuel production, leading
to deforestation and land degradation,
with cascading effects and feedbacks on
water availability and quality, climate
change mitigation, biodiversity and human
health. Thus, a large set of targets and sdgs
are mutually constraining and reinforcing
in this fragile ecosystem. Developing a
framework and action plan to meet key
sdg targets without irreversible losses to
other targets will be essential for areas
such as the Amazon.
PUTTING SUSTAINABLE LAND

MANAGEMENT AT THE HEART OF
SENEGAL’S NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
Senegal in West Africa is highly dependent
on agriculture, with about 60% of the
population employed in this sector. The
country is also highly vulnerable to
drought, and increasingly so with the
onset of climate change. With growing
demographic pressures and a fast-
developing economy, these challenges
are exacerbating. Sustainable land
and water management are key areas
identified by the government to ensure
food production and optimal carbon
sequestration.
SCORE
-3
0
+3
+
+3
2.1, 2.2 1.1, 1.2
2.3 overall SDG 1
+2 +2
2.3 1.4.
/
-2
-1
2.3 1.5
SDG 1
/
0
+1
2.4 1.5
-1
2.b 1.b
+
2.1, 2.2 3.1, 3.2
/ /
+2 +2
+1 +1
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 3.3
/
-2
-1
2.3 3.9, 3.1, 3.2, 3.4
KEY INTERACTIONS
-1
2.3 3.4
SDG 3
-2
2.3 3.3
SDG 2 WITH OTHER GOALS
2.1, 2.2 overall SDG5

+2 +2
2.3 5.5, 5.a
+1
2.a 5.b
SDG 5
+
+1
2.4 6.3
2.4 6.6
+2 +2
2.2, 2.1 6.1, 6.2
2.3 6.1, 6.2, 6.4
SDG 6
/ /
-2 -2
-1 -1
2.3 6.3, 6.6
+
+1
2.3, 2.4 7.1, 7.2
+2
2.3, 2.1 7.3, 7.1
/
-2
-1
2.3 7.1, 7.2
-1
SDG 7
2.1, 2.2 7.1, 7.2
2.4, 2.5 13.1

2.a 13.2, 13.3, 13.b
+2 +2 +2
2.3, 2.4, 2.5 13.b
-2
2.3 13.1
+2
2.4 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4
2.3, 2.4 15.3, 15.5, 15.6
+1 +1
2.a 15.a, 15.b
-2
2.3 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.5
+ SDG 13 + SDG 15
-3
+3
SCORE
73
KNOWLEDGE GAPS
Knowledge gaps and their order of magni- agricultural technologies and practices, are
tude differ for various reasons, and can most detrimental to water availability
vary from one geographical area to anoth- and water quality for downstream urban
er. In this context, science empower- and industrial developments and coastal
ment and capacity building on research, ecosystems. Access to existing data may
data collection, analysis and assessments also be an issue. Some government
on sdg 2 and its linkages are essential agencies are reluctant to share data with
to identify pathways toward meeting mul- other agencies; this could be due to poor
tiple sdgs. Investments and advances in data quality, because the data show poor
agricultural research and development will performance by the agency concerned,
be important for reducing negative linkages or because sharing the data might be
among sdg2 targets and between sdg 2 perceived as losing power. These challenges
targets and other sdg goals and targets. are heightened in interdisciplinary and
For example, global scientific cooperation multi-agency settings.
(south-north, south-south, triangular) is neces- The broad scope of the sdgs challenges
sary for universal science to make progress research, policymakers and the devel-
on issues such as the impact of climate opment community to work across disci-
change on agricultural production and plines and silos – something that is easily
nutritious quality of food produced, or the proclaimed but remains difficult to achieve.
spread of pathogens and invasive species. The section provides a non-exclusive list
Building and strengthening long-term of knowledge gaps that have been identified
observation and information systems in relation to the goal and target interaction
for sustainable development is key. To date, analysis in the previous sections.
sdg 2-related observation systems and
systems that might help identify risks for
related sdg goals and targets receive 2 + 1
insufficient financial support, and are The extent to which progress in sdg2
therefore subject to uneven quality and supports achievements in sdg1 is not
poor coverage. For example, adequate data a priority knowledge gap because
systems are not yet in place to predict achievements are largely synergetic.
food crises with sufficient accuracy, because However, a better understanding is
data are not collected at a high enough needed of how trade openness may impact
frequency or to a sufficient level of detail. smallholder farmers and how adverse
Lack of standardisation of data is a further impacts can be prevented.
challenge. Similarly, data are not yet
available to identify when and where uses 2 + 2
of agricultural land for biofuels (to support There is a need to develop new science,
energy and climate goals) may harm the technology and innovation and associated
environment or reduce food security institutions to reconcile targets 2.3 and
and increase stunting. Information is 2.4; these will be location-specific and will
insufficient concerning which agricultural change dynamically over time. There is
lands in a watershed, as well as which also a need for better understanding of
74 which interventions work best to achieve on how sdg 2 and sdg 6 targets can be
zero malnutrition, particularly in the short achieved in tandem. In particular, more
sdg timeframe. research is needed to understand how
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
key water targets (i.e. safe drinking water)

2 + 3 can be met through more sustainable
Insights are needed on incentives that agricultural practices.
would allow agricultural producers
and processors to use their potential to Irrigation is essential for increasing crop
contribute to more sustainable food- productivity and even more so under
production practices that benefit nutri- climate change. Irrigation increasingly
tional and health outcomes. depends on groundwater sources.
Groundwater depletion and the growing
Linkages between agro-ecological practices competition for water must be better
and food quality, as well as understanding understood and managed. Observational
of the impact of climate change (e.g. co² and spatial planning tools are needed,
concentration) on food quality are major as are institutional innovations for
research gaps. more sustainable water stewardship in
agriculture.
There are also important knowledge gaps
regarding the impact of agricultural water 2 + 7
pollution on human health. More analyses are needed on energy-
agricultural linkages and impacts on food
2 + 5 (and energy) systems, to help ensure that
There is insufficient knowledge concerning both sdgs achieve progress in tandem.
gender equality and several sdg 2 targets This is particularly challenging because
in many regions, given that food systems the energy sector is highly dynamic and
and gender equality are highly location- agricultural and food systems are rapidly
specific. becoming increasingly energy dependent.
Agricultural research and development are 2 + 13

generally gender-blind; that is, women’s Rainfed agriculture continues to predomi-
needs for innovation – such as new vari- nate globally and some regions, such as
eties of plant, livestock, and fish, and for sub-Saharan Africa depend almost entirely
new technologies are usually not addressed. on the regularity of seasonal cycles for
Women’s participation and perspectives in food production. As precipitation patterns
agricultural research and development can become less certain, new tools are needed
support social transformation. Adopting for accurate, highly granular seasonal
gender responsive methodologies can help drought predictions, as well as on changes
in the development and introduction of in onset of precipitation.
new technologies.
The effect of land use change on local and
2 + 6 regional precipitation patterns and
Large uncertainties remain between sdg 6 insights on measures to mitigate land use
and sdg 2 as a result of synergistic and change in areas that affect precipitation
counteracting targets, depending on geog- patterns need further study.
raphy, agricultural practice and target.
Growing water variability is adding uncer- Feedbacks between land use change and
tainty to agricultural production systems global climate must also be clarified, espe-
with potentially adverse impacts for cially in the tropics. Additional scientific
most sdg2 targets. More research is needed knowledge needs to be generated on agri-
75 cultural science, technologies and inno-
vations and associated institutions that meet
CONCLUDING
both mitigation and adaptation targets. COMMENTS
GOAL #2 ZERO HUNGER
The sdg2 targets have multiple reinforcing

Finally, the impact of climate change (co²)
and constraining linkages with the other
on the nutrient content of crops needs to
16 sdgs. These multiple linkages provide
be further studied and assessed.
both challenges and substantial scope for
solutions to reinforce positive and mitigate
2 + 15
counteracting interactions. Agriculture
Research, combining local knowledge with
is at the center of the food-energy-
technological advances, is needed to
water-climate nexus and also has strong
identify technologies, practices and insti-
linkages to human health. Agriculture and
tutions that optimally reduce adverse
associated changes in land-use are also
impacts on terrestrial habitats and fresh-
key to national adaptation and climate
water resources and avoid further de-
mitigation strategies, adaptation being
forestation and land degradation. Such
particularly crucial for less industrialized
research needs to be tailored to differ-
countries.
ent ecologies, geographies and farm
Policy and governance play a funda-
sizes, with particular support needed for
mental role: coherent and coordinated
smallholder farmers. Data and informa-
policies together with appropriate
tion at the landscape scale on the relation-
institutions can enable net environmental
ships between ecosystems management
and development gains in complex
and provision of ecosystems services are
situations and in so doing, can help ensure
lacking – data on long-term ecological
that adverse impacts can be reduced or
impacts from various agricultural practices
avoided. However, in many geographical,
are, however, key to define the optimal
political, social, economic and envi-
allocation of management options at the
ronmental contexts, food security targets
landscape scale and achieve sdg2 and sdg15
dominate policy agendas with potentially
concurrently.
longer-term adverse impacts on several
other goals and targets such as those
There is a lack of wild pollinator data
related to climate, health, biodiversity,
(species identity, distribution, abundance)
water and energy security as well as to
in several regions. Long-term monitoring
food and nutrition security itself. In such
of pollinators (status and trends for most
contexts, in-depth understanding of
species) and pollination around the world
local situations will be critical to better
is urgently required.
understand interactions between sdg2
and the others goals, and provide specific
management options with minimum
trade-offs.
Overall, there is a need for inclusive
multi-sector approaches across govern-
ment departments / ministries and other
stakeholders (research institutions,
ngo, private sector, etc.) that fully consider
environmental boundaries. Building
on these general considerations, the
seven summary tables in the target-level
interactions section provide options for
how policy could address the interactions
in practice.
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SDG 3 ENSURE
81
HEALTHY LIVES AND

GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING
PROMOTE WELL-
BEING FOR ALL AT
ALL AGES
Philippa Howden-Chapman
José Siri
Elinor Chisholm
Ralph Chapman
Christopher N.H. Doll
Anthony Capon
GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 82
GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 83
84
INTRODUCTION
sdg 3 seeks to ensure health and well- (sdg 11). Health and well-being are also
being for all, at every stage of life. In critically dependent on a safe and enabling
its 1948 constitution, the World Health environment, supported by mitigation
Organization defined health as “a state of of climate change (sdg 13) and sustainable
complete physical, mental, and social well- protection and use of the oceans (sdg 14)
being and not merely the absence of disease and land (sdg 15) (Waage et al., 2015).
or infirmity” and this is the definition The broad interdependence between envi-
adopted here. sdg 3 is underpinned by nine ronmental and human health is recognised
targets that broadly fall into separate, but in systems thinking and the new focus
overlapping groups: reducing morbidity on planetary health (Whitmee et al., 2015;
and mortality for vulnerable groups Gatzweiler et al., 2017).
(mothers, newborns, the elderly and The text that follows provides an
children), reducing communicable and overview of interactions at the goal level
non-communicable diseases, reducing risk between sdg 3 – the ‘entry level goal’
factors (tobacco, substance abuse, road for this assessment – and the other 16 SDGs.
traffic injuries and hazardous chemicals Taking into account all the underlying
and pollution), providing universal targets of this entry goal, a set of key
health coverage, and strengthening the interactions is identified between the sdg 3
health sector. While sdg 3 targets do not targets and those of other sdgs, principally
specifically address the social determi- interactions within the range of the
nants of health and well-being (csdh, highest magnitude or strongest impacts
2008; Solar and Irwin, 2010; Berkman et based on available scientific literature
al., 2014), the importance of social factors, and expert knowledge. The typology and
such as working conditions, income, seven-point scale for characterising the
education, and housing, is recognised range of positive and negative interactions
within other sdgs. Waage and colleagues described in the opening chapter to this
noted that achieving health and well- report is used to assess the selected target-
being for all relies not only on meeting the level interactions and the context in which
sdg 3 targets, but also on ending poverty they typically occur. Illustrative examples
(sdg 1), providing access to education (sdg 4), from different world regions show how
achieving gender equity (sdg 5), reducing these linkages manifest in practice. Policy
inequality between and within countries options are identified for how to max-
(sdg 10), and promoting peace (sdg 16). imise positive interactions and minimise
Health and well-being also relies on negative interactions between now and
adequate services and resources, including 2030, and beyond. The chapter concludes
infrastructure (sdg 9), food security and with a list of key knowledge gaps related
agricultural production (sdg 2), decent to the interactions studied.
work (sdg 8), sustainable consumption
(sdg 12), provision of water and sanitation
(sdg 6), access to energy (sdg 7), and
resilient and inclusive cities that provide
universal access to housing and transport
85
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
GOAL LEVEL
3 + 1 3 + 2
Poverty reduction leads to improved health Health and nutrition are inextricably
and well-being, while good health is a linked. The relationship between food
strong enabling factor for effective poverty consumption and health is highly
reduction. In fact, a healthy population context-dependent. Under-nutrition is
is a prerequisite for development, consti- generally associated with poverty, whereas
tuting an engine for economic growth. overconsumption can accompany either
Conversely, it is very difficult to ensure poverty or wealth and may be associated
health without addressing poverty. At with poor nutritional intake. The rela-
low income levels, rising incomes lead to tionship between food and nutrition is
health gains as basic needs are fulfilled bidirectional: in some cases, ill health
(such as nutrition, health care, health can diminish the ability of households or
awareness, and shelter). Increased income individuals to farm and produce food, or
is likely to enable positive interaction to work and acquire food. Fundamentally,
effects, yet beyond a certain threshold, meeting caloric and micro/macro nutri-
further increases may not lead to further ent needs is a primary requirement
positive health effects. Similarly, poverty for health. Interruptions in food intake
reduction will have a greater effect and quality, whether short- or long-
on health in the presence of diseases asso- term, can have lasting impacts on mental
ciated with poverty, including aids, and physical development, impacts
tuberculosis and malaria, as well as ne- that begin during pre-natal growth and
glected tropical diseases, diarrheal and continue through childhood. Good
respiratory diseases, and the consequences health also depends on consumption of
of malnutrition. Where poverty reduction sufficient micronutrients over the life
is most needed, governance structures course. Reducing hunger will result in
are often ineffective, and great health immediate improvements in health,
challenges usually exist. Reducing poverty and carries long-term implications for
will generally result in immediate and physical, psychological and neurological
long-term improvements in health. This development. Increasing agricultural
relationship is highly bidirectional – production may improve food security and
ill health can constitute an inescapable reduce hunger; however, it also impacts
poverty trap, where governmental on the environment, with potential impli-
redistribution is absent. Before conven- cations for infectious disease transmission,
tional poverty reduction policies can and can negatively affect health through
be effective, the poorest of the poor often contamination of local environments with
need special assistance to enable them arsenic, cadmium and other pesticide
to engage effectively with poverty reduction residues. Technological elements of food
measures. Good governance, plus invest- and agricultural systems, including
ment in health, skills, infrastructure and genetically modified organisms (gmos),
education, is crucial to reducing poverty. monocultural crop production, food
processing, forest clearing, and irrigation,
have the potential to increase production,
86 but also to harm the environment and 3 + 5
adversely affect future food security. Improving gender equality generally en-
There is much uncertainty about how to ables the achievement of better health.
manage zoonotic diseases related to Women’s health issues are in some

agricultural production. Food security will contexts under-prioritised and under-
also be increasingly affected by climate- funded, and promoting gender equality
induced extreme weather events, as well as in these cases and lead to easy health
geopolitical and economic considerations. gains. Moreover, mothers make most
health decisions for their children, so their
3 + 4 empowerment leads to improved child
Access to high-quality education is asso- health outcomes. Increasing participation
ciated with better health, at both of women in the paid work force can
individual and community levels. Maternal lead to overall economic gains and hence
and paternal education can each influ- improved health. Health gains may be
ence the health status of children – immediate (when they directly improve
indeed, the favourable impact of maternal resources or access for women) or long-
education is well known in developing term (mediated through childcare).
countries and has also been demonstrated The strength of the enabling interaction
in the developed world. Informal edu- among these goals will be greatest where
cation and other sources of information women face the greatest inequalities.
can also play a strong role in good or In general, gender equality has a greater
ill health: for example, misinformation effect on health than health on gender
can lead to poor health decisions in equality, although improved health
both developing- and developed-world of women or children can offer women
contexts (as in the case of anti-vaccine more time and resources to participate in
sentiment). Education can affect health decision-making and economic activities.
immediately through changed behaviour
or the adoption of new technologies. It 3 + 6
can also affect long-term health through In all contexts, improving water quality
increased income, opportunity, self- and access leads to improved health
reliance and empowerment. Health bene- – without clean water and adequate
fits from education are not limited to sanitation it is difficult to achieve health
early schooling – lifelong learning offers gains. The latter are immediate in terms
important opportunities in contexts of of decreased water-borne infections
rapid change. While these relationships (e.g. acute diarrheal infections, viral
are universal, greater gains are possible hepatitis) and improved nutrition;
in developing-world contexts. New improving water quality and sanitation
technologies (such as health promotion also leads to long-term developmental
using information and communication gains. The interaction between these goals
technologies) may increase the effi- is strongest in parts of the developing
ciency of health interventions and spread world where water-borne infectious
knowledge to more people. The rela- disease is still prevalent, but water quality
tionship between health and education and environmental pollution issues are
can be bidirectional, as poor health also widespread in many high-income
limits school attendance and educational contexts. This relationship is essentially
achievement. unidirectional, although where health is
poor, it may be that water-borne pathogens
themselves are adding to the poor
management of water treatment systems.
87 3 + 7 Inequities in the distribution of wealth
There are synergies and trade-offs in the gains can not only exclude some from
relationship between energy and health. health benefits, but can also create
Affordable energy contributes to both new issues – for example, inequality may
economic development and the availability lead to a higher incidence of mental
of other basic services like health care, health problems and of illnesses and
transport, and heating/cooling, all of which deaths related to violence. In industries
have consequences for health. Lack such as manufacturing, agriculture or
of affordable energy can create or amplify construction, if appropriate protections
health risks, such as excess-winter are not in place, workers’ health may
hospitalisation and mortality in temperate suffer from exposure to contaminants,
countries. However, energy development heat stress, and injury. Economic growth
involving non-clean energy sources creates affects health over various timescales:
substantial short-term health issues (e.g. provision of decent work and basic income
from direct exposure to short-lived climate enable immediate health gains, while
pollutants or indoor air pollution from increases in national wealth generally
unclean cook stoves) and very large threats lead to long-term improvements in
in the medium- to long-term (e.g. direct health. However, long-term health gains
and indirect impacts from climate change are complex: for example, transitional
caused by greenhouse gas emissions). economies often experience significant
Nuclear energy poses unique risks in terms mortality related to pollution and road
of waste storage and accidental or delib- traffic accidents, while wealthier countries
erate release. Geography can modify the tend to experience an increase in non-
interactions of energy production with communicable diseases with changed
health – for example, urban air pollution lifestyles. As well, national economic
risk is modified by local topography, growth may mask inequalities at local
modes of transport, and regional industries level. In general, low-income countries will
and agricultural activities such as burn- see greater health gains from economic
offs. Long-term climate-related risks are growth and better working environments.
locally uncertain but modified by prox- The relationship between economic
imity to low-lying coastal zones and local growth and health is strongly modified by
temperature and weather patterns. The the presence and quality of social safety
interactions between health and energy nets, which mitigate the consequences of
use are strongly technology-dependent. In periods of unemployment or lack of
some cases, poor health and concomitant wealth. In addition, the adverse impacts of
poverty can reduce household ability to growth need to be mitigated by care
access cleaner (more expensive) energy ful social and environmental regulation.
sources where available. The relationship between economic
growth and health is bidirectional. Ill
3 + 8 health can constitute a major drain in low-,
The relationship between sdg3 and medium as well as high-income settings.
sdg8 is highly context-dependent. For
example, where it reduces poverty 3 + 9
(sdg1), economic growth leads to health Synergies or trade-offs between health
gains as workers’ income increases. Yet, and sdg9 are strongly dependent on
rapid economic growth may lead to new choices about which industries, inno-
health issues. Where it damages the vations and infrastructures are favoured.
environment, a variety of adverse health Historically, development stages have
impacts are likely (e.g. mortality from been associated with typical patterns of
air pollution) although often avoidable. health challenges – most prominent is the
88 characteristic epidemiological transition consequences: for example, ill health
from infectious to non-communicable can limit household income by directly
disease, which can be exacerbated or miti- limiting work capacity and through
gated by industrial and infrastructural borrowing-related ‘poverty-traps’, where

decisions. Over the long-term, advances high interest rates force householders
in industry, innovation and infrastruc- to sell their land to pay for medication
ture tend to favour better health. However, or care, thus reducing their livelihood
there may also be negative impacts, opportunities and further reducing their
particularly associated with land use and capacity to assure health. At the commu-
urbanisation, transport/mobility systems, nity level, a high burden of ill health
and residential development. For example, can limit available resources and revenues
motor vehicle-based infrastructural and thus entrench inequalities, as in
investment has well-established adverse some slums/informal settlements and iso-
unintended health consequences, includ- lated rural areas.
ing air pollution from vehicle emissions,
traffic congestion, road traffic accidents 3 + 11
and reduced physical activity from urban The impact of ‘place’ on health is well
sprawl. However, appropriate planning, recognised. Well-designed cities promote
especially in cities, can minimise adverse health and support the achievement
impacts and improve health, such as of sdg3 while poorly designed cities create
through promotion of active transport. unhealthy environments, discouraging
Health effects can be immediate to long- physical activity, exposing people to
term. Due to the long timescale of hazards such as air pollution and danger-
infrastructure development, health conse- ous traffic, and contributing to mental
quences may be locked-in decades in illness and non-communicable diseases.
advance of the completion of construction. In the short term, housing which is
The relationship between infrastructure free of pollutants and hazards and which
and health is basically unidirectional, provides adequate temperatures and
although poor health can influence labour space supports health. In addition, trans-
participation, and therefore the ability of port infrastructure promotes health
nations to innovate or implement various immediately and directly by improving
technological / infrastructural advances. access to health care and access to
work and education, which supports
3 + 10 health. Sustainable urban form and
Reducing inequalities in income, wealth, design offer some of the most cost-effective
education, health care services and options for avoiding carbon lock-in
access to power can contribute to the and hence limiting or reducing carbon
achievement of health and well-being emissions, which supports health in
goals. In particular, there is evidence the long-term. The relationship between
that income and social inequalities have sustainable cities and health is basically
substantial adverse health outcomes in unidirectional, although ill health or
low-, medium- and high-income contexts. disability can limit resources, labour
Inequalities may create health impacts participation and the attractiveness
through multiple pathways, including of active travel options and thus policy
heightened psycho-social stress, higher options for urban development.
rates of adverse health behaviours such
as smoking, and poor physical environ- 3 + 12
ments (e.g. higher levels of air pollution). Sustainable consumption and production
This relationship is bidirectional and is strongly connected with health over
can lead to feedback loops with negative the long term; the dependence of health
89 goals on sustainable action is strongly 3 + 14
recognised in the new paradigm of The health of marine systems is directly
planetary health. Short-term connections connected to human health in coastal
between these goals are less pronounced areas and where populations depend on
or may involve trade-offs. Indeed, sus- marine food sources. Marine pollution
tainable consumption and production may and collapse of fish stocks from overfishing
require foregoing immediate economic can have direct impacts on nutrition,
gains. This tension has been recognised in and thus on health in these contexts. Reduc-
debates over the right to development, tion of marine pollution will likewise
and research is needed into mechanisms reduce morbidity and mortality. Seawater
by which global financing might offset intrusion into groundwater in coastal
losses to enable sustainable consumption aquifers, potentially exacerbated by
and production. The health consequences extreme weather events, can contaminate
of failing to achieve this can be local freshwater resources and pose concomi-
(e.g. ecosystem depletion/collapse, as for tant health risks. Loss of marine bio-
some fish stocks) or global, but often diversity can affect human health over
are most severe in low-income contexts short or long timescales, particularly
where regulation is weakest. as it affects the viability of marine eco-
systems and thus availability of fish
3 + 13 stocks or the potential for discovery of
Many health impacts from climate change new pharmaceutical compounds from
are direct, such as the effect of increasing marine bioprospecting. Tackling marine
heat stress on ability to work outside, challenges, including pollution and
impacts of severe weather events, especially overfishing, requires cross-sectoral action
floods and droughts, and increased and multi-scale integrated governance,
frequency of intense storms. Other effects and will take time, but should have both
are indirect, including climatic change short- and long-term impacts on health.
that promotes the spread of disease vectors
(e.g. for dengue and malaria) and con- 3 + 15
tributes to food insecurity and undernu- Changes to the environment caused by
trition. Such impacts may increase human actions, including deforestation,
rapidly with the scale of climate disrup- desertification, pollution and contam-
tion, which have the potential to ination, and associated losses of biodiver-
precipitate local or regional conflicts, sity, can affect health along a number
breakdown of governance or social norms, of pathways. For example, reductions in
and massive flows of people. In the face populations of bees or other pollinators
of these effects, it will be very difficult resulting from environmental disruptions
to achieve health goals. Conversely, the can affect agricultural yields and thus
scale of potential savings with respect to human health. Changes in land use, often
morbidity and mortality from minimising associated with agricultural production,
climate change is large and growing. can expand pathogen habitats and
Climate action will result in modest degrade waterways, increasing the risk
immediate improvements in health and of infectious disease transmission. As such,
well-being but major and long-lasting achievement of health goals depends
(multi-century) health and developmental on careful management of such ecosystems.
gains. New financing mechanisms are The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
needed to encourage poorer countries to categorises the role of natural ecosystems
adopt climate-friendly development in four service areas: supporting, provi-
trajectories and use zero-carbon energy sioning, regulating, and cultural services.
sources. Each has a direct or indirect connection
90 to human health and well-being from cross-sectoral feedbacks. In contrast, adop-
basic functions such as nutrient cycling, tion of systems approaches allows for
provision of food and shelter, and the anticipation of unintended negative
regulation of water quality, to the spiritual or positive consequences and formu-

and recreational components. Taken lation of potentially wiser interventions.
together these not only map directly to Cross-sectoral, cross-spatial and multi-
aspects of both physical and mental regional partnerships and exchange of
health but also support broader aspects information grounded in systems
necessary for human well-being such as thinking are needed. This relationship
income provision and cultural identity is bidirectional, as ill health itself limits
(Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). the capacity to participate in effective
partnerships, both directly and through
3 + 16 its impacts on education and capital.
Peace, justice and strong institutions are The sdgs have been criticised for not
strong enablers of improvements in adequately emphasising the role of
health. Conversely, their absence can international trade on health. Institu-
impede initiatives to improve health and tionally, the majority of multilateral
exacerbate inequalities. High burdens of and some bilateral trade agreements are
ill health or of violence itself can limit the ‘outside’ the un development agenda at
capacity of governments to deliver justice present, except discussions mainly in
and implement strong institutions. In relation to private-public partnerships.
extreme cases, emerging health threats Substantively, trade contributes to health
can pose challenges to peace. The impact primarily through economic growth
of inter-state wars and conflicts on health (sdg8). However, there is increasing
are often not well recognised in the concern about diminishing returns from
development discourse. The current crises trade liberalisation, and the potential
in Libya, Syria and Iraq have promoted adverse impacts of trade agreements,
devastating civil strife, mass migration, especially in low-income countries.
and destruction of infrastructure, which These could be through a brain drain of
have disrupted health services and qualified health workers, patents and
may have contributed to antimicrobial increasing costs of medicines, and in
resistance. Inclusion in economic life relation to removal of trade barriers that
and governance processes can play an could have adverse health impacts (e.g.
important role in maintaining trust in easy importation of calorie dense foods to
institutions and the preconditions for poorer countries).
high-quality governance. This can support
better health and well-being outcomes;
reciprocally, good community health
is likely to support stronger and more
inclusive institutions.
3 + 17
Effective partnerships are critical for
achieving health. It is increasingly
recognised that with complex systemic
problems, interventions in one sub-
system are likely to lead to unintended
consequences in other areas. Approaches
to management and governance are
often siloed, and fail to appreciate such
91
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
TARGET-LEVEL
A comprehensive assessment of all SDG 2

sdg interactions at target-level was beyond Specifically target 2.3
the scope of this chapter, but several SDG 3
proposed frameworks exist for integrating Illustrated using the example of improving
health and well-being across the sdgs, health outcomes by improving air quality
encompassing both health and non-health SDG 8
sectors and locating health and well- Illustrated using the example of the
being as both pre-conditions and outcomes interaction between work, labour
of sustainable development (Dora et productivity and health in the context of
al., 2015; Nunes et al., 2016). This section high temperatures
analyses some of these interactions SDG 11
in detail at the target-level. sdgs were se- Specifically targets 11.1 and 11.2; the
lected based on the strength of the latter illustrated using the example of
interlinkages and the magnitude and the Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration
scale of impact in relation to the overall Project, Seoul
objective of the 2030 Agenda, while SDG 13
ensuring a balanced consideration of the Specifically target 13.2
economic, social and environmental
dimensions. Target-level interactions are Given the comparatively large number of
judged to fall within one of seven cate- target-level interactions for sdg 3, the
gories and are scored accordingly: focus is largely on interactions with only
indivisible (+3), reinforcing (+2), enabling one target from other sdgs.
(+1), consistent (0), constraining (-1),
counteracting (-2), and cancelling (-3).
Following a generic analysis of the
selected interactions, specific examples
are provided to illustrate how inter-
actions unfold in different geographical
and policy contexts.
Six targets/goals were selected for detailed

analysis, with three accompanied by an
illustrative example:
92
GOAL #3 GOOD HEALTH AND WELL-BEING SDG 3 + SDG 2
3.1, 3.2 2.3 Increasing the agricultural produc-

tivity and incomes of small-scale
producers will improve access
+2 Implement financial and
educational policies that
support smallholders to increase
to food and economic resources, agricultural productivity
which supports the health of
mothers, newborns and children
3.3 2.3 Increased agricultural production,

even at the small scale, can create
new pathogen habitats, increase
-1 Develop resource management
regulation to prevent ecosystem
degradation
the risk of animal-human disease
transmission, damage ecosystems,
promote antimicrobial resistance
in pathogens and insecticide
resistance in vectors, and pollute
drinking water, all of which
can expose people to the risk of
communicable disease
3.9 2.3 Agriculture labour may expose

people to hazardous chemicals -1 Regulate to minimise exposure
to hazardous chemicals. Provide
education to agricultural workers
on the safe use of chemicals
3.3 2.3 Ending communicable diseases

will have a significant positive
effect on the availability and health
+2 Invest in healthcare services
of the labour force to achieve

the targets related to agricultural
productivity and income growth
93 KEY POINTS organic, safe and nutritious food for
all (2.1), a guarantee that food production
Increasing agricultural productivity
is sustainable, resilient, adaptable and
can improve nutrition, which supports ecosystems (2.4), the mainte-

supports health. Increased produc- nance of genetic diversity and traditional
tion can also lead to indirect health knowledge (2.5), and support for agri-
cultural infrastructure (2.a), free trade
gains through increased economic (2.b), and the proper functioning of food
welfare among individuals and commodity markets (2.c).
households Increasing agricultural productivity
(2.3) through cost-effective technologies
at the local scale can improve nutrition,
Environmental and habitat changes which directly supports health. Without in-
induced by human agricultural creases in production, rapidly growing
human populations will face food scarcity
activity can lead to ecosystem shifts
at both global and local scales in the
which may intensify communicable coming century. There is a need for in-
disease transmission creased agricultural productivity to
feed unprecedented numbers of people;
moreover, promotion of small-scale
Use of insecticides for crops and
production, especially among the most
antibiotics for animals can vulnerable, can counter the distribu-
promote antimicrobial resistance in tional inefficiencies that lead to regional
pathogens and insecticide resistance scarcity and provide much-needed income
and livelihoods for the poor.
in vectors. Intensive agricultural At the most basic level, increased
production can pollute drinking agricultural productivity (2.3) often
water through soil pollution, ground increases the likelihood of uninterrupted
consumption of sufficient calories;
and surface water contamination,
even short-term interruptions of food
or cause direct harm to agricultural intake (e.g. resulting from drought,
workers. conflict, extreme climatic events or
household economic shocks) can have
KEY INTERACTIONS lasting effects on health and physical
This section considers how efforts to in- and neurological development. Sufficient
crease agricultural productivity can nutrition supports reductions in
interact with health. Target 2.3 calls for infant mortality (3.2), newborn/child
a doubling, by 2030, of the agricultural mortality (3.1), and mortality associated
productivity and incomes of small-scale with infectious disease (3.3) and
food producers, especially women, cardiovascular disease (3.4). Variety in
indigenous peoples, family farmers, local agricultural production can pro-
pastoralists and fishers, including mote consumption of the range of
through secure and equal access to land, micronutrients essential for health.
other productive resources and inputs, Increased production can also lead to
knowledge, financial services, markets indirect health gains through the improved
and opportunities for value addition economic welfare of individuals and
and non-farm employment. Other sdg2 households; in particular, high proportions
targets provide important context for this: of the rural and peri-urban poor are
increasing agricultural productivity (2.3) involved in agricultural work, so are well
should occur in tandem with provision of positioned to benefit from such efforts.
94 However, increased agricultural produc- cropping intensity in Southeast Asia
tivity (2.3) may challenge efforts to (Gilbert et al., 2008). Productivity increases
control communicable disease (3.3), if in agriculture are sometimes achieved
contextual environmental and social through a focus on monocultures in crop,

factors are not accounted for, or if sustain- plant and animal production. Often
ability is not explicitly considered. At involving gmos, and frequently accom-
a basic level, increasing agricultural panied by extensive application of
production often requires expansion of fertilisers, pesticides, antibiotics or other
agricultural lands. Such expansion inputs, this may increase efficiency
generally leads to expanded human and and yield and allow increases in the scale
livestock interfaces with natural sys- of production, but may also lead to loss
tems, and a greater opportunity for cross- of biodiversity and increased vulnerability
over of zoonotic pathogens (Institute of to plant or animal pathogens or climate
Medicine (us) Forum on Microbial Threats, change. Such systems threaten food secu-
2008); for example, hiv, sars, and a rity, with results that potentially cascade
range of other important diseases of across systems to negatively affect health.
humans appear to have originated Large-scale livestock production, when
in humans as a result of spillover from accompanied by poor land manage-
sylvatic systems (Jones et al., 2013). ment, can lead to increased effluent flows
In some cases, the conversion of land to and contamination of natural environ-
agricultural uses can shift vectors or ments with pathogens that cause of schis-
pathogen species assemblages in ways that tosomiasis (bilharzia) and taeniasis
promote disease. In Tanzania, for (tapeworm infection) (who, 2013). Where
example, agricultural sites were found antibiotics are routinely used to pro-
to harbour double the abundance mote growth and feed efficiency or
of plague-seropositive rodents as non- prevent disease in animal stocks, livestock
agricultural sites, mediated by substantial management can also contribute to
increases in species of rodents and fleas infectious disease severity (Spellberg et
that efficiently transmit the disease al., 2011). Antibiotic use in agriculture
(McCauley et al., 2015). In other situations, has been linked to the emergence
irrigation (or other agricultural practices) of antimicrobial resistance in human
can create new habitats for vectors pathogens (who, 2013). Similarly, the use
of malaria and other diseases – this is of insecticides in agriculture can lead to
particularly true in low-income settings resistance in vectors; for example, a recent
(World Bank, 2008). Such risks can be review found that in 23 of 25 studies
countered by careful management with across Africa, higher resistance in malaria
full awareness of ecological and social vector mosquito populations was asso-
context, for example through alternation ciated with agricultural insecticide use
of rice with dryland crops or integrated (Reid and McKenzie, 2016). This is such a
vector management. significant issue that who has argued
Increasing agricultural productivity (2.3) that insecticide resistance has generally
may be accompanied by increases in been conceptually omitted as an important
livestock or poultry populations and / or class of emerging infectious disease
closer physical associations between (who, 2013).
humans and animals, which can dramati- Increasing agricultural productivity
cally intensify transmission of zoonotic (2.3) may also challenge efforts to reduce
disease. A signal case is that of H5N1 avian mortality and morbidity associated with
influenza, which has been associated air, soil and water contamination (3.9).
with abundance of free-grazing domestic Insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers can
ducks, human population and rice- be harmful to human health, whether
95 through contamination of food or water Careful consideration must be given
or through occupational exposure. to regulation and technology in increasing
Unintentional exposure kills over a third local and small-scale agricultural
of a million people per year (World Bank, productivity. In many cases, this can be
2008) and is associated with serious achieved while avoiding negative trade-
economic burdens, including direct costs offs with health, but this requires a
and lost labour. Pesticide exposure has clear understanding of local ecology and
been associated with both acute toxicity of the likely ecological and environ
and long-term increased risk of some mental effects of agricultural technologies
cancers, neurological and respiratory dis- (e.g. irrigation systems, feed supple
ease, birth defects, and significant eco- ments, cropping practices) and crop / plant /
logical disruptions. livestock choices.
The interactions between target 2.3 The relationship between these targets
and the health targets operate on is bidirectional. Health issues can im-
both short- and long-term scales. Increases pact on agriculture through reductions
in epidemic risk through expansion in the healthy labour force or in institu-
of agricultural lands or ecosystem shifts tional capacities and knowledge. For
can be extremely fast, especially where example, high levels of endemic malaria
urban areas are in relatively close have been shown in some contexts to
proximity to newly-cleared agricultural limit agricultural earnings, although labour
lands and where workers frequently substitution within households may
travel back and forth between them. The mitigate these effects (Institute of Medicine
recent West African Ebola epidemic (us) Committee on the Economics of
is likely to have had its origins in agricul- Antimalarial Drugs, 2004; Audibert et
tural borderlands, but was intensified al., 2012). High rates of hiv mortality have
by urban mobility patterns. The evolution in some cases led to significant losses
of antibiotic and insecticide resistance of skills and capacity in the agricultural
generally operates over a timescale sector (World Bank, 2008).
of several years. Contamination resulting The strength of the listed trade-
from agriculture can follow floods or offs between agriculture and health vary,
other extreme events, or can build up over but are in part a function of scale.
longer periods, and its effects can be To achieve increases in throughput and
acute, as in unintentional poisoning, efficiency, growing agricultural systems
or long-term, as in the development of are more likely to adopt technologies that
cancers or other health issues. lead to negative health consequences.
Many of the trade-offs observed
between target 2.3 and health targets are KEY UNCERTAINTIES
more relevant in low-income settings, The largest uncertainties concern how
where larger proportions of people work to scale up healthy small-scale production
in agriculture, and are therefore directly without creating ecological or direct
exposed to its effects. Thus, unintentional human harm. Increased health risks
poisoning and emergence of zoonotic should be mitigated through appropriate
diseases are more likely in these contexts. regulation, which will vary with context.
Agricultural production systems in the
developed world tend to be more mono- KEY DIMENSIONS
cultural and may involve heavier inputs Time: Increased agricultural production can
of chemicals or antibiotics, promoting the produce quick gains in nutrition for
evolution of resistance. Monocultures may small-scale producers, and have long-term
also increase the likelihood of catastrophic positive effects on food security, in-
disease spread, thus affecting food systems. comes and food supply, all supportive of
96 long-term health. Expansion of agricul-
tural lands or changes in agricultural
techniques can produce rapid or long-term
shifts in ecosystem structure and func-

tion. Resulting risks to health can thus be
acute (e.g. outbreaks of new zoonotic
diseases) or long-term (e.g. shifts in vector
habitats). Contamination from agricul
ture can also have both acute (e.g.
poisoning) and long-term (e.g. cancers)
effects.
Geography: In general, producers in low-

income countries face higher risks and
opportunities from changes in agricultural
production, although specific elements
of developed-world agriculture (e.g. mono-
cultures, large-scale production) may
increase some risks. The borderless nature
of communicable diseases means that
changes in agricultural production locally
may have global impacts on diseases.
Governance: Good governance and careful

planning are key to ensure that the
benefits of increased agricultural produc-
tion accrue to small-scale farmers and
their local communities. Moreover, effective
governance is key to anticipating and
mitigating impacts on ecosystems from
agriculture at all scales.
Technology: Technology can assist both

in improving productivity (e.g. irrigation
systems, feed supplements, cropping
practices) and crop/plant/livestock choices
and in monitoring the ecological im-
pacts of increased productivity in order to
inform appropriate regulation.
Directionality: Bidirectional. Health issues

can have an impact on agriculture through
reductions in the healthy labour force,
and increasing agricultural productivity can
expose workers to hazardous chemicals
or result in ecosystems degradation that
increases the risk of non-communicable
disease.
97
3.1 3.3 Efforts to eradicate communicable

disease will substantially
contribute to targets to reduce
+3 Give particular focus to the control
of infectious disease in educational
and medical environments
newborn/infant mortality
3.2 3.3, 3.4 Achieving targets for non-

communicable and communicable
disease will assist in reducing
+2 Reduce prevalence of non-
communicable diseases, such as
diabetes and risk factors such as
maternal mortality obesity. Eliminate smoking during
pregnancy. Give particular focus
to the control of infectious disease
during ante-natal care and in
medical environments
3.3 3.5, 3.a, 3.b Controlling tobacco, reducing sub-

stance abuse, and reducing
exposure to hazardous chemicals,
+2 Ensure regulation prevents
and controls tobacco use
will assist in reducing prema-
ture mortality associated with non-
3.7 3.2, 3.3 Targets around reproductive and

sexual healthcare provision
will assist in reducing maternal
+2 Support funding towards
reproductive and sexual healthcare
services and education
mortality and help control
3.8 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, Provision of universal healthcare

3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.a, 3.10 will assist to achieve most other
targets
+2 Prioritise the provision of universal
healthcare
3.b, 3.c 3.1, 3.2,

3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7,
3.8, 3.9, 3.a
A strong health workforce and
supportive research infrastructure
support the achievement of all the
+2 Invest in the health workforce and
in research infrastructure
other health targets

98 KEY POINTS the targets concerning sexual/reproductive
health, universal health coverage,
Efforts to eradicate communicable
infectious disease, and non-communicable
disease will assist in targets to disease. This is illustrated in the following

reduce newborn/infant mortality examples:
and maternal mortality
Increasing access to reproductive
healthcare services (3.7): In Texas,
Controlling tobacco, reducing sub- United States, the rate of women who
stance abuse, and reducing died from complications related to
pregnancy doubled between 2010 and
2014 (MacDorman et al., 2016), soon
will assist in reducing premature after a drastic reduction in the number
mortality associated with non- of women’s health clinics in 2011 in
response to major cuts in the state
legislature’s budget for family planning
(Redden, 2016).
Targets around reproductive and
sexual healthcare provision Achieving universal health coverage
(3.8): Millions of births (more than
will assist in reducing maternal and
40% in Africa and South-East Asia) are
infant mortality and help control currently not assisted by a midwife,
communicable disease doctor or trained nurse. Improved
access to skilled attendance will
significantly reduce complications and
Provision of universal healthcare
deaths (who, 2016).
will assist in achieving all other
targets Ending communicable disease
epidemics (3.3): Around 25% of
maternal deaths during or following
KEY INTERACTIONS pregnancy or childbirth are caused
There are several potential negative by or associated with diseases such as
interactions among health targets. malaria, and aids during pregnancy
For example, there is much debate over (Say et al., 2014).
whether and under what circumstances
vertical disease-orientated health Reducing the incidence of non-
programmes can negatively affect the communicable diseases (3.3): Early
integrated operation of health systems, detection and management of
particularly in low-income settings – diabetes in pregnancy as part of a
and thus their ability to deliver other comprehensive antenatal package was
health outcomes (Atun et al., 2008; shown to reduce stillbirths by up to
De Maeseneer et al., 2008). Moreover, 45% and also to prevent maternal and
where funding is limited, efforts to newborn deaths (Pattinson et al., 2011).
achieve particular health targets could
limit resources potentially applicable Similarly, achieving reductions in newborn /
to achieving other targets. However, in infant mortality (3.2) will be supported
general the health targets are mutu- by efforts to reduce infectious disease
ally supportive. For example, achieving incidence (3.3) and to reduce exposure to
reductions in the maternal mortality toxic substances and tobacco (3.9).
rate (3.1) will be made easier by achieving
99 The leading causes of death in the world matter wood-smoke, lead and asbestos. As
in 2013 among children younger than such, reducing the number of deaths and
five years of age were lower respiratory illnesses from hazardous chemicals in
tract infections, preterm birth compli- the air, water, and soil (3.9) will contribute
cations, neonatal encephalopathy following to reductions in non-communicable disease
birth trauma and asphyxia, malaria, and mortality.
diarrheal deaths. These accounted for 3.4 Achieving universal health coverage,
million deaths or 54% of all deaths among including access at affordable prices to
children younger than five years (Global essential medicines and vaccines (3.8) will
Burden of Disease Pediatrics Collaboration, facilitate achievement of virtually all other
2016). Providing for universal health sdg3 targets. Universal coverage allows
coverage (3.8) and combating aids, malaria, for access to health professionals, who not
and waterborne and other communicable only provide essential treatment, but
diseases (3.3) will clearly play an important can provide education on healthy lifestyles
role in ending preventable deaths in and disease prevention. The health of
children and infants (3.2). women during childbirth (3.1), of newborns /
Protecting against toxic hazards (3.11) infants (3.2), of people suffering from
and controlling tobacco (3.10) each support communicable (3.3) or non-communicable
reductions in newborn/infant mortality disease (3.4) or from exposure to chem-
(3.2). Smoking, exposure to second-hand icals (3.9), or of those impacted by road
smoke and indoor air pollution during traffic accidents (3.6) all rely on affordable,
pregnancy increases risk of pregnancy effective and safe treatment by health-
complications, including foetal deaths, care professionals. A strong public health
low birth-weight and premature delivery service is critical to the provision of
(Lumley et al., 2004; Pope et al., 2010). messaging, education and resources for
Along similar lines, achieving the healthy sexual behaviour (3.7) and
target of reducing premature mortality reductions in consumption of alcohol (3.5)
associated with non-communicable and tobacco (3.10). Achieving universal
disease (3.4) will be made easier by action health coverage can be supported by the
towards targets on substance abuse (3.5), recruitment, training, development and
tobacco control (3.a), and hazardous retention of a strong workforce (3.12) and
chemical exposure (3.9). Cardiovascular by research and development of essential
diseases (e.g. heart attacks and stroke), vaccines and medicines (3.11).
cancers, chronic respiratory diseases (e.g. Many interactions between sdg3 tar-
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease gets are clearly bidirectional. For example,
and asthma) and diabetes account for 82% eradicating infectious disease (3.4) will
of deaths from non-communicable help reach targets for maternal mortality
diseases. Tobacco use, physical inactivity, (3.1) and infant mortality (3.2); converse-
unhealthy diet and the harmful use ly, efforts to achieve the latter will reduce
of alcohol increase the risk of these non- infectious disease incidence. Thus each
communicable diseases. As such, of the health targets enables or reinforces
strengthening the prevention and other health targets (Nilsson et al., 2016).
treatment of substance abuse, including Many of the actions required to meet
harmful use of alcohol (3.5) will support targets – investment in vaccines, medicines,
the achievement of this target, as will health care provision, health promotion,
strengthening the implementation of the tobacco control, hazards reduction,
World Health Organization Framework workforce development and research – can
Convention on Tobacco Control (3.a). be achieved locally, in some cases with
Some cancers are linked to exposure support from donors, and are likely to
to hazardous chemicals such as particulate improve population health. Other actions
100 – such as control of infectious disease ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
and clean air policies – require regional
IMPROVING HEALTH
cooperation and long-term planning.
OUTCOMES BY IMPROVING
KEY UNCERTAINTIES AIR QUALITY: THE US CLEAN

The evidence base is strong for the positive AIR ACT 1970
interactions between the health targets
Policies aimed at reducing exposure to
discussed. There is considerable debate
hazardous chemical substances in the
over the potential conflict between vertical
water, air and soil (3.9) also assist countries
disease programmes and health system
towards meeting targets around non-
strengthening.
communicable diseases (3.4) and infant
health (3.2), as shown by the experience of
KEY DIMENSIONS
the United States’ Clean Air Act of 1970.
Time: Action on several targets – such as
Air pollution, including particulate
investing in maternal and newborn health
matter, ozone, heavy metals and acidic
– would have immediate effects. Other
gases, affects health throughout the life-
actions are more long-term. For example,
course. Several studies have demonstrated
while policies to reduce hazardous
a relationship between exposure to air
chemicals can be introduced quickly, it
pollution in utero and lower birth weight,
may take some time for air, water and soil
placing babies at greater risk for the
to become safe.
development of respiratory diseases and
diminished lung function. Air pollution
Geography: While some of the targets can
is associated with increased post-neonatal
be managed locally, infectious diseases
infant mortality, including sudden infant
and environmental health issues such as
death syndrome. Exposure to air pollution
clean air and water require regional
negatively affects lung growth and places
co-operation. Disease burdens vary signif-
children at greater risk of development of
icantly depending on geographic and
respiratory symptoms including asthma.
socio-economic context, such that efforts
In adults, exposure to air pollution promotes
to achieve particular targets can imply
the development of high blood pressure,
much greater effort in certain areas.
heart disease and stroke; elderly people are
at particular risk (Ross et al., 2012; Shah
Governance: Good governance and careful
et al., 2013). Policies to reduce air pollution
planning are key to ensure that health
thus are highly supportive of health.
programmes are equitable, effective,
The us Clean Air Act became law in 1970
efficient and inclusive.
and was strengthened in 1990, giving
the Federal Government the authority to
Technology: Technologies – for example, to
enforce regulations to limit air pollution.
prevent infectious disease and monitor
The reduction in particulate matter had an
its spread – are crucial to achieving targets.
immediate impact on health. For example,
it is estimated that 1300 fewer infants died
Directionality: Bidirectional. Each of the
in 1972 than would have done in the
health targets suppOrt achievement of
absence of the Clean Air Act (Chay and Green-
other health targets.
stone, 2003). In 2010 alone, reductions
in fine particle matter and ozone pollution
resulting from the 1990 Clean Air Act
amendments prevented more than 160,000
cases of premature mortality, 130,000 heart
attacks, 13 million lost work days, and
1.7 million asthma attacks (us epa, 2011).
101
SDG 3 + SDG 8
3.3, 3.9 8.1 Economic growth can be asso-

ciated with adverse effects on
the environment, including
-1 Put in place mechanisms in
relevant industries to ensure that
economic growth does
water, air and soil pollution and not degrade the environment
ecosystem change, which can
increase the risk of communicable
disease, illness and death
3.8 8.1 Increasing economic growth can

enable governments to increase
spending on healthcare, including
+1 Invest in education and training to
lift productivity, create employment
and strengthen the tax base,
towards providing universal health while moving to equal pay and an
coverage inclusive workforce
3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, Increased health/well-being

3.7, 3.8, 3.9
8.5, 8.6
8.1, supports people to enter
the workforce and contributes to
+2 Invest in healthcare and social
services
economic growth and employment
3.1, 3.2, 3.3 8.5 Increasing the number of people

employed supports people
gaining access to the conditions
+2 Invest in the creation of decent jobs
in social services that assist people
into employment
for health, such as food, shelter,
education and medical care
3.8 8.8 Safer working environments

reduce exposure to hazardous
chemicals
+3 Strengthen unions and regulate to
protect labour rights and health and
safety in the workplace
Economic growth (8.1) and higher produc-
There are many positive interactions
tivity (8.2) encourage job creation (8.3)
between growth/employment/work and support full and productive employ-

and health/well-being. For example, ment (8.5, 8.6), which supports health
higher growth can enable greater and enables greater public investment in
healthcare, education and environ-
government investment in health mental protection, which further supports
and other social services well-being. Interactions are bidirec-
tional, with increased health and well-
being raising productivity and incomes
The interaction between growth and
(Bloom and Canning, 2001; Wagstaff,
well-being is context dependent: 2002). Thus, economic growth and
the quality, nature and sustainability stronger employment can be enabling or
of growth and its relationship with reinforcing of health /well-being goals,
and vice versa (Nilsson et al., 2016). These
the sustainability of production and positive links are widely understood.
consumption critically influence It is widely accepted that greater
well-being outcomes resource efficiency – the efficiency with
which resources (physical and natural)
are used and allocated – increases eco-
Growth is particularly attractive nomic growth potential and minimises
to low- or middle-income countries, ecosystem-damaging waste. Examples
include ensuring that fish harvesting
but may also be associated
methods are not wasteful and avoiding
with environmental damage and the discarding of non-target species.
consequent loss of health / well- The longer-term benefits for human
populations include lower costs of marine
being; context-dependent policies
food supplies, and availability of certain
must ensure appropriate conditions species, maintaining dietary diversity.
for growth and an appropriate In such a context, reducing waste can work
allocation of its benefits in the direction of economic gain and
better human health.
However, the gains in terms of health /
At the individual level, higher well-being from economic growth are
incomes are associated with greater in practice not universal, nor can growth
be endlessly sustainable in a finite and
access to the resources that help
‘full’ world (Daly and Farley, 2004). In partic-
enable a healthy life: food, shelter, ular, inequality in income growth across
medical care, and education. countries and across groups within coun-
tries can create difficulties such as per-
However, stressful working
ceived relative deprivation, which weakens
conditions, poor labour rights and the relationship between growth and
unsafe workplaces can put people at health/well-being (Layard and Layard, 2005).
risk of illness and injury The association is more likely to be
strongly positive in low- to middle-income
countries than in higher-income coun-
tries (Jackson, 2009). In the latter, growth
can be ‘uneconomic’, namely lowering
quality of life at least for some, either in
103 rich countries themselves or owing to may nevertheless be associated with
spillover impacts on other countries environmental damage and consequent
(e.g. climate change impacts). In such loss of health/well-being, especially in
circumstances, gross domestic product specific domains or regions where earth

(gdp) and gross national income (gni) system processes are especially vulner-
may be increasing, but indicators which able. For example, air pollution in China
more effectively measure society’s is estimated to cause damage equivalent
well-being, such as the Genuine Progress to a loss of up to 13% of gdp (Global
Indicator (gpi) may be static or even Commission on the Economy and Climate,
declining. The gpi adapts the gdp measure 2014; Stern, 2015). This potentially nega-
so that negative outcomes such as crime tive linkage (‘constraining’ or ‘counteract-
and pollution count against ‘progress’; ing’) between growth and health /well-
and considers income distribution. The gpi being depends on the nature of the impacts,
is adversely affected where growth is such as physical effects on the natural
based on undermining social and environ- resource base, and the way these are miti-
mental capital (Kubiszewski et al., 2013; gated by governments.
Costanza et al., 2014). The path from environmentally unsus-
Diminishing returns to well-being arise tainable production to adverse health
because economic growth in high-income outcomes may be indirect or incremental.
countries generally yields increasingly For example, minor inputs of polluting
smaller gains at the margin in terms of chemicals from agriculture may lead
health/welfare as indicated for example to cumulative effects as soil gradually
by life expectancy (Bloomberg and becomes contaminated and contamination
Aggarwala, 2008). There is also growing levels gradually rise in water supplies
concern in developed countries about long or food grown in a particular region
work hours, work-life balance and rapid (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005),
automation associated with growth. Yet leading to longer-term food shortages
growth is driven by production systems, and health impacts, even though agri-
which often have environmental impacts cultural production may increase in
(e.g. carbon-emitting energy production, the short term. The need to abandon partic-
loss of soils/farmland to urban expansion, cular regions following salination, such
water use that damages aquifers) which as in Sumeria, is a lesson from the deep
cause damage to ecosystem or human history of civilisation (Diamond, 2005),
health and constrain efforts to achieve but the unintended consequences of new
health targets. For example, efforts to end irrigation systems that are poorly regu-
water-borne diseases (3.3) and address lated are still being encountered today.
maternal and child mortality (3.1, 3.2) Target 3.8, which involves reducing
require the availability of clean drinking the number of deaths and illnesses
water. In such cases, increasing adverse from hazardous chemicals, is closely
side-effects of growth can exceed growth’s aligned with protecting labour rights
diminishing benefits at the margin. In and promoting safe and secure working
short, high-income country growth may in environments for all workers (8.8).
some cases constrain or even counteract Exposure to asbestos is associated with a
gains in health/well-being. The implication number of cancers (Nielsen et al., 2014);
is that policies to make production and yet about 125 million people worldwide
consumption significantly greener are are exposed to asbestos in the workplace
urgently required (8.4). (Concha-Barrientos et al., 2004). In the
Even within low- or middle-income short term, some employers may pursue
countries, where economic growth is economies in health and safety conditions
more likely to increase well-being, growth in order to enhance profits; but in the
104 longer term, pursuit of such savings can regulation of health and safety conditions
jeopardise not only the health and stays up to date (Kjellstrom and Crowe,
sometimes lives of employees but also – 2011; Maloney and Forbes, 2011; undp, 2016).
in some cases – the sustainability of In short, context and conditions are

the commercial enterprise itself. Eco- ritical if growth is to be beneficial for well-
nomic growth and jobs that are dependent being (van den Bergh, 2011). Where
upon poor labour conditions, or the growth damages the natural resource base
continuing abrogation of labour rights (biodiversity, forests, water bodies, oceans,
are analogous to growth secured through atmosphere, bio-geochemical cycles) or
environmental degradation: in both crosses boundaries of the ‘safe operating
cases, one goal (that of growth and jobs) space’ for humanity, it undermines the
is advanced at the expense of others. conditions for long-term well-being
Governments, given sufficient resources, (Rockström et al., 2009; Griggs et al., 2013).
are typically in a better position than Thus, a reorientation of business activity
individual employers are to assess the pre- towards a green economy is essential for
ferred balance between health and safety sustained health and well-being (Biermann
conditions in the workplace (where et al., 2012). An understanding of this
better conditions enhance the quality dynamic is implicit in sdg8, which includes
and productivity of work) and the social endeavouring to decouple economic
costs arising if and when more costly growth from environmental degradation,
production conditions lead to the pricing in accordance with the 10-year framework
of production off the international market on sustainable consumption and pro-
(diminishing the quantity of jobs in the duction (8.4). Better understanding of the
economy). However, in some countries specific contexts and policies where
the level of regulation by government of sdg3 and sdg8 conflict is important for
labour conditions may reflect other factors minimising trade-offs between growth and
such as inadequate information about long-term health/well-being.
risks (eu-osha, 2013), or even poor regard
for the health and safety of migrant works KEY UNCERTAINTIES
and others in precarious employment. There are uncertainties about some inter-
Studies on the health and safety effects of actions, such as conditions under which
precarious employment found a negative increased income and associated spending
association with occupational health and might lead to negative health outcomes.
safety and that the higher the instability of But most interactions are positive and clear.
employment, the more it is associated
with morbidity/mortality (eu-osha, 2013). KEY DIMENSIONS
In such cases, joint monitoring of wor- Time: Taking action on several targets –
king conditions by labour unions and em- forexample by improving occupational
ployers can lead to greater awareness conditions – would have immediate
of the need for improved health and safety. effects. Many impacts are long-term: where
As working conditions change over growth contributes to growing envi-
time, with changing technologies and the ronmental pressures it reduces health /
impacts of climate change, continuing well-being over time.
globalisation and other impacts, certain
sectors may be particularly affected. Geography: Loss of health/well-being can be
For example, with the increased especially severe in some regions where
temperatures driven by climate change interacting factors including topography,
in most countries – affecting especially weather and technology mean some
agriculture, horticulture and forestry work, populations are especially vulnerable (e.g.
governments have a role in ensuring that air pollution in parts of China).
105 Governance: Good governance and careful (undp, 2016). Therefore, to support
planning are key to ensuring the ‘right’ both health and economic growth, labour
conditions for growth and rewarding policies should ensure that employers
employment. Negative impacts of growth reduce workers’ exposure to heat, through

can be mitigated by governments. providing shade or ventilation and avoid-
ing work in the hottest periods of the day.
Technology: Net benefits for health and The crucial connection between heat,
well-being cannot be assumed when some health, productivity and economic growth
technologies or their application can have is likely to be of increasing concern due
adverse social and environmental impacts. to global warming. Further reductions in
labour productivity associated with a
Directionality: Bidirectional. However, warmer climate could result in reduced
while growth and employment do not output in affected sectors of over 20%
always contribute to health/well-being, during the latter half of the century. The
increased health/well-being almost always global economic cost of reduced pro-
contributes to economic growth and ductivity may be over us$ 2 trillion by 2030
employment. More fundamentally, health (Dunne et al., 2013). The impacts of cli-
and well-being is a higher-level human mate change on labour productivity as
aspiration than growth and employment mediated by heat stress would be
(Meadows, 1998). especially severe in tropical and sub-
tropical environments with large primary
sectors where workers carry out heavy
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE labour for long periods at the hottest times
of year (undp, 2016).
THE INTERACTION Climate change is associated with
BETWEEN WORK, LABOUR increasing frequency and severity of heat
PRODUCTIVITY AND HEALTH waves, which directly impact on health
IN THE CONTEXT OF HIGH and labour productivity (Kjellstrom and
Crowe, 2011). The city of Ahmedabad,
TEMPERATURES India, provides an example of the devas-
Health and work are closely related. tating consequences of heat waves,
Access to work increase incomes, which and proactive policy action to reduce the
supports health. However, working in an impact of future heat waves. The 2010
unsafe environment (8.8), harms health. heatwave in Ahmedabad resulted in an
For example, excessive heat in the work estimated excess 1344 deaths, with a
place represents an occupational hazard. direct impact on productivity (nrdc, 2013;
High temperatures and dehydration place Azhar et al., 2014). As a result, city offi-
people at risk of acute heat stroke, heat cials and partners focussed on reducing the
exhaustion, and death. In addition, chronic risk of heat stress by developing the
heat exposure can lead to cardiovascular Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan. This sets
diseases, mental health issues and chronic out an early warning system and planned
kidney disease (3.4) (Xiang et al., 2014). response strategies to protect residents,
Working in high temperatures increases workers, employers, and officials with strate-
the risk of having accidents, and impairs gies to reduce exposure to heat (amc, 2013).
capacity to undertake physical and mental
work (undp, 2016). This means that heat
can limit labour productivity and economic
growth. Modelling suggests that currently,
worldwide, up to 10–15% of annual daylight
hours are so hot that productivity is lost
106
SDG 3 + SDG 11
3.2 11.1 Improving access to

adequate housing supports
the reduction of preventable
+2 Ensure people have access to
adequate housing through a
range of measures appropriate
deaths of newborns and to the local context, including:
children. For example, cold slum upgrading; the provision
housing is associated with of permanent housing to
respiratory illness in children homeless people; planning,
building and tax policies that
3.3 11.1 Improving access to adequate
housing reduces crowding
and hence exposure to
+2 ensure high-quality housing
and adequate housing supply;
regulation and subsidies to
communicable disease support the improvement of
existing dwellings (including
3.4 11.1 Improving access to
adequate housing is likely to
reduce premature mortality
+2 through installing insulation,
clean cook-stoves, ventilation,
heating or cooling systems,
from non-communicable safety measures)
diseases. For example, cold
housing is associated with
cardiovascular symptoms
3.9 11.1 Ensuring access to adequate

housing will reduce exposure
to hazardous substances
+2
currently present in some
housing, such as polluted air
and lead
107 KEY POINTS in unaffordable housing (defined as costing
more than 30% of total monthly house-
Thirty per cent of the urban
hold income) or in severe housing depriva-
population, not counting those in tion (defined as people living in crowded,

unaffordable housing, live in slums poor quality, unaffordable housing,
or are in severe housing deprivation without privacy or any security of tenure)
(Amore et al., 2011). Inadequate housing
poses risks to health in low-, medium- and
Deaths of newborn babies, children high-income countries (Haines et al., 2013).
under five years of age and older Ensuring access for all to adequate, safe
and affordable housing (11.1) helps to end
people from respiratory and
or combat communicable disease epi-
communicable diseases can be demics (3.3). Household crowding is asso-
prevented by retrofitting insulation ciated with several infectious diseases,
including flu, pneumonia, typhoid, tuber-
and installing effective heating and
culosis, and diarrhoeal and gastroin-
cooling. These measures are also testinal diseases, as well as risk factors for
effective in reducing cardio-vascular water, sanitation and hygiene (Baker et
deaths in older people al., 2013). Reducing household crowding, by
building new housing, extending existing
housing, or through making parts of a
Providing good quality housing dwelling habitable, is likely to reduce the
improves mental and physical health risk of close-contact communicable diseases
(Baker et al., 2013).
Improving access to adequate housing
Providing safe and affordable also contributes towards target 3.4. Evi-
housing reduces household dence connects high indoor temperatures
with high blood pressure and other poor
crowding and exposure to close-
health outcomes (Kim et al., 2012a,b; Uejio
contact infectious diseases et al., 2016; van Loenhout et al., 2016),
and low indoor temperatures with cardio-
vascular and respiratory disease (Thomson
Adequate provision of social housing
et al., 2013; Maidment et al., 2014). Excess
enables household health and winter deaths due to cold housing were
well-being, social cohesion and estimated at 38,200 per year (12.8/100,000)
community stability in 11 European countries (who, 2011a).
Extreme indoor heat also increases excess
summer deaths, particularly for older
KEY INTERACTIONS people (Dhainaut et al., 2003; Stedman,
As more people migrate to cities in search 2004). Improving housing temperatures, in-
of a better life and urban populations cluding through making housing weather-
grow, housing issues intensify. Housing tight and installing insulation, heating and
in slums and informal housing poses ventilation, helps protect against disease
particular risks to health. About 880 mil- (Howden-Chapman et al., 2007, 2012; Telfar
lion people live in slums and informal Barnard et al., 2011).
settlements (un, 2015b), lacking durable Removing dangerous building materials
housing, sufficient living space, security reduces the risk of cancer (associated with
of tenure, sanitation and infrastructure, asbestos; Goswami et al., 2013) and impaired
and clean water (who, 2011b). In addition, brain development and cardiovascular
many people, whether in slums or not, live disease (associated with lead; Lanphear
108 et al., 2005; Navas-Acien et al., 2007; Levin KEY DIMENSIONS
et al., 2008). Modifying homes to reduce Time: Poor housing can affect health im-
hazards reduces the risk of falls and injury mediately (e.g. injuries sustained due
(Keall et al., 2015b). Removing polluting to bad wiring or broken steps) or cumula-

cooking-stoves, installing venti- tively over time (e.g. exposure to lead
lation, taking measures to reduce dampness in paint or exposure to damp and cold
and mould, and protecting against outdoor housing). Some interventions to improve
pollutants improves indoor air quality and housing can reduce the risk of adverse
reduces the risk of chronic respiratory health outcomes immediately (e.g. installing
disease, including asthma (who, 2009, 2010, smoke alarms or mosquito nets or replac-
2014a). In 2012, 4.3 million people died ing lead pipes). Timing of the effects of
prematurely from illnesses caused by house- other interventions, such as those aimed at
hold air pollution, closely associated with enabling housing to be heated or cooled
using solid fuels for cooking and heating, to a healthy temperature will depend on
mainly in low-income countries (who, the season.
2014b). Improving housing, through provid-
ing warm dry homes has been associated Geography: The risks housing poses to
with reducing stress and contributing to health depend on geography. For example,
improved mental health (Howden-Chapman in hot countries, high indoor tempera-
et al., 2007). Thus efforts to improve tures pose a risk to cardiovascular health,
housing (11.1) are likely to contribute while in cold and temperate countries,
towards reducing premature mortality from cold and damp housing poses a risk to
non-communicable diseases and pro- respiratory health. In low-income settings,
mote mental health and well-being (3.4). use of solid fuel is common, which means
Improving housing (11.1) will play a the risks of respiratory illness associated
major role in reducing the number of with indoor air pollution are greater. In
deaths and illnesses from hazardous chem- some places, natural disasters can damage
icals and air, water and soil pollution and housing and pose additional risks to
contamination (3.9). Housing can be a site health. The effectiveness of interventions
of exposure to hazardous substances such to improve housing also depend on geo-
as lead and asbestos. These substances can graphical context.
also pollute water and soil. For example,
lead paint degrades and mixes with dust Governance: Several interventions to
and soil where it may be ingested by improve housing (retrofitting insulation,
children. In the us, about 70% of childhood installing insulation, improving struc-
lead poisoning cases are associated with tural integrity) require a trained workforce,
housing (Levin et al., 2008). good health and safety procedures and
quality control. Providing social housing
requires a redistributive tax system or a
KEY UNCERTAINTIES strong cooperative tradition.
Associations between inadequate, unsafe
and unaffordable housing and poor health Technology: Technology can assist in making
outcomes are clear, although further housing safer. For example, installing
research is needed to understand exposure- chimneys and ventilation when people
response relationships between indoor and use solid fuel and open cooking-stoves and
outdoor heat and cold and cardiovascular lamps can reduce indoor pollution.
and respiratory symptoms.
Directionality: Unidirectional. Better quality,
affordable housing improves the health of
occupants.
109
3.4 11.2 Improving transport and

particularly supporting active
travel modes, promotes physical
+2 Ensure that transport systems
connect active and public transport
modes, and encourage cycling
activity and helps to mitigate and walking through measures
or prevent non-communicable appropriate to the local context,
diseases such as street lighting, traffic
slowing measures, footpaths, cycle
lanes, shading, and pedestrian
crossings
3.6 11.2 Improving road safety, with

particular regard to vulnerable
road users such as cyclists and
+3 Design infrastructure that
prioritises safety and protects
vulnerable road users. Ensure
pedestrians, will reduce harm from comprehensive road safety
traffic accidents legislation
3.8 11.2 Transport systems support access

to healthcare, employment, family
and friends, and education
+2 Ensure that public and active
transport systems are integrated
and well-connected to homes, jobs,
and services
3.9 11.2 Compact cities with well-

designed public transport, cycling
and walking networks enable
+3 Promote policies for compact,
accessible mixed-land use urban
development in order to reduce car
reduced car use and contribute dependence and carbon intensity
to reductions in carbon emissions of urban transport and encourage
and reduce exposure to air physical activity
pollution
110 KEY POINTS settlements. Affordable transport systems
connect housing to employment and
A reduction in transport emissions
education opportunities, medical services,
improves air quality and reduces the and to friends and family, all of which
incidence of air pollution-related are associated with improved health out-
disease comes (Hine and Mitchell, 2003; Syed
et al., 2013; Sagrestano et al., 2015). Compact
cities, green spaces, making roads safer
Enhanced active travel networks for cyclists, and investing in footpaths and
support reduction in mortality cycle ways that are safe and attractive, all
work to encourage walking and cycling
from, and prevention of, non-
which can contribute towards reducing
communicable diseases the risk of cardiovascular disease, cancer,
obesity and obesity-related illnesses,
diabetes, and mental health problems (3.4)
Improved road safety for vulnerable
(Andersen et al., 2000; Matthews et
users will reduce harm from traffic al., 2007; Boone-Heinonen et al., 2009; Lim
accidents et al., 2012; Keall et al., 2015a). Compact
cities can also reduce the need for trans-
port, avoiding the costs and adverse
Better and more affordable transport
effects of travel, and increasing mobility
networks support access to key options for non-drivers (Litman, 2016).
amenities, such as healthcare and There are also social benefits to compact
education walkable cities, with increased interac-
tions between residents (Litman, 2006). It
is estimated that for every 10% increase in
Infill or brownfield development urban sprawl there is a 5.7% increase in
can better support improved per-capita carbon dioxide emissions and
a 9.6% increase in per capita hazardous
transport networks than greenfield
pollution.
developments, which are more likely Improving transport systems (11.2),
to rely on private motor vehicle use particularly for vulnerable road users
such as pedestrians and cyclists can also
help reduce deaths and injuries from
KEY INTERACTIONS road traffic accidents (3.6). Road infrastruc-
Improving transport systems (11.2) is ture is mainly constructed with the
likely to contribute towards the health needs of motorists in mind. Yet in the
targets of reducing the incidence of non- African region, for example, 43% of all
communicable diseases (3.4) and the road traffic deaths occur among pedestri-
incidence of mortality and morbidity ans and cyclists (who, 2015). Most traf-
related to pollution and to road traffic (3.6, fic crashes are predictable and preventable:
3.9), via a number of pathways: reducing the roll out of key interventions to make
exposure to harmful substances and poor roads safer can prevent fatalities while
air quality; encouraging physical activity; encouraging more people to travel by ac-
improving access to healthcare, education, tive means (who, 2015).
and employment; and improving the safety The promotion of walking and cycling,
of vulnerable road users. as well as public transport, over private
Achieving target 11.2 is likely to motorised transport can also contribute
support the positive health outcomes towards a reduction in transport emissions.
associated with improving housing and Improving transport systems will play a
111 major role in reducing the number of Geography: Different contexts will require
deaths and illnesses from hazardous different methods of improving transport
chemicals and air, water and soils (3.9). networks, for example depending on
Greenfield development in comparison the age and built environment of a city,

to infill or brownfield developments what access exists to renewable energy
can encourage car-orientated transport networks to power (for example) electric
reliance. Increased reliance on private buses, and regional, national, and
motor-vehicle transport carries environ- international interlinks. Cultural attitudes
mental burdens, such as leaching of to public transport and active transport
zinc and copper into soil and water- may also require special attention.
bodies (Moores et al., 2010), which carry
risk for human health as well as increased Governance: Local governments have a
cost of development (Adams and Chapman, strong role to play, in association with
2016). With the right infrastructure central governments. City municipalities
commitments, infill and brownfield devel- may provide the mandate for improving
opments can facilitate a shift towards the city’s transport networks.
greater reliance on public transport net-
works, and active travel such as walking Technology: A conversion to electric-pow-
and cycling (Howden-Chapman et al., 2011; ered public transport infrastructure
Sallis et al., 2016). Urban developments will be beneficial in places that have access
in the present will ‘lock in’ infrastructure to renewable, fossil-fuel free electricity.
possibilities for the future, contributing Technological improvements to vehicle
to a time-lag between decisions now and emissions and safety will contribute to
effects later for transport infrastructure, reducing mortality and morbidity related
including the relative physical activity to pollution and road traffic.
of affected populations and vehicle emis-
sions. Integrating improved transport Directionality: Unidirectional. Better trans-
decisions into urban planning is likely to port systems support health goals by
help reduce premature mortality from reducing air pollution, improving road
non-communicable disease by 2030 (3.4) safety, and encouraging physical activity.
and to help reduce the number of deaths
and illnesses from hazardous air quality (3.9).
KEY UNCERTAINTIES
There are few uncertainties, because the
links between improved transport
networks and health are well-established.
KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: Improving transport networks has
immediate and long-term benefits. In
the short-term, greater access is achieved
for those who use transport networks. In
the medium- to long-term, physical activity
is improved, air quality improves, and
carbon emissions are reduced. However,
developing or redeveloping cities to fit this
vision can take decades.
112 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE continuous walkways and cycleways along
RESTORATION OF the length of the stream.
The motorway had previously had a
CHEONGGYECHEON STREAM
daily traffic flow of around 170,000 ve-

RESTORATION PROJECT, hicles, but after its demolition the Seoul
SEOUL, REPUBLIC OF KOREA Metropolitan Government limited car
traffic to two-lane one-way streets on either
Decision-makers often face the dilemma
side of the stream and in conjunction,
of having to choose between a more
invested heavily in public transport (Chung
expensive but sustainable development
et al., 2012). Investment focused on mak-
path and a cheaper quick-fix solution with
ing public transport the cheaper, easier
foreseeable future adverse repercussions.
and faster option. Bus services were
The Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration
improved (e.g. colour coding and reformed
Project provides an internationally
bus numbers) and made as fast, or faster
significant example of how a metropolitan
than car trips (Seoul Development Insti-
government took steps towards
tute, 2005). Integrated ticketing was intro-
sustainability with a new focus on the well-
duced, with a standard fixed fee for
being of its citizens.
trips under 10 km. Active travel networks
Multiple factors contributed to the
were built with the opening of two
stream restoration. The Cheonggyecheon
new subways stations close to the stream,
motorway, that covered the stream allowed
continuous pedestrian roads along the
easier access to the downtown area of
length of the stream and 22 bridges
Seoul during the mid- to late 1900s leading
connecting the north and south side of
to rapid industrial development. However,
the stream.
by the early 2000s it was so dilapidated
These efforts increased bus and sub-
that a decision was needed on whether to
way usage and reduced daily traffic
demolish it completely and build a new
in the Cheonggyecheon area by a third,
motorway or to deculvert and restore
while maintaining the average speed
the Cheonggyecheon stream. The worn
of vehicles. The restoration also reduced
out infrastructure in Gangbook (north of
fine particulate matter (pm10) and nitro-
Han river) where the Cheonggyecheon
gen dioxide (no2) in air by 15% and 10%
stream runs, compared to the newer
respectively between 2002 and 2005 (Jang
infrastructure of Gangnam (south of Han
et al., 2010). The reduction in cars and
river) were causing an urban imbalance
the opening of a new winding path along
that was contributing to a loss of economic
the continuous depressed length of
competitiveness in the area as a whole.
the stream, reduced the heat island effect
The dramatic change in Seoul’s priorities
and average temperature in the Cheong-
in favour of sustainable well-being,
gyecheon area fell by 6–9°C.
including cultural and historical renewal
of the stream, followed the collapse of
two major pieces of infrastructure in Seoul
due to poor construction. These factors
contributed to the Cheonggyecheon
restoration becoming a major political
issue during the 2002 Seoul mayoral
election and led to the victory of Mayor Lee
Myung Bak, who successfully advocated
for the immediate restoration of the
stream. Cheonggyecheon became reborn
into a multipurpose public space with
113
3.9 13.2 Integrating climate change mea-

sures into national policies
will support improvements in air
+3 Recognise the co-benefits from
simultaneously mitigating climate
change and reducing air pollution.
quality Utilise systems thinking and
frameworks to help structure and
prioritise urban transport carbon
mitigation policies
3.4 13.2 Integrating climate change

measures into national policies
has some costs. Reducing
-1 Invest in renewable energy and
support for retraining of workers
transitioning out of fossil fuel
emissions may lead to job losses industries
in some industries, which could
negatively affect the economy and
indirectly constrain health care
Climate change interacts with health in
In general, a reduction in fossil fuel
many ways and the scope for climate
combustion will simultaneously action is very broad. The focus of this

mitigate climate change and reduce section is on the interaction between
air pollution: both outcomes will the health impacts of air, water and soil
pollution (3.9) and the integration
benefit health of climate change measures into national
policies, strategies and planning (13.2).
While the main focus remains on Emissions, which affect both the climate
the long-lived greenhouse gases, and local air quality, largely derive from
the combustion of fossil fuels. Therefore,
short-lived climate pollutants also
reducing fossil fuel combustion will act
matter for health to mitigate climate change and reduce air
pollution.
Abating air pollution is a recurring
On average, the co-benefits from
international environmental policy driver
undertaking simultaneous with ongoing problems in cities from
mitigation may be greater in low- Paris to Beijing. Accordingly, efforts to con-
or medium-income countries trol harmful emissions such as sulphur
dioxide (so²) have a long history (Kanada et
than high-income countries; how- al., 2013) although ironically, it is now
ever, both are necessary clear that the widespread abatement of
sulphur is removing a (temporary) climate
cooling influence (acp, 2014). Short-lived
Urban transport, industries, thermal
climate pollutants include particles
plants and burning of agricultural and aerosols such as black carbon and
fields is a key source of emissions tropospheric ozone (un, 2015a). Black
and air pollution; the avoid-shift- carbon results from various domestic and
industrial processes such as diesel com-
improve framework can help struc- bustion (for vehicles and electricity
ture and prioritise urban mitiga- generation), cooking with biomass, and
tion policies brick production (acp, 2014). Each of
these pollutants contributes to smog,
carries a risk to human health risk when
While understanding the chemistry inhaled, and contributes to climate change.
behind the interaction of air Mitigating climate change as well
as reducing air pollution can be achieved
pollution and climate is important,
through action in the transport sector.
so are considerations of available There is a wide array of potential solutions
technologies, means of implemen- for reducing carbon emissions, ranging
from urban intensification that facilitates
tation and governance
better public transport and healthy
physical activity, to switching fuels for
existing modes of private transport
(Dalkmann et al., 2014). Well planned
non-motorised transport provision can
have positive impacts on greenhouse
gas emissions and on local air quality.
Mitigating climate change, while reducing
115 air pollution, can also be achieved through options do not inadvertently constrain or
regulation to limit emissions from elec- counteract the target. Fuel switching poli-
tricity and heat generation, especially coal, cies in particular must be examined from
as well as industrial and manufacturing the perspective of precursor emissions,

processes. The range of strategies can be and their long-term effects if deployed
conceptualised through the avoid-shift- over a large scale. There are also impacts
improve framework, which is a way of on air pollution from a changing climate.
understanding the co-benefits of policies in Seasonal effects on air pollution are
the broader context of a sector and how it well-known and a dry or cold climate may
relates to technologies and behaviour when cause more severe air pollution events.
different policies have different challenges
and timescales for implementation, and KEY UNCERTAINTIES
analysis can help structure and prioritise Uncertainties remain as to the effect/
policy packages in a given sector (Doll and strength of some policy measures.
Puppim de Oliveira, 2017).
Given the alignment between climate KEY DIMENSIONS
and air pollution objectives, many studies Time: Health benefits from consequential
have looked into the co-benefits of aligned air quality gains will have a faster effect
policies (Howden-Chapman et al., 2007; on health than carbon emission reduction
Bell et al., 2008; Bollen et al., 2009). One per se. The latter will be a critical long-
review (Nemet et al., 2010) found that on term influence on global health. Some mea-
average the co-benefits (valued in us$ per sures with both carbon mitigating and air
tonne co²) from undertaking simultaneous pollution reducing effects, such as im-
mitigation were greater in low-income proving vehicle fuel efficiency, are subject
countries than high-income countries. This to ‘rebound’ over time. Some influential
was because there are greater marginal carbon reduction measures, particularly
health benefits from reducing (initially) policies to alter urban form to minimise car
higher levels of air pollution, than from travel and maximise active travel and use
reducing air pollution levels in places of public transport, will take decades to
where there is relatively low air pollution. have full effect, as cities grow and change.
Understanding the atmospheric
chemistry behind the interaction of air Geography: While greenhouse gas reduction
pollution and climate is an important measures have more global benefits,
first step in designing policies for aligning gains from air quality improvements are
health gains from air pollution reduc- more local. Context influences the relative
tion with climate change mitigation. This benefits and costs of policy measures,
needs to be complemented by consid- with air pollution reduction yielding
erations of available technologies, means higher benefits in low-income countries
of implementation, and governance, in than high-income countries.
order to minimise the risk of misaligning
climate and air pollution objectives, while Governance: Attention to governance is
ensuring policy measures contribute to important to minimise the risk of misalign-
local municipal or regional policy goals. ing climate and air pollution objectives,
The interaction between policies aimed while ensuring policy measures contribute
climate change mitigation (13.2) and to local municipal or regional policy goals.
health-enhancing air pollution measures Coordination is vital (even internationally)
(3.9) is broadly enabling and potentially as air pollution emitted in one location
reinforcing. In some cases, it may be may be transported and have an impact on
indivisible. However, within certain sectors, other locations.
care must be taken to ensure that some
116 Technology: Public policies must take into
account changing technologies that
impact on climate change mitigation and
adaptation.
Directionality: Largely unidirectional:

mitigating climate change immediately
through improvements in air quality.
The transition to an economy less depen-
dent on fossil fuels may cost some jobs
in the short-term, which may have
knock-on effects on health and on health
spending. These could be serious in
areas dependent on fossil fuel extraction,
although offset by job gains elsewhere;
but in the long term, health gains are
likely to substantially outweigh such costs.
GOAL #7 AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY 117
SCORE
-3
0
+3
+
+2
3.1 + 3.2 2.3
3.3 2.3
-1 -1
3.9 2.3
+2
3.3 2.3
SDG 2
+
+3
3.1 3.3
3.2 3.3, 3.4
3.3 3.5, 3.a, 3.b
KEY INTERACTIONS
3.7 3.2, 3.3

SDG 3
3.8 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.a, 3.10
+2 +2 +2 +2 +2
3.b, 3.c 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.a
-1
3.3, 3.9 8.1
3.8 8.1
+1
3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9 8.1, 8.5, 8.6
+2 +2
3.1, 3.2, 3.3 8.5

SDG 8
+3
3.8 8.8
GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER 118
+
3.2 11.1
3.3 11.1
+2 +2 +2
3.4 11.1, 11.2
+3
3.6 11.2
+1
SDG 11
3.8 11.2
+2
3.9 11.1
+3
3.9 11.2
+
+3
3.9 13.2
-1
3.4 13.2
SDG 13
-3
+3
SCORE
119
KNOWLEDGE GAPS
The preceding sections have illustrated 3 + 2 (2.3)

some of the many interactions between Careful case-by-case analysis is needed
sdg 3 and the other sdgs. These inter- concerning how intensifying agricultural
actions can be positive, negative, or neutral, production is expected to affect the
uni- or bi-directional, short- or long-term, environment, including the expansion of
and often depend on geography, gov- pathogen habitats and the degradation of
ernance and technology. For some inter- waterways
actions, the state of science is not
yet advanced enough to provide accurate 3 + 3
and reliable assessments. As science More research is needed to strengthen
advances and the evidence base grows, the evidence base for connections
more comprehensive assessments between sdg 3 targets; for example, the
should be possible, enabling significant connection between air pollution and
improvements to sdg implementation maternal mortality rates is only beginning
strategies at regional, national and local to become clear. However, standalone
scales. In general terms, integrated programmes may detract resources from
research, monitoring and data analyses broader aspects of the health system
will be needed in combination with
targeted capacity development to fill 3 + 8
existing knowledge gaps. The section pro- Economic growth occurs differently in
vides a non-exclusive list of knowl different contexts: some forms of growth
edge gaps that have been identified in are environmentally and socially damag-
relation to the complex web of trade- ing, while others (e.g. growth in the supply
offs involving the sdg 3 target interactions of infrastructure for renewable energy)
described in this chapter. are generally not. Expanding understand-
ing of the specific contexts and policies
mediating the interdependency between
growth and long-term health and well-
being is important for minimising critical
trade-offs. Further research is needed
on the relationship between income gains,
employment and health at higher levels
of development, given observed diminish-
ing returns at high levels of wealth and
income for the rich and the engendering
of a sense of relative social and economic
deprivation among the poor
3 + 11 (11.1)
More work is needed on the health impacts
of quality, compact city environments
with high access to amenities and a mix of
120 land uses, including public spaces. Better
knowledge is needed on how increasing
the volume of energy efficient, quality
dwellings contributes to health in various

contexts, such as the quality and secu-
rity of existing housing including slum
dwellings in different climates
3 + 11 (11.2)
More research is needed on how new hous-
ing developments and redevelopments
can best foster health-promoting transport
choices, including active transport, public
transport and new modes such as car
sharing
3 + 13 (13.2)
Better understanding is needed about
the alignment between air pollution
measures and climate change mitigation
measures, for example, how can such
measures contribute to low-carbon urban
developments including more sustainable
housing, transport and urban form. Air
pollution is a complex issue arising from
multiple (diffuse or point) sources both
locally and from surrounding areas. Better
information is required on how many of
these pollutants can be mitigated through
climate change actions in different
localities
121
CONCLUDING
COMMENTS
With so many interactions between tar- Building on these general considera-

gets, it is clear that government-led tions, the six summary tables in the target-
actions and policies will be important level interactions section provide
for ensuring that positive outcomes options for how policy could address the
are achieved as frequently as possible and specific target interactions in practice.
negative outcomes are minimised or Although addressed to specific target
avoided. This requires the development interactions, many of these policy options
of policy frameworks that take a are also relevant for other interactions.
systemic, integrated, holistic perspective.
For example, it is helpful to focus on
interlinked policy goals of cities to gain
insights for policy to advance health
and well-being outcomes. Governments
could usefully engage in policy
experimentation to address increasingly
urgent climate change issues. Some
governments have demonstrated the
importance of linking diverse policy
measures to create mutually reinforcing
measures for change. It is important that
planning agencies make use of systems
thinking to develop a more integrated
view of outcomes that increase health and
well-being (Chapman et al., 2016). It may
also help to understand where existing
vested interests may be working against
the achievement of particular targets, and
where business and civil society partners
can collaborate with policies of local
and national governments. Pro-active
engagement and enhanced coordination
across government departments and
ministries, as well as across different
levels of government (from international
to national to local), and between state
and non-state actors including business
and non-government organisations,
will be required for this to happen effec-
tively. Given the diverse levels of
interactions, the persistent ‘silo approach’
to policymaking, does not serve the
achievement of the health targets well.
122 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Biermann, F., K. Abbott, S. Andresen, K. Bäckstrand, S.
The authors would like to acknowledge the valuable Bernstein, M.M. Betsill et al. 2012. Navigating the
contributions of Jenny Ombler and David Ju, at the Anthropocene: improving Earth System Governance.
University of Otago, Wellington, New Zealand. Science, 335:1306-1307.

Bloom, D. and D. Canning, 2003. The health and poverty
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127
SDG 7 ENSURE
ACCESS TO
AFFORDABLE,
RELIABLE,
SUSTAINABLE AND
MODERN ENERGY
FOR ALL
David McCollum
Luis Gomez Echeverri
Keywan Riahi
Simon Parkinson
130
INTRODUCTION others negative) between the three
energy targets themselves. For example,
Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable distributed sources of renewable
A GUIDE TO SDG INTERACTIONS: FROM SCIENCE TO IMPLEMENTATION
and modern energy is the focus of sdg 7. energy (solar, biogas) could help rural
It is underpinned by three targets: ensur- communities achieve energy access.
ing universal access to energy services Doing this via a more centralised, infras-
(7.1), increasing the share of renewables tructure-heavy approach would also be
in the energy mix (7.2), and improving possible, but there is a risk that elevated
energy efficiency (7.3). The priorities energy prices could cause some house-
for implementing sdg 7 are to enhance holds to forego access to the network. The
international cooperation and promote energy efficiency target, meanwhile,
investment (7.a) and to expand infra- is a ‘win-win’ strategy on essentially all
structure and upgrade technology in accounts. Every unit of energy saved, either
developing countries (7.b). through technological or behavioural/
While sdg 7 contains the fewest num- conservation means, is a unit that does
ber of targets of any sdg (along with not need to be produced. This, in turn,
sdg 13), it is no less important a develop- lowers the energy requirements for
ment priority. Indeed, modern energy renewables expansion and universal access
is fundamental to human development: provision, thereby easing the burden of
it launched the industrial revolution attaining each.
more than two centuries ago and has con- The text that follows provides an over-
tributed to the near-continuous eco- view of interactions at the goal level
nomic growth that has been achieved glob- between sdg 7 – the ‘entry level goal’ for
ally since that time. The services that this assessment – and the other 16 sdgs.
energy makes possible – from mobility Taking into account all the underlying
to manufacturing, agriculture to heating targets of this entry goal, a set of key
and lighting – are ubiquitous in the interactions is identified between the sdg 7
industrialised world, and have been targets and those of other sdgs, princi-
around for so long that people commonly pally interactions within the range of the
take for granted what makes these ser- highest magnitude or strongest impacts
vices possible. Not everyone has enjoyed based on available scientific literature
the benefits that modern energy forms and expert knowledge. The typology and
can provide, however. Energy resources are seven-point scale for characterising the
unevenly distributed around the world, range of positive and negative interactions
and where they exist and are relatively described in the opening chapter to this
easy to produce, the necessary energy report is used to assess the selected target-
extraction and conversion infrastructure level interactions and the context in
(e.g. gas drilling, oil refineries, wind which they typically occur. Illustrative
turbines, electricity transmission lines) examples from different world regions
requires significant sums of money to show how these linkages manifest in
bring online. Constraints to financial and practice. Policy options are identified for
human capital often result in some how to maximise positive interactions
among us being left out of the modern and minimise negative interactions
energy society. between now and 2030, and beyond. The
Achieving the targets of sdg 7 will im- chapter concludes with a list of
pact, and be impacted by, progress key knowledge gaps related to the inter-
along the many other sdg dimensions. actions studied. An elaborated analysis
Yet, while this is the focus of the current of these issues is described in McCollum
chapter, it is also important to note et al. (2017).
that there are interlinkages (some positive,
131
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
GOAL LEVEL
7 + 1 (aiding food security). However, develop-

Ensuring the world’s poor have access ing agrofuels could also lead to higher
to affordable, reliable and modern energy global food prices (and thus reduced access
services enables the goal of poverty to affordable food by the poor) as well
eradication. However, decarbonising as to competition between agrofuels and
energy systems by promoting renewables food crops over scarce agricultural land,
and boosting efficiency could result in water and energy for agrofuels production.
price shocks if the costs of transition to a Another key interaction is energy for
low-carbon economy are not buffered in agricultural operations. Providing energy
some way. This could prevent universal to impoverished farmers is likely to
energy access, since higher energy prices make it easier for them to pump ground-
would add to the challenges of improving water and mechanise their farm equip-
the standard of living for the world’s ment to increase food crop yields, and will
poorest. Investment costs for many small- enable easier maintenance of cold chains
scale renewable energy technologies (such (temperature-controlled supply chains)
as household solar photovoltaic systems) for marketing produce and thus improving
have decreased considerably in recent regional diet diversity. Some forms of
years, and in some areas are now the least- bioenergy – such as fuels produced from
cost electricity supply option. If technology domestic wastes – do not compete with
innovation trends continue, renewable food production, although transportation
electricity generation will become prof- of waste residues and operation of agrofuel
itable in a greater number of regions. processing plants can be energy-intensive.
This could enable poor communities with
electricity transmission access to make 7 + 3
use of local clean energy resources, poten- The sdg 7 targets are directly linked to
tially allowing for revenue generation. achieving major reductions in air
Moreover, some of the poorer regions of pollution. Improving air quality, and by
the world possess some of the highest extension human health, is especially
quality renewable energy supplies (e.g. important for those living in the dense
biomass and solar power in Africa). urban centres of both developed and
Progress in making use of those potentials rapidly developing countries. Thermal
could help to reduce poverty, as long as comfort (heating and cooling) and
the benefits accrue to local suppliers. cooking are key to good health, which
highlights the need to ensure access
7 + 2 to affordable and reliable energy. Use of
As a renewable energy source, bioenergy energy-efficient appliances such as
is likely to form an increasingly important clean cook-stoves is fundamental to
part of the energy mix. Commercialising improving indoor air quality. Energy is
bioenergy production could lead to the also essential for refrigeration, which
creation of agricultural and forestry jobs, contributes to food conservation along
as well as to higher wages and more the supply chain and helps avoid the
diversified income streams for land owners health risks associated with bacterial
132 contamination. Refrigeration enables over time. The more empowered women be-
rural populations to store the medicines come, the more likely they are to push
and vaccines necessary for ensuring local initiatives that directly benefit them
community health. Energy-saving mea- from an energy-access perspective, since

sures related to ‘active travel’ (cycling they are often the ones to gain most from
and walking) can help improve health and the use of cleaner, easier-to-obtain fuels
well-being by lowering rates of diabetes, for cooking and lighting. Access to energy
heart disease, dementia, and some cancers; reduces the importance of physical gender
but at the same time can offset efforts differences in the labour force, increas-
to reduce deaths and injuries from road ing access to the professions for women.
traffic accidents if the infrastructure Public outdoor lighting would increase
provided is unsatisfactory. security for women and girls, potentially
allowing them to continue autonomous
7 + 4 activities outside their households after dark.
Well-lit, well-heated, and well-cooled
schools and households are essential for 7 + 6
creating comfortable learning spaces for Thermal cooling and resource extraction
children and adults and reduce depen require vast amounts of water; while
dency on natural variations in daylight. wastewater from the energy sector releases
The information and communication large quantities of thermal and chemical
technologies on which modern learning is pollution into aquatic ecosystems. In
based also require energy input. Ensuring most cases, a shift from fossil energy
energy access in countries where access technology to renewables and boosting
to reliable energy services may be lacking energy efficiency would reinforce the
can therefore reinforce education goals. achievement of sustainability objectives
The level of educational attainment within related to water access, scarcity, man-
a society can influence its collective agement and pollution. However, some
awareness about sustainable development renewable energy sources (including
and sustainable lifestyles, including bioenergy and hydropower) could, if not
an understanding of why transformative managed correctly, have counteracting
changes in the energy system are neces- effects that compound existing water-
sary. Knowledge and skills in the area related problems. Installing and operating
of energy sustainability may then influence water extraction, transport and treat-
which technological, financial and ment systems requires a considerable
political solutions are feasible to implement. amount of energy (‘energy-for-water’).
Thus, quality education is an enabling Expanding these services to poorer
factor in achieving sdg 7. Energy is also populations will be enabled by universal
a key element of science education; energy access. A shift toward uncon-
and better inclusion of energy in school ventional water supply options (e.g.
curricula may foster better science literacy desalination) in the world’s water-stressed
at all levels of society. regions will generally increase energy
demand. This may benefit renewables:
7 + 5 if water-related infrastructure and equip-
Access to energy would expand the num- ment can be used for real-time demand-
ber and range of opportunities for women, side power management, developing
for example enabling women to work water and sanitation systems could help
from home and thereby generate an inde- grid integration of intermittent electricity
pendent source of income. Impacts will sources. However, water-related energy
initially be greatest at the household level, demand increases could be challenging
with society-wide implications emerging if there are constraints to up-scaling
renewables quickly.
133 7 + 8 financial and technical support to promote
Deploying renewables and energy-efficient technological development; and encour-
technologies can spur innovation and aging innovation through scientific
reinforce local, regional and national in- research funding – will each directly bene-
dustrial and employment objectives. fit countries’ energy industries. Eco
Active measures may need to be taken to nomic, social and environmental bene-
minimise the negative impacts of a large- fits could accrue to individuals and firms
scale switch to renewable energy on those in urban areas, since this is where most
currently working in the fossil fuels sector: innovation and industrial activity tends
government support may be needed to to occur, and where recycling and reuse is
help businesses re-tool and workers re- highly-efficient. One concern could be
train. Workforce migration may also be the early retirement of fossil energy
needed because fossil fuel development is infrastructure (power plants, refineries,
highly concentrated whereas renewable pipelines), which may be needed to
energy projects are distributed across wide mitigate related sustainability challenges.
geographic areas. To support clean energy Unless targeted policies are used to
efforts, strengthened financial institutions help alleviate the burden on industry, the
in all countries are necessary for providing economic implications could in some
capital, credit and insurance to local cases be negative. Carbon pricing through
entrepreneurs attempting to enact change. a carbon tax or cap-and-trade market
Decarbonising energy systems through mechanism may be used to reduce carbon
an up-scaling of renewables and energy intensity in industrial processes and
efficiency could potentially constrain provide states with funds to help innova-
countries’ economic growth; but strong tion and compliance in the industrial
growth decoupled from environmental sector.
degradation and job growth from installing
and maintaining renewable energy and 7 + 10
energy efficiency technologies that could Ensuring energy access and increasing
more than compensate for economic the share of some types of renewable
costs associated with these changes means energy (such as agriculture and forest-
this interaction seems only mildly coun- based bioenergy) can enable educational,
teracting. Decarbonising fossil-fuel based health and employment opportunities
energy sources by technologies such as for the rural poor, with positive effects on
carbon capture and storage can increase income and equality. Universal access to
demand for a skilled workforce and create energy is key to achieving equality, where
economic growth, although higher energy all are free to exercise their development
prices may stimulate energy efficiency options. Good governance will help to
related job creation. avoid clashes between objectives. For
example, policymakers must be careful
7 + 9 to ensure that energy remains affordable
Building resilient infrastructure, promot- to the poorest, especially if higher-cost
ing inclusive and sustainable industriali- renewables are deployed. Ideally, insti-
sation and fostering innovation are a tutional and financial capacity should be
necessary pre-condition for, and indivisible locally sourced, although foreign
from, achieving the sdg 7 targets on access investment and development funding
to energy services, increasing the share (from rich to poor countries) is also
of renewables in the energy mix, and important. Both can foster socio-economic
increasing energy efficiency. Upgrading development and help reduce inequalities
and retrofitting infrastructure to make between countries, as well as within them
it more reliable and sustainable; providing (across different social, gender, economic,
134 ethnic, religious and racial groups). Locally 7 + 13
available sources of renewable energy An immediate up-scaling of renewables
may also reduce inequalities due to inter- and energy efficiency is strongly linked to
national fossil fuel market variations keeping global warming to well below
that could result from political or specula- 2°c above pre-industrial levels, the legally
tive pressures. binding objective of the Paris Agreement.
Achieving sdg 7 could put the world on
7 + 11 track for meeting this challenge, though it
Energy is central to urbanisation; energy would not be entirely sufficient given
allows cities to grow and perform. Clean, the scale of the decarbonisation challenge.
efficient energy systems, in particular, In the reverse direction, better integrating
create the conditions for cities and human climate change measures into national
settlements to be inclusive, safe, resilient, planning, improving education, awareness,
less-polluting, and more sustainable. An and capacity on climate issues, and mo-
up-scaling of renewable energy and energy- bilising funds for mitigation will all go
efficient technologies and infrastructure a long way in furthering targets for renew-
systems (such as transit-orientated, mixed- ables and energy efficiency. Under cer-
use developments) can have a large impact tain conditions, providing universal access
on the sustainability of a given city or to modern energy services by 2030 is
community. Similarly, if cities move in a fully consistent with the Paris Agreement,
more sustainable direction in terms of because it is not expected to have more
transport, housing and urban planning, air than a minor effect on global carbon
quality, resource efficiency, and / or climate emissions.
change mitigation, then this will create
the necessary enabling conditions for 7 + 14
achieving sdg 7, because renewables and Renewable energy generated from offshore
efficiency will need to feature in the wind, wave and tidal power farms is a
portfolio of solutions. Smart grids in cities good resource base for coastal communi-
will improve energy efficiency and facil- ties. Conserving and sustainably using
itate the development of renewable energy marine resources (including fossil fuel
at the domestic or neighbourhood scale. reserves – much of which are located off-
shore), calls for increased scientific
7 + 12 knowledge of the impacts of their exploita-
Efforts to reduce waste and pollution, im- tion on aquatic habitats, and for increased
prove resource efficiencies, increase re- research, human and institutional
cycling and reuse and promote awareness capacity to mitigate the adverse effects of
about more sustainable lifestyles coincide these energy-related activities. Upscaling
with the requirement for more efficient use of renewables and energy-efficient
of natural resources (fossil and renewable). technologies and consumption patterns
For example, phasing out inefficient, waste- will help decrease ocean acidification
ful, and market-distorting fossil fuel sub- (via lower carbon emissions), accidental
sidies – in a way that minimises counteract- impacts from energy-production and
ing adverse side-effects on the poor – transport activities on aquatic habitats,
could reinforce attempts to deploy renewa- and marine thermal pollution from cooling
bles and energy-efficient technologies at coastal power plants. Adverse side-
and consumption patterns. Responsible con- effects of ocean-based energy installations
sumption triggers responsible production include spatial competition with other
and minimises waste, in turn minimising marine activities (such as tourism, ship-
the amount of energy associated with waste ping, resource exploitation) and with
handling and management. marine and coastal habitats and protected
135 areas. Geoengineering projects such as foreign direct investment, labour migra-
ocean fertilisation may have additional tion, policy and institutional arrangements,
energy impacts, either positive or negative and technology transfer. Reducing cor-
as the need for fertilisers and biomass ruption, where it exists, will help these
harvesting are considered. bodies and related domestic institutions
maximise their societal impacts and ensure
7 + 15 that the optimal mixes of measures for
Ensuring that the world’s poor have access energy access provision, renewable energy
to modern energy services would reinforce and energy efficiency are implemented
the objective of halting deforestation, since effectively. Eliminating perverse subsidies
firewood taken from forests is a commonly for unsustainable energy sources could
used energy resource among the poor. help to achieve both better governance and
On the other hand, protecting terrestrial sustainable energy goals.
ecosystems, sustainably managing
forests, halting deforestation, preventing 7 + 17
biodiversity loss and controlling invasive This goal is about strengthening the means
alien species could potentially clash with of implementation for achieving all sdgs.
efforts to expand renewables, if that However, to ensure access to affordable, reli-
would mean constraining large-scale use able, sustainable and modern energy
of bioenergy. Land-use changes involved for all, it is critical that all countries are
in extensive renewable energy production able to mobilise the necessary financial
such as hydroelectric dams may conflict resources (such as via taxes on fossil
with sdg 15. Good governance and sound energy, sustainable financing, foreign
implementation practices are critical direct investment, financial transfers from
in all such cases. For example, policies industrialised to developing countries);
could ensure that bioenergy crops are are willing to disseminate knowledge
primarily grown on degraded lands, which and share innovative technologies; follow
might mean they have little impact on recognised international trade rules while
global agricultural markets and could at the same time ensuring that ldcs are
simultaneously improve soil carbon and able to take part in that trade; respect each
terrestrial biodiversity. International other’s policy space and decisions; forge
coordination is of particular relevance, new partnerships between their public and
especially because bioenergy deployment private entities and within civil society;
in one country can have indirect land-use and support the collection of high-quality,
change impacts elsewhere in the world. timely, and reliable data relevant to the
furthering of their aims.
7 + 16
Effective, accountable and transparent in-
stitutions are needed at all levels of
government (local, national, international)
for creating the conditions necessary to
be able to ensure universal energy access,
increase the share of renewables and
increase energy efficiency. Strengthening
the capacity of developing countries to
participate at the international level
(such as within United Nations agencies,
the World Trade Organization, region-
al development banks and beyond) will be
important for issues concerning trade,
136
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
TARGET-LEVEL
In terms of its three main elements – Six goals were selected for detailed
ensuring energy access (7.1), increasing the analysis, with three accompanied by an
share of renewables (7.2), and speeding illustrative example (as noted):
up the rate of energy efficiency improve-
ment (7.3) – sdg 7 has links with all 16 SDG 1
other sdgs. This section analyses some SDG 2
of these interactions in detail at the SDG 3
target-level for a subset of the sdgs. This Improving air quality and health for
selection was based on the strength of the rural poor in India
the interlinkages and the magnitude and SDG 6
scale of impact in relation to the over- Groundwater depletion and renewables
all objective of the 2030 Agenda, while in Saudi Arabia
ensuring a balanced consideration of SDG 8
the economic, social and environmental Renewables and job creation in Germany
dimensions. Target-level interactions SDG 13
are judged to fall within one of seven
categories and are scored accordingly:
indivisible (+3), reinforcing (+2), enabling
(+1), consistent (0), constraining (-1),
counteracting (-2), and cancelling (-3).
Following a general analysis of the
selected interactions, specific examples
are provided to illustrate how inter-
actions unfold in different geographical
and policy contexts.
137
GOAL #7 AFFORDABLE AND CLEAN ENERGY SDG 7 + SDG 1

7.1 1.4 Energy is a basic service, there-
fore universal energy access
reinforces the achievement of 1.4
+2 Develop energy access policies
that support clean cooking-stove
purchases and lower fuel bills
Institute capacity building and
education programs to support
individuals in the energy industry
at the local level
0/-1
7.2, 7.3 1.4 Decarbonising the energy system Where necessary, put in place
through renewables and efficiency compensation mechanisms that
is consistent with the provision could be required to protect the
of basic energy services as long as poor from energy price shocks
policies help to shield the poor resulting from efforts to boost the
from any fuel price increases that deployment of renewables and
may result. Lacking such policies, energy efficiency
7.2 and 7.3 could constrain the
options for achieving 1.4
7.2, 7.3 1.5 Renewables and energy efficiency

are a necessary pre-condition
for limiting global climate change;
+2 Policies ensuring that the energy
system is decarbonised through
an upscaling of renewable
in turn, exposure of the poor to energy technologies and energy
climate-related extreme events efficiency efforts are critical for
will be reduced limiting the extent of global climate
change and, in turn, exposure
of the poor to climate-related
extreme events
The principal interactions between sdg 7
sdg 7 affects sdg 1 through the di-
and sdg 1 concern targets 1.4 and 1.5.
mension of energy poverty and Access to modern energy forms (electricity,

the need to provide the world’s poor clean cooking-stoves, high-quality light-
with access to affordable, reliable ing, and sustainable fuels) (7.1) is funda-
mental to human development since
and modern services the energy services made possible by
modern energy forms can provide a solid
Decarbonising the global energy foundation for escaping the poverty
system by promoting renewables trap, particularly in the poorest parts of
developing countries: namely rural
and boosting energy efficiency
and urban communities in South Asia,
can lead to major reductions in Southeast Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa
greenhouse gas (ghg) emissions over (Pachauri et al., 2012) (1.4, 1.5). Too many
people in these locations still rely on
the longer term, which may help
polluting and unhealthy fuels (charcoal,
reduce the exposure of the poor to firewood, animal dung) for cooking,
climate-related extreme events and heating and lighting: roughly 3 billion
other environmental disasters people, or 40% of the world’s population
lack modern fuels for cooking while
an estimated 1.1 billion people live without
If policy interventions are not electricity (un, 2016). Clear progress
managed properly, the poor could is being made to provide access to these
individuals, but in the meantime their
experience economic shocks in the
health continues to suffer (from the
form of higher energy prices, thus harmful effects of burning ‘traditional’
increasing rather than reducing fuels indoors), and they are forced
to spend too much time acquiring fuel,
poverty and impairing the transition
preparing meals, and/or keeping the
to universal energy access to modern lights on. Modern fuels and technologies
fuels (such as delivered gas powering a clean
cooking-stove), whether made available
in a centralised or distributed way,
The lack of modern energy services
can alleviate these burdens, which often
contributes to poverty, not only in fall disproportionately to women and
absolute terms, but also in terms of children. Impacts can be substantial: time
gdp (because the energy, personnel is freed up, which may be used to pursue
employment, educational, and leisure
and tools involved are often from and wellness opportunities (Pachauri et
the ‘informal economy’). Thus, al., 2012).
accessing modern energy services Decarbonisation of the global energy
system through a major up-scaling of
will improve economic exchanges
renewables (7.2) and energy efficiency (7.3)
locally and raise per-capita economic efforts is needed to dramatically cut ghg
activity and productivity emissions (Clarke et al., 2014). Such actions
are unavoidable if the exposure of the
world’s poor to increased climate-related
extreme events and other environmental
disasters is to be significantly reduced
139 (ipcc, 2014) (1.5). An acknowledged risk in hard-to-reach rural areas. Achieving
of transitioning the energy system away these goals may need a redefinition
from fossil fuels toward renewables is of strategies and policies in urban capitals,
that energy services could become less and this could take time given the lack
affordable for those who need them most. of sufficient resources in many poor coun-
In other words, higher energy prices tries and the rigidity of the political sys-
could hinder the goal of universal energy tems in some nations.
access and slow down some structural
and infrastructural changes among the Geography: (1) Lack of energy access is both
lesser developed economies (Jakob and a rural and an urban problem, and is most
Steckel, 2014). Policies must be designed acute in the poorest parts of South Asia,
such that they take an integrated and Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.
holistic perspective of multiple policy Modernising the lives of these people, in
objectives. For example, Cameron et al. terms of energy service provision, could
(2016) found that poorer populations can have global economic consequences
be shielded from fuel price rises through (due to newly created employment and
access policies (e.g. subsidies) that support educational opportunities). (2) Increasing
clean cooking-stove purchases and lower energy efficiency and substituting fossil
fuel bills. Funding support for these fuel energy by renewables in any country
policies could be derived from carbon tax of the world, whether rich or poor, will
revenues or financial flows from carbon benefit those in poverty by reducing
trading – leveraging the same carbon their exposure to climate-related extreme
pricing mechanisms being simultaneously events and other environmental disasters.
used to incentivise renewables deployment However, reducing exposure to climate
and energy efficiency efforts. In addition, change-related extreme events is a
the local production of renewable energy complex issue where decarbonisation of
(biomass, solar, wind) could lead to new the energy supply plays a minor role in
income streams, which could counter- the short term compared to other land use
balance any system-wide energy price rises. policies and local governance.
KEY UNCERTAINTIES Governance: (1) The supposed trade-off

(1) The level of local skills and knowledge between energy system decarbonisation
(technological, business, or otherwise) (renewables / efficiency) and energy
that will exist within the individual access is non-genuine. The trade-off is not
communities in 10 to 15 years, especially intrinsic to the decarbonisation mea-
concerning the capacity to ensure that sures themselves, but to poorly designed
energy access provision remains adequate, policies. Compensation mechanisms
reliable and affordable. This depends can be designed to ensure that the poor
strongly on educational attainment, which are shielded from energy price shocks.
itself is affected by energy access in a However renewable energy prices are
continuous loop. (2) Exact quantifications generally locally determined and tend to
for what a proper, decent level of energy decline with technological advancement.
access actually entails, in terms of the full This protects the poorest from the highly
range of services required to escape the speculative prices associated with fossil
poverty trap. fuel energy. (2) Enabling policies are key
to mobilising transformational change
KEY DIMENSIONS in energy systems, with respect to technology
Time: Major structural and infrastructural investments and infrastructure changes.
changes will be needed to achieve energy
access targets throughout the world, often
140 Technology: (1) Continued improvements
in the design, efficiency, and cost of
efficient, portable cooking-stoves and
lighting devices are needed, particularly

because the up-front capital costs of
these technologies can often account for
weeks/months of income for the poorest
households. If costs are too high, then this
could prevent individuals from putting
their limited funds toward other useful
purposes (such as educational and business
opportunities, healthcare, internet and
communications tools). However, technical
advancement in renewable energy
technology (e.g. wind turbines, solar pan-
els, heat exchange devices) drives lower
prices for sustainable energy services.
(2) Whether new energy systems for the
poor are centralised (national grids)
or decentralised (local level only) will
depend on each country’s geographical
and governance context, as well as on
the existing state of infrastructure in the
region.
Directionality: Unidirectional. Energy access

provision is necessary (but not sufficient)
for delivering the types of service required
for escaping the poverty trap (education,
employment, healthcare). Yet, in the reverse
direction, provision of those services by
some other means (such as programmes to
regularly transport disadvantaged indivi-
duals to more affluent communities for
those services) does not guarantee that ener-
gy access will be achieved in those commu-
nities where it is most needed. Further-
more, demographic pressure is a key issue
for energy supply in rural areas as well
as urban communities. Without a clear indi-
cation of future demand, the supply may
never be adequate.
141
0/-1
7.2 2.1 If not restricted to degraded lands, Design legislation so that
large-scale global production competition of bioenergy crops
of purpose-grown energy crops with land use for other purposes
could drive up food prices and is avoided. This can be done by
so constrain the achievement of prioritising bioenergy production
ending hunger for the poor on degraded land; maximising
energy production from agricultural
wastes (from non-bioenergy crops),
and investing in research and
technologies that lead to higher
crop yields
7.2 2.3 Bioenergy production could

reinforce initiatives pursuing
agricultural jobs creation and
+2 Structure policies should be
designed so that they promote the
creation of bioenergy-related jobs
higher farm wages. Bioenergy and diversified income streams for
from agricultural wastes also farmers, particularly for women,
provides higher returns for job indigenous groups, family farmers
creation and fishers. Policies should favour
waste-to-energy projects for
bioenergy
7.2, 7.3 2.3, 2.4 Greater agricultural productivities

for all types of crops, particularly
bioenergy, can aid the
+2 Put in place mechanisms to
manage the energy, land, fertiliser
and water inputs to agriculture,
achievement of the renewable thereby helping to mitigate any
energy target by allowing as much negative effects on the environment
bioenergy to be produced on as as well as on agricultural prices
little land as possible, thereby (and thus on food security)
minimising land use competition.
Energy efficiency improvements
can also reinforce agricultural
productivity by reducing the
energy inputs needed. Bioenergy
production from agricultural and
forest wastes could increase
productivity and efficiency in rural
areas
142 KEY POINTS Second- and third-generation waste-
Basic energy availability is a key to-energy technologies are attractive
component in food systems that have because agricultural, forest and
the potential to achieve the goal domestic wastes can be used as

of zero hunger. Energy is also a stockpiles for energy services. These
prerequisite to reduce and recycle do not require supplemental crop
food waste, and to preserve the long- production or forest harvest and
term value of edible items. provide room for manoeuvring in
existing productions. Moreover, fuels
from domestic wastes do not depend
Interactions could become stronger
on prevailing weather conditions
if bioenergy (especially from agro-
and so are resilient to climate
fuels) is deployed on a large scale in
change
order to meet the renewable energy
targets
KEY INTERACTIONS
If policy interventions are not
More mechanised, modern farm practices
managed properly, food production can have a strong impact on farm yields,
could decrease and food prices could and thus livelihoods (2.3). Large-scale
increase, thereby reducing access to bioenergy production could play an increas-
ingly important role as renewable energy
affordable food. Access to affordable (7.2) is ramped up in scale toward 2030 and
food may also be jeopardised due to beyond. Because of open questions sur-
long-term soil depletion associated rounding bioenergy, the following discus-
sion focuses on its benefits and conse-
with monocropping of agrofuels,
quences. Most closely interacting with sdg 7
and to hydrological changes or are targets 2.1 and 2.3 / 2.4, the latter
topsoil loss associated with the supported by increasing the speed of
cultivation of marginal or degraded energy efficiency improvements in the
agriculture sector.
croplands for agrofuels or to replace The impacts of increased bioenergy
food production lost to agrofuel utilisation on food and agriculture systems
farming are complex and context-dependent.
The effects may be positive or negative,
depending on the type of bioenergy
While agricultural productivity supplied, its source, and the size of the
can be increased by raising levels operation (Smith et al., 2014). Creutzig
et al. (2013) and others have shown that pro-
of energy inputs into agriculture
ducing bioenergy crops can contribute
(fertiliser, agrochemicals, pumped positively to local economies, for example
irrigation, machinery, fossil fuels for by creating jobs in rural areas. Higher
wages, and more diversified income streams
cultivation and transportation, post-
for farmers, are additional benefits
harvest storage), the potential trade- (Gohin, 2008). This is true, for instance,
off is higher energy requirements for of the Brazilian sugarcane ethanol
the sector industry, where average farm incomes are
143 greater than in most other agricultural Certain types of crops, either for energy
sectors in the country (de Moraes et or food production, are more land-
al., 2010; Satolo and Bacchi, 2013). Good intensive than others. Hence, decreasing
governance and careful planning are the area needed for growing crops also
key to ensuring that the benefits go to decreases the risk of land competition, and
those that deserve them. If poorly by extension the threat of food insecurity
regulated, large-scale bioenergy deploy- and community displacement, as well
ment could end up harming the very as deforestation. Policies, agricultural
farmers that sdg 2 attempts to support, research, and extension programmes that
particularly if the revenues accruing incentivise and promote greater agri-
from the sale of bioenergy go to cultural productivities (improved and
company owners and investors rather sustainable crop yields, that do not
than to small-scale, local landowners sacrifice long-term productivity for
and tenants, or if the revenues are not short-term yields) can all help. They can
shared equally between parties (van also direct farmers toward producing
der Horst and Vermeylen, 2011). In the bioenergy on degraded and marginal land.
worst case, small-scale farmers could Another key approach is to maximise
even be displaced, either from their energetic valorisation of agricultural
lands or in local business networks, or residues and organic wastes. Both strate-
both. In other words, the distributional gies would largely avoid competition
impacts of bioenergy deployment – while between bioenergy and other land-use
still uncertain, given their situational purposes, although there are limits
dependencies – could be non-trivial to how much bioenergy can be produced
(Davis et al., 2013; Muys et al., 2014). The by these means. Food prices may still
topic requires future study, at the rise even if care is taken to avoid such an
empirical / case-study level and by national- outcome; yet, according to several
and global-scale integrated modelling integrated models, the potential price
frameworks. effects induced by unconstrained levels
A potential risk of large-scale bioenergy of climate change and the resultant
deployment is that crops grown for energy water and temperature impacts are far
purposes could compete with existing greater than the bioenergy-induced
crops grown for other purposes, such as effects (Lotze-Campen et al., 2014). While
food production (Smith et al., 2014). Such bioenergy, strictly speaking, is not neces-
concerns are often captured in the ‘food sary to meet target 7.2, its availability
versus fuel’ debate; more specifically, could help in certain dimensions, such as
concerning food security (higher or more for reducing the global aggregate costs
volatile food prices) and the displacement of climate mitigation (Clarke et al., 2014).
of communities and their agro-economic
activities. While impacts are felt most
acutely locally, global market dynamics KEY UNCERTAINTIES
may be the ultimate driver, with bioenergy (1) It is not yet clear how quickly traditio-
deployment in one country creating nal food systems can be modernised
ripple effects that propagate worldwide and mechanised, or what the energy use
(so-called ‘indirect land-use change’). In implications of this would be (such
fact, bioenergy deployment could lead to as for food conservation via different
co-benefits in one country, but adverse energy-related processes, drying facilities
side-effects elsewhere. Good governance, for harvests, establishing cold chains
in the form of well-designed policies, is during transport and distribution, and
key to avoiding adverse impacts, or at least refrigeration at the household level,
minimising them to the extent possible. among others). (2) There are large uncer-
144 tainties in terms of the type of indirect and maximising energy production from
land-use change impacts that might arise agricultural wastes (from non-bioenergy
through deployment of bioenergy in crops). (2) Adverse effects of demand-
a given country context (that is, which side driven policies (such as a mandatory
types of agricultural lands throughout the percentage of ethanol or biodiesel in
world are converted to other purposes fuels) may be more important than
in response to changing food/crop prices). their energy security or climate change
mitigation effects.
KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: Some impacts may be short-term in Technology: Greater agricultural produc-
nature (i.e., over a few years or crop cycles), tivities (improved and sustainable
with a sustainable equilibrium then again crop yields), both for bioenergy and food
be reached. Other impacts may be longer crops can help minimise or avoid direct
term in nature, perhaps even irreversible competition of different crop types for
over the course of a generation (such as land in different countries. Waste-to-energy
if forests are cleared for crop production). technologies and biorefineries are also
important options and would benefit from
Geography: (1) Some areas could benefit increased r&d effort.
while others are, simultaneously, neg-
atively impacted. For example, in Scandi- Directionality: Bidirectional. Large-scale
navia farmers and foresters have bene- utilisation of agrofuels can affect
fitted from bioenergy production through food production, and thus the goal of
the diversification of markets. However, ending hunger. In the reverse direction,
to the extent these producers have changed ending hunger may impose limits
food export patterns, or do so in the as to how much cropland is available for
future, then food security globally could bioenergy production; greater agricul-
be affected. (2) While the impacts of large- tural productivities for all types of crops
scale bioenergy production are felt most can minimise or avoid land competition
acutely locally, global market dynamics may and degradation.
be the ultimate driver, with bioenergy
deployment in one country creating ripple
effects that propagate worldwide. In
such situations, it is likely that the most
benefits will be obtained when bioenergy
is obtained from waste, rather than pri-
mary agricultural production.
Governance: (1) Good governance and care-

ful planning are key to ensuring the
benefits of bioenergy production accrue
to small-scale farmers and their local
communities. Well-designed policies are
also needed to ensure that adverse side-
effects of large-scale bioenergy utilisation
are minimised or avoided, including
incentives and support mechanisms that
(i) promote greater agricultural pro-
ductivities (improved and sustainable
crop yields) and (ii) direct farmers toward
producing bioenergy on degraded lands
145
7.1 3.8 Universal energy access

enables the provision of food,
medicines and vaccines because
+1 Develop energy access policies to
facilitate the spread of refrigeration
in rural areas, which will be
mechanised refrigeration is beneficial for food preservation
essential for effective storage (to reduce the amounts of food
that normally go to waste) and the
storage of life-saving medicines
and vaccines
7.1, 7.2, 7.3 3.9 In most cases, efforts to

provide energy access, expand
renewables, and promote
+2 Draw up legislation promoting
renewable energy and energy
efficiency across multiple sectors
energy efficiency will lead to to reduce negative impacts on
simultaneous reductions in air the health of rural and urban
pollutant emissions; thus the populations. Pay particular
targets are reinforcing attention to those sectors that are
currently the most energy-intensive
and energy-polluting, such as
buildings, industry and transport
in densely populated urban areas,
as well as those rural areas
with a high use of chemicals for
agricultural production
Energy access policies that

promote the use of cleaner energy
and which are less-polluting can
significantly reduce premature
mortality. Policies targeting those
sectors of the population with
highest exposure to indoor and
outdoor pollution will be most
beneficial
7.3 3.4 Energy-saving measures related

to ‘active travel’ (cycling and
walking) can lead to improved
+1 Where possible, ensure urban
planning and land use management
policies encourage energy-saving
health and well-being by lowering ‘active travel’ modes (cycling
rates of diabetes, heart disease, and walking). This will benefit
dementia, and some cancers community health, in terms of lower
rates of diabetes, heart disease,
dementia, and some cancers
0/-1
7.3 3.6 Energy-saving measures related Build cycling and walking
to ‘active travel’ (cycling and infrastructure that is safe for all,
walking) can constrain efforts to reduce deaths and injuries from
to reduce deaths and injuries road traffic accidents
from road traffic accidents, if
the provided infrastructure is
unsatisfactory and if higher air
quality standards are not required
146 KEY POINTS all types) would drive major reductions
in emissions of sulphur dioxide (so²),
Providing energy access, promoting
nitrogen oxides (nox), black carbon (bc),
renewables and boosting efficiency fine particulate matter (pm 2.5), and

can lead to major reductions in mercury, among others. Targets 7.2 and
air pollution, and by extension 7.3 primarily affect outdoor (ambient)
air pollution, whereas target 7.1 would
significant improvements in most affect indoor (household) pollu-
air quality and human health, tion. The level of exposure of a given popu-
particularly in the dense urban lation to energy-consuming activities
(power plants, factories, cars, kilns)
centres of the rapidly developing
significantly influences the human health
world effects of air pollution – and, by extension,
the improvements that can be attained
Elevating levels of walking and by meeting or exceeding the three energy
cycling (‘active travel’) in cities can targets. The dense cities of the rapidly
developing world (Beijing, Delhi, and
also lead to better health and well-
many others) have the most to gain; large
being among the local population metropolitan centres in the industrialised
world (London, Los Angeles) could also
benefit substantially.
Energy is vital to providing thermal
Several forward-looking, integrated
comfort in buildings. Energy access scenario studies have estimated the air
is also needed for refrigeration, quality co-benefits that could be achieved
which is essential for maintaining – in diverse contexts – by providing
energy access, promoting renewables, and
food quality along the supply chain boosting efficiency. For example, Rose
for providing city markets with et al. (2014) found that in China strong
healthy products. Refrigeration is efficiency and decarbonisation efforts
could result in so² emissions reductions of
also critical for rural populations;
15–75% below reference levels by 2030 and
for storing food, medicines and 40–80% by 2050. Chaturvedi and Shukla
vaccines (2014) drew similar conclusions for India:
reductions of 10–80% in the long term,
depending on the scenario and pollutant
KEY INTERACTIONS under consideration. At the global level,
The principal interactions between sdg 7 Rafaj et al. (2013) found reductions of 40%
and sdg 3 concern target 3.9. Present- (so²), 30% (nox), and 5% (pm 2.5), relative
day fossil energy extraction, conversion, to a baseline scenario, are possible by 2030.
and end-use activities emit a range of Meanwhile, Riahi et al. (2012) showed
air pollutants, as do some traditional bio- the importance of providing modern energy
fuels (dung, wood, waste, and peat access (fuels, electricity, clean cooking-
or charcoal prepared and burned in tradi- stoves) for improving indoor air quality in
tional ways) many of which are harmful the developing world. They estimated
to humans, leading to respiratory and global reductions of 50% (so²), 35% (nox)
cardiovascular diseases and even cancer. and 30% (pm 2.5) by 2030 in scenarios
Thus, increased efforts to move the world’s that include a rapid up-scaling of renew-
poor towards clean renewables and to ables and energy efficiency measures.
significantly increase energy efficiency This could help reduce globally-aggregated
(i.e. lower the requirements for energy of disability-adjusted life years (dalys) by
147 more than 10 million over the next one (2) The long-term effects of current/
and a half decades, mostly in developing recent investments in dirty fossil energy
countries. Similar conclusions were infrastructure and vehicles, and the
reached by the iea (2016). It should be possibilities for retrofitting those facilities
noted, however, that not all energy-saving to make them less polluting are also
measures are beneficial for air quality: unknown. (3) How consumer behaviour
such as when switching from gasoline and preferences might change over time
to diesel vehicles. Similarly, although is unclear, especially with respect to
biofuels are a form of renewable energy, adopting more active lifestyles that are
they are not necessarily low-polluting in less dependent on motorised transport. (4)
their life cycle. Some forms of clean energy production
There has been some attempt to mone- could potentially create new health issues.
tise the air quality co-benefits of energy
efficiency and decarbonising the energy
system (Nemet et al., 2010). West et al. KEY DIMENSIONS
(2013) estimated the co-benefits of avoided Time: Transformational changes in energy
mortality to be usd 50–380 per tonne systems take a considerable amount
co² globally (70–840 for China and 20–400 of time to effect, given the long-lived
for India). Benefits of this magnitude infrastructure. While vehicles and other
are similar to the costs of ramping up consumer appliances may have lives of
renewables and energy efficiency over the 5 to 15 years, power plants and facto-
coming decades (Clarke et al., 2014). ries can last for 50 years or more. This
Energy-saving measures, such as inte- influences how quickly existing infra-
grated transport and urban planning structure can replaced and how quickly air
strategies that promote ‘active travel’, can quality levels can be improved.
also lead to better health and well-being,
including lower rates of diabetes, heart Geography: (1) Dense urban areas in both
disease, dementia, and some cancers developing and industrialised coun-
(Woodcock et al., 2009; Haines, 2012; Shaw tries stand to gain the most from renew-
et al., 2014) (3.4). However, if the pro- able energy and energy efficiency policies
vided infrastructure is unsatisfactory, that improve outdoor air quality, while
increased ‘active travel’ could increase risk providing energy access (upgrading
of death and injuries from road traffic to modern fuels and clean cook-stoves)
accidents (3.6). would most benefit the indoor air
Moreover, though not well researched quality of rural households in the least-
up to this point in time, a potential risk developed countries (ldcs). (2) Air quality
of certain forms of clean energy is that some is principally a local/regional problem,
pathways may create new health issues, although air pollutant emissions can travel
either within the region of production across city/state/country borders and
or elsewhere (e.g. siloxane emissions from affect other populations. (3) The potential
biogas plants, growing hazardous waste for renewables differs widely, which means
flow due to photovoltaics or battery pro- different renewable energy technologies
duction and disposal). will be the focus of air pollution mitigation
strategy in different regions.
KEY UNCERTAINTIES Governance: (1) Air quality is principally a

(1) The future climate impacts on local local/regional problem, although national
atmospheric conditions affects are energy policies can help or hinder
a key uncertainty affecting ambient the situation. (2) Enabling policies are
concentrations of harmful pollutants. central to transformational change in
148 energy systems, especially for changes particularly to those in rural areas relying
in technology investment (efficiency and on traditional and dirty fuels (firewood,
reduced emissions) and infrastructure. charcoal, crop residues, and dung; Bonjour
et al., 2013) for cooking and heating. The

Technology: (1) Technological change is a number of premature deaths in India due
critical enabler for improved air quality to indoor and near-household air pollu-
via energy access provision, renewables tion from the use of traditional solid fuels
deployment, and efficient devices. (2) is around 1 million annually, the highest
Behavioural change is also important if of any country in the world (ihme, 2015).
societies are to adopt more active lifestyles Globally, the figure is around 3.9 mil-
that are less dependent on motorised lion (Smith and Sagar, 2014). The main
transport and to embrace the latest cause is exposure to poor combustion of
technological advances in equipment and solid fuels in inefficient cooking-stoves.
appliances. India has tried to address this issue
by providing subsidised lpg (liquefied
Directionality: Bidirectional, but asymmet- petroleum gas) as an interim cleaner
ric. Energy use impacts health and well- substitute for traditional solid fuels. This
being. And in the reverse, the collective programme has recently accelerated,
health and well-being of a society making India one of the world leaders
could potentially influence what trans- in a ‘health-centred strategy for
formational changes in the energy air pollution’ (Sagar et al., 2016). Three
system they have an appetite to pursue. national initiatives were launched in
The former causality is stronger than 2014 to provide lpg to 50 million more
the latter and is therefore focused upon families by March 2019 (Smith, 2016). This
in this report. major new campaign could ultimately
contribute to India reaching its sdg goals
for health and energy simultaneously.
Elements include over us $ 1 billion com-
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE mitted directly by the national govern-
IMPROVING AIR QUALITY ment, with much more provided to state
AND THE HEALTH OF THE governments from alternative sources, a
large share of the middle class population
RURAL POOR IN INDIA voluntarily giving up subsidies to con-
India is the third largest economy in the tribute to the programme, wide-scale use
world, with its 1.3 billion people making of information technology, use of social
up nearly 20% of the global population. marketing and social media, and support
Yet, in terms of energy use, it consumes for the programme at the highest levels
only 6% of the world’s primary energy. of Indian decision-making, ranging from
Meanwhile, some 240 million Indians lack the Prime Minister to the private sector,
access to electricity (iea, 2015). Recent community groups and major agencies.
commitments to address climate change
and the prospects for rapidly increasing
energy demand, which is expected
to double in India within the next two
decades, have triggered a wave of planned
reforms of the energy system. These
include boosting the share of renewables
in the country’s energy mix (7.2) and
expanding efforts to provide universal
access to modern energy forms (7.1),
149
7.2 6.1, 6.4 Increased utilisation of

unconventional water supply
options to satisfy growing demands
-1 Ensure that unconventional water
supply options (e.g. desalination,
wastewater recycling and
for safe, affordable freshwater inter-basin water transfers)
supplies could constrain renewable do not generate excessively
energy deployment if those options high loads on regional power
(e.g. desalination) are highly systems, particularly if the goal
energy-intensive is to integrate high shares of
renewables into those systems
7.2, 7.3 6.1, 6.4 Increased electricity demands

from the water sector could enable
the integration of variable wind
+1 Better integrate water and energy
systems development planning
in order to capture the benefits
and solar resources, if developed of real-time demand-side power
in combination with real-time management of water process
demand-side power management equipment for the integration
of water-related infrastructure and of intermittent solar and wind
equipment resources. Coupling water and
energy markets, which have
historically managed their
operations separately, could also
be potentially beneficial
7.2, 7.3
6.5
6.1, 6.4, Renewables and energy efficiency
will, in most instances, reinforce
targets related to water access,
+2 Ensure that energy policies and
water resource management plans
for renewable energy options, such
scarcity and management by as bioenergy and hydropower, do
lowering water demands for not result in adverse side effects
energy production (compared to a either nationally or beyond national
less-efficient fossil energy supply borders, particularly in water-
system) scarce regions
Take care that policies promoting

energy efficiency in the electricity
generation, buildings, transport
agriculture and industry sectors
do not temper growth in water
demand. Pay particular attention to
energy-intensive operations with
significant lighting, heating and
cooling loads
7.2, 7.3 6.3, 6.6 Renewables and energy efficiency

will, in most instances, reinforce
targets related to water pollution
+2 Align energy and water-
management policies so that
negative effects on aquatic
and aquatic ecosystems by ecosystems are minimised (such
reducing levels of chemical and as thermal and chemical pollution).
thermal pollution (compared to a Policies limiting once-through
less-efficient fossil energy supply cooling offer an example
system)
150 KEY POINTS pollution impacts increase, then existing
ecosystem problems could be exacerbated,
Ramping up renewables and boosting
particularly in areas that are already
energy efficiency can help ensure stressed and where demand growth is
water availability for all, reduce the likely to be high, such as countries in the
number of people suffering from Middle East, South Asia, and Sub-Saharan
Africa (Luo et al., 2015). Fossil energy
water scarcity, minimise water extraction (e.g. hydraulic fracturing for oil
pollution, and protect water-related and natural gas) often demands significant
ecosystems. Exceptions could be the water inputs. So too do fossil (coal, gas,
oil) and nuclear power plants, which use
large-scale deployment of agrofuels
freshwater for thermal cooling. In fact,
and hydropower, if not managed about half of all water withdrawals in
properly, and the use of solar or wind the United States and Western Europe in
pumps for groundwater irrigation, 2009 were for power-plant cooling (eea,
2009; Maupin et al., 2010). Coal-fired plants
as these can accelerate groundwater are of particular concern because their
depletion numbers have been increasing rapidly in
developing countries, with consequent
demands for water. Retrofitting thermal
Shifts toward unconventional water
cooling technologies to be more water-
supply options in water-stressed efficient (6.4) can provide significant
regions will generally increase energy reductions in energy sector water use
demand; this may be challenging (Davies et al., 2013; Byers et al., 2014;
Fricko et al., 2016) and vulnerability of the
to accommodate in low-carbon power sector to water scarcity and climate
energy systems. On the other hand, change (van Vliet et al., 2016). Potential
increased electricity demands measures include minimising on-site losses
(such as from storage tanks and pipes),
from the water sector may present
increasing the amount of water recycled
opportunities for real-time demand- internally, moving towards air-cooling
side power management, which technology, and improving the efficiency
would benefit the integration of of the inherent energy conversion
processes. However, there are trade-offs
variable wind and solar resources, as with alternative cooling technologies,
well as energy efficiency measures including increased water consumption
and investment costs, as well as reduced
operating efficiency (Webster et al., 2013).
KEY INTERACTIONS In general, renewable electricity
Freshwater resources throughout the generation, particularly solar photovoltaic
world are facing increased pressures, with and wind, impacts local/regional water
four billion people living in regions of supplies less than fossil and nuclear
water scarcity (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, plants. Thus, ramping up these forms of
2016). The global energy system currently renewable energy by 2030 (7.2) should
requires a large amount of water (‘water- ease pressures on local water availability
for-energy’); it also releases a large amount (6.1) and contribute to improved water
of pollution (thermal and chemical) quality (6.3) (Davies et al., 2013; Fricko et
(6.3) back into freshwater and marine al., 2016). The effects are less clear-cut
systems (6.6) (Chuang et al., 2009; Stewart for some other types of renewable energy,
et al., 2013). If these water demands and namely bioenergy and hydropower.
151 Depending on water management achieve climate and air pollution targets
practices, freshwater withdrawal and under concurrent water sdgs (Parkinson et
consumption could be significantly al., 2016).
higher, especially for the latter two Nevertheless, increased energy demand
options. For bioenergy from agrofuels, from expansion of unconventional water
the effects depend on the type of crop supply options (6.1, 6.4) can potentially
being grown, how much water it requires support the integration of intermittent
for growth, and where that water comes wind and solar energy resources (7.2).
from (rainwater vs. irrigated water from Operational schedules for water pumps
a river, lake or underground aquifer) and processes are relatively flexible, and
(Gerbens-Leenes and Hoekstra, 2009; these scheduling features could allow
Smith et al., 2014; Hejazi et al., 2015). water sector demand to absorb wind and
For hydropower, the main concern is solar variability in real-time (Strbac, 2008).
evaporation from the surface of the Providing this service in line with demand
contained reservoir, as any water lost to could displace the need to develop costly
the atmosphere is no longer available for dedicated energy-storage technologies,
downstream use (whether for municipal, such as batteries. Likewise, waste-heat
industrial, or agricultural use). Energy from thermal power plants can be used
efficiency (7.3) at the end-use level can also in some desalination processes, thereby
have major implications for water demand: reducing water sector energy requirements
any unit of fossil energy, bioenergy, and, by extension, power plant cooling
or electricity that does not need to be loads. Critical to achieving these efficiency
supplied means a certain quantity of water gains will be (i) the integration of water
that can be saved (6.4) or a given amount and energy systems development planning,
of thermal / chemical pollution that can and (ii) the coupling of water and energy
be avoided (6.3) (Vidic et al., 2013; Miara et markets, which have historically managed
al., 2014; Fricko et al., 2016). their operations separately. Whether
In the reverse direction (‘energy- tapping into these synergies can outweigh
for-water’), reliable access to energy the trade-offs associated with increased
(7.1) is essential for the supply and water-related energy demand remains an
treatment of water. A future shift toward open research question.
unconventional water supply options A few scenario studies utilising
(6.1, 6.4) (e.g. desalination, wastewater integrated modelling frameworks have
recycling, interbasin water transfer) in recently studied the water-energy nexus,
water-stressed regions will generally with an eye toward how a rapid up-scaling
increase energy demand, because the of renewables and energy efficiency could
associated technologies are more energy- impact future water demands. The pbl
intensive than conventional supply Netherlands Environmental Assessment
options (i.e. pumping from local surface Agency (2012), for instance, showed that
and groundwater resources). These total global water demands (6.4) could be
increased demands could be additionally reduced by around 25% by 2050, relative
challenging to accommodate from the to a baseline scenario, if renewable (7.2)
perspective of climate change and air and efficient technologies (7.3) were to be
pollution objectives. Greater energy widely deployed. The number of people
demand will necessitate lower emissions living in severely water-stressed regions
per unit of energy supplied in order to worldwide was estimated to decline from
achieve emission levels anticipated prior to 3.7 to 3.4 billion in this case. Hanasaki et
water sector transformations. This means al. (2013) and Hejazi et al. (2013) arrived at
that different combinations of energy similar conclusions using other integrated
technologies are likely to be required to models.
152 KEY UNCERTAINTIES and drastically reduce thermal pollution in
(1) The magnitude of future water demands surrounding aquatic ecosystems. Bioenergy
for non-energy purposes (i.e. municipal, and hydropower, on the other hand, if not
industrial, agricultural) can be difficult to managed properly could drive up water

predict. (2) Major uncertainties surround demand. (2) Energy efficiency at all parts
the impacts of the future climate on local of the product chain, but especially at the
hydrological conditions, and this affects end-use level, is a win-win strategy: if less
water availability. (3) The quality of local energy needs to be supplied to consumers,
governance on water management issues then water demand can be reduced in
is uncertain, particularly in developing upstream energy conversion processes.
countries that may have a short history (3) Water supply technologies can be
with these institutions. Good governance combined with emerging real-time energy
is itself dependent on local skills and demand management technologies to
capacities. enable increased operational flexibility in
the electricity system.
KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: Water and energy supply Directionality: Bidirectional. Energy
technologies have long lifetimes. Thus, the conversion activities require freshwater
demands of these technologies, once built, for cooling (more or less depending on the
can persist far into the future. Retrofits technology) and can damage local aquatic
and adapted management practices are ecosystems through thermal and/or
possible, but this becomes more difficult chemical pollution (‘water-for-energy’). In
after the technologies have been installed. the reverse direction (‘energy-for-water’),
a future shift toward unconventional
Geography: (1) Water demands are mostly of water supply options (e.g. desalination,
local / regional concern (water basin level). wastewater recycling, interbasin water
Areas already under water-stress, and transfer) in water-stressed regions will
where demand growth is likely to be high, generally increase energy demand, because
include countries in the Middle East, South the associated technologies are more
Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. (2) Exporting energy-intensive than conventional supply
freshwater from distant areas is energy options (i.e. pumping from local surface
intensive and will limit the potential of and groundwater resources).
distant basin transfers. (3) Not coordinating
management of transboundary flows can
lead to conflict between countries.
Governance: (1) Strong local institutions

are crucial for successful water resource
policies and regulatory practices. In
industrialised countries, such institutions
largely exist, but this may not be the
case in many developing countries. (2)
Integrated planning of water and energy
supply is needed to ensure that cross-sector
impacts are not adverse.
Technology: (1) Water demands from

renewable energy depend strongly on the
type of technology employed. Solar and
wind power can cut local water demands
153
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE resource. The estimated rate of
groundwater depletion is alarming: more
RENEWABLE ENERGY than 20 times the estimated recharge is
DEPLOYMENT AND
currently extracted from the region’s most

GROUNDWATER DEPLETION important aquifers each year (Gleeson et
IN SAUDI ARABIA al., 2012). Unless measures are taken to
significantly reduce groundwater use in
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (ksa) ksa, severe shortages are likely to develop
boasts some of the highest quality solar over the coming decades.
energy resources on the planet. As Water conservation at end-use
solar technology costs are anticipated is acknowledged as the best way to
to improve significantly in the coming avoid groundwater shortages (6.4, 6.5);
decades, ksa is planning to exploit its however, such measures can only go so
abundant solar potential in a big way far. Thus, expansion of unconventional
(7.2): more than 40 gw of new installed water resources will probably be needed
solar energy capacity are planned for to support future growth in urban and
development by 2030 (kacare, 2013). The industrial water demand, even if existing
aim is to supply increasing electricity water-intensive agricultural practices are
demands for a rapidly expanding urban eventually outsourced to other counties.
population and industrial sector while Desalination of water extracted from the
simultaneously displacing the current adjacent Red Sea and Persian Gulf has
electricity generation fleet. This consists already emerged as a key technology in
mainly of oil-burning power plants, which ksa’s water supply portfolio. The national
are extremely carbon-intensive and can fleet of desalination plants is the largest in
require considerable amounts of water for the world, and includes an interprovincial
cooling. water conveyance network that transfers
The abundance of renewable energy treated water to major inland urban areas.
is contrasted, however, by extreme Industrial and municipal wastewater
water scarcity (6.1, 6.4). The region can recycling also plays an increasingly
be classified almost entirely as a desert important role in managing increased
environment and receives very little water demand, especially where lower
precipitation annually. Implications quality water can be used in place of water
for water availability are substantial: treated to potable standards.
on average there are less than 50 m³ of Wastewater recycling, desalination,
surface water available on a per capita and long-distance water transport all
basis each year (fao, 2008). For perspective, require more energy than conventional
the historical per capita demand for surface and groundwater supply systems
freshwater across all sectors is more than for providing the same amount of
900 m³ annually (fao, 2008). To make up freshwater to end-users. Thus, widespread
this massive shortfall, ksa relies heavily use of these technologies to mitigate
on alternative water resources, of which groundwater depletion is likely to
pumping water from underground aquifers increase energy demand, which could
is most prevalent (fao, 2008). Extracted in turn lead to higher levels of ghg
groundwater in ksa can be classified as emissions if the additional water supply
‘fossil’ groundwater, due to the very slow requirements are met by the existing
recharge rates that accompany negligible fossil fuel-intensive national energy mix.
annual precipitation. The non-renewable Recent analysis suggests that a transition
nature of fossil groundwater means away from non-renewable groundwater
that current extraction rates are rapidly use by 2050 could increase electricity
depleting the available groundwater demands by more than 40% relative
154 to 2010 conditions, and would require
investment of a similar magnitude to a
transition away from fossil fuel electricity
generation in support of the country’s

renewable energy goals (Parkinson et
al., 2016). Thus, a key challenge facing
ksa over the coming decades will be
identifying a healthy balance of trade-offs
across its objectives for water supply and
sustainable energy. Alternatively, ksa will
need a suitable financing scheme for the
massive infrastructure investment costs
that accompany fulfilment of multiple
sustainable development objectives
concurrently.
Potential synergies between ksa’s water
and energy sustainability objectives can be
expected in future scenarios that include
a rapid up-scaling of solar photovoltaic
(pv) and wind energy (7.2). Transitioning
to a national power system based largely
on these generation technologies will
avoid thermal water pollution released
from existing fossil-fuelled power plants,
which typically use seawater for cooling.
Moreover, increased energy demand from
expansion of unconventional water supply
technologies can potentially support ksa in
the large-scale integration of intermittent
wind- and solar-energy resources. Real-
time demand-side power management
technologies will provide electricity system
operators with increased flexibility to
accommodate variable generation sources,
and many of the processes in ksa’s existing
and future water supply systems are ideal
candidates for this type of technology
application (Al-Nory and El-Beltagy, 2014).
SDG 7 + SDG 8
7.1 8.3, 8.5, 8.6 Having access to modern energy

services allows individuals in
poorer communities, particularly
+1 [8.5/8.6] Undertake assessments to determine
the areas where lack of energy access limits
educational attainment, employment acquisition,
women and children, to spend and economic growth. Where this is the case,
more time at work and school, design policies to remove these obstacles, such
thus enabling employment and as by providing the necessary energy access,
education opportunities promoting greater equality in per capita income,
and supporting small businesses
[8.5/8.6] Design energy access policies in such a

way that they are equitable and inclusive, thereby
increasing employment for all without regard to
gender, age or ability
0/-1
7.2, 7.3 8.1, 8.4 Decarbonising energy systems Changes in tax codes could help to ensure that
through an up-scaling of renew- household consumption and economic growth
ables and energy efficiency is minimally affected by policies attempting to
could constrain countries’ decouple environmental degradation (e.g. GHG
economic growth, if only slightly. emissions production) from these growth metrics.
However, strong growth decou- For instance, income taxes could be reduced if
pled from environmental the same revenue streams can be sourced from
degradation is possible carbon taxation
7.2, 7.3 8.2, 8.3,

8.5, 8.6, 8.10
Design, manufacture, and installa-
tion of renewables and energy
efficient technologies can create
+1 [8.2/8.3/8.10] Policies promoting the deployment
of renewable energy and energy-efficient
technologies can help spur innovation, economic
conditions for new and higher- diversification, and new and higher-paying jobs.
paying jobs; although some Governments can assist businesses that need
businesses will need to re-tool, to re-tool and workers that need to re-train.
and some workers will need to Support of small- and medium-sized enterprises,
re-train. Strengthened financial particularly new business ventures, is critical
institutions in developing country
communities are necessary for [8.2/8.3/8.10] Stable legislation that fosters
providing capital, credit, and strengthened financial institutions at the
insurance to local entrepreneurs community level, especially in developing
attempting to enact change countries, is also key, as these institutions provide
the means for local entrepreneurs to access
capital, credit, and insurance. Capacity-building
would assist these local financial institutions
in undertaking assessments of climate change
impacts and high-impact actions in order not only
to assess financial and other risks but also to
mobilise funding for projects to address climate
change
0/-1
7.2, 7.3 8.5 Phase-out of fossil fuels especially
coal and tar sands may represent
a permanent loss of jobs in mining
regions. What these jobs are
replaced by will determine the net
impact.
The energy sector is a major contributor to
sdg 7 and sdg 8 are closely inter-
the economy for many countries. Energy
linked through employment also accounts for a significant amount

and education (particularly among of consumer (household and business)
the poor), innovation and jobs, expenditure: more in some countries than
others and more in some parts of society
and environmentally sustainable than others (namely the urban and rural
economic growth poor in developing countries). Hence,
transformative change in the ways that
societies produce and consume energy
Achieving universal energy access
over the period to 2030 will touch upon
will create opportunities for every financial and monetary aspect of
many employment and educational daily life. In this sense, sdg 7 and sdg 8 are
opportunities in the world’s poorest closely interlinked, with the interactions
falling into three main groups: full and
communities productive employment, and number of
youth in employment, education, and
Deploying renewables and energy- training (8.5, 8.6); high levels of economic
efficient technologies / consumption productivity, innovation, and job creation
(8.2, 8.3, 8.10); and sustained economic
patterns can spur innovation
growth globally, but especially in ldcs,
and have an impact on local, region- while at the same time decoupling growth
al and national employment; from environmental degradation (8.1, 8.4).
Provision of universal access to
indications are that the net impacts
affordable, reliable, and modern energy
could be slightly positive services can enable the achievement of
targets 8.5 and 8.6. Some of the poorest
individuals in society (primarily in
Carefully designed policies can
parts of South Asia, Southeast Asia, and
help decouple economic growth Sub-Saharan Africa) are forced to spend
from environmental degradation in a significant amount of time acquiring
the coming decades; reductions in fuel for cooking and keeping the lights
on. Modern fuels and technologies
annualised gdp/consumption growth (such as delivered gas powering a clean
rates are expected to be small cooking-stove), whether made available
in a centralised or distributed way, can
alleviate these burdens, which often fall
Energy-related curricula can improve
disproportionately to women and children.
science literacy in populations, Impacts can be substantial as time is
especially for the poorest, giving freed up, which may be used to pursue
access to better, more skilled jobs employment, educational, and leisure
and wellness opportunities (Anenberg
et al., 2012; Pachauri et al., 2012; Raji et
al., 2015). Access to modern energy means
children can attend school without having
to make a sacrifice for the household
(as their labour is often needed on the
family farm, etc.), and electric lighting
makes it easier to complete homework at
157 home outside daylight hours. Information the local labour force and the capacity of
and communication technologies (e.g. individuals to be re-trained, as this has an
computers and internet servers) can be impact on real wages (Babiker and Eckaus,
used to enhance the learning process. 2007; Fankhauser et al., 2008; Guivarch et

Street lighting via electrification can al., 2011); and (iv) the influence of subsidies
enhance safety, allowing women to attend and tax revenue re-distribution (such as
adult-education classes after dark where from carbon pricing in an effort to reduce
they might otherwise feel it is unsafe to labour taxes) on the fuel and technology
do so. In all cases, local economies would choices of businesses and individuals,
benefit over the short and long term, especially for labour- vs. energy-intensive
as resident knowledge and capacity can goods and services (Clarke et al., 2014). In
be built up and institutionalised within today’s solar power industry, for instance,
communities. solar panels are largely produced in
Ramping up renewables and boosting developing countries (e.g. China) but
energy efficiency efforts (with new are widely purchased and installed by
technologies or via structural changes) households and businesses in wealthier
can directly benefit certain segments of nations (e.g. Japan, North America,
local, regional, and national economies. Western Europe, Australia/New Zealand).
Solar and wind power, in particular, can It still takes local expertise to install such
be key to boosting economic growth in devices, however; and that can provide
developing regions where the resource much local benefit. The same may be the
potentials are high (e.g. Northern case for energy-efficiency measures, such
Africa). At the same time, strengthened as building retrofits or operating public
financial institutions in developing transit, even if the materials and vehicles
country communities are necessary for are manufactured elsewhere (Aether,
providing capital, credit, and insurance to 2016). With these context dependencies
local entrepreneurs attempting to enact in mind, an analysis and review of the
change. Innovative technologies like literature by Blyth et al. (2014) showed
solar and wind power, biofuels, and other a small increase in net employment as
renewable energy technologies have the renewable energy and energy efficiency
potential to raise wages and create new are ramped up over time, primarily
jobs, either directly or indirectly, in the because these are generally more labour-
countries where they are installed and/ intensive (in terms of electricity produced)
or manufactured (Gohin, 2008; Creutzig than the fossil electricity systems they
et al., 2013; irena, 2016). Yet, if fossil fuel replace. However, any stranding of fossil
sectors contract as a result, then some assets during the transition process could
businesses will need to re-tool and some hamper the competitiveness of energy
workers will need re-training. Thus, it is providers, at least for a time (Bertram
important to consider the net employment et al., 2015; Johnson et al., 2015). At the
impacts of an expansion in renewable macro-level, global context, it is not
energy and energy-efficient technologies/ clear whether scaling up renewables and
consumption patterns. Complicating energy efficiency (or more generally,
factors include (i) the cost of the jobs strengthening environmental regulations)
created and how this may displace other will adversely affect a given country’s
jobs in capital-constrained environments international competitiveness: although
(Frondel et al., 2010); (ii) the share of the empirical evidence of past and existing
technologies that are designed, engineered, regulations suggests competitiveness
or manufactured within a country versus impacts may be fairly small, at least
imported from abroad, because this affects compared to other factors such as
the trade balance; (iii) the existing skills in prevailing market conditions or the quality
158 of the local workforce (Dechezleprêtre and KEY UNCERTAINTIES
Sato, 2014). The distributional effects of the energy
Long-term scenario studies using system transformation, both within and
forward-looking energy-economic across countries are unknown. These

modelling tools indicate that economies are important for understanding which
can continue to grow while simultaneously populations benefit more or less, in terms
decarbonising their energy systems of employment opportunities and income.
through an up-scaling of renewables and
energy efficiency (Clarke et al., 2014). KEY DIMENSIONS
Essentially all of these analyses have Time: (1) In ldcs, well-targeted policies and
focused their attention either at the measures may take time to implement,
global level or on individual countries but once established the effects are long-
that are either already industrialised or lasting. (2) For employment, the impacts of
are rapidly developing; none have done an energy system transformation may be
the same for ldcs, for which target 8.1 more pronounced in the short term, before
aims to achieve an annual growth of at macro-economic adjustments (geographical
least 7% of gdp. The global studies are and sectoral reallocations) have time to
nevertheless useful for providing context, once again reach a stable equilibrium.
as they take into account all countries
simultaneously, and consider trade Geography: (1) Individuals in poor urban
and spill-over effects between them. As and rural areas of ldcs will derive the
stated in its Fifth Assessment Report, most benefit from energy access provision,
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate in terms of increased educational and
Change concluded (Clarke et al., 2014) employment opportunities. (2) The
that in the most stringent climate change employment impacts from deploying
mitigation pathways, where the expansion renewables and energy-efficiency measures
of renewables and efficiency measures is are most likely to be felt in those countries
largely consistent with the sdg 7 targets, that have the capacity to design, engineer,
global consumption losses amount to and manufacture them (i.e. more advanced
1–4% in 2030 (median: 1.7%) and 2–6% in economies). (3) Potentials of renewables
2050 (median: 3.4%), relative to scenarios vary throughout the regions of the
without substantial action to decarbonise world, and these differences will affect
the economy. Such losses correspond to employment options.
an annual average reduction in household
consumption growth of 0.06–0.20%-points Governance: (1) Governments (at local,
between now and 2030 (median: 0.09) and regional, and national levels) can create
0.06–0.17%-points through 2050 (median: incentives for innovative businesses to
0.09). In other words, annual reductions establish operations in their respective
in growth are miniscule compared to the jurisdictions. (2) Governments may need to
7% per year growth target for ldcs, or the support businesses and workers during the
lower growth rates characteristic of more energy transition. Policies that facilitate
developed economies (e.g. 1–5% per year). labour mobility (e.g. flexible labour
markets, reasonably priced housing, and
targeted re-training) can help minimise
negative effects for those workers who
are displaced. The removal of fossil fuel
subsidies can allow renewables to compete
in the market more fairly.
159 Technology: Different renewable and have since followed, each preserving the
energy-efficient technologies/consumption aim of promoting renewable electricity
patterns will have different local impacts generation, even if the fit approach is
on jobs and the economy. An important currently being phased out.

consideration is what shares of a given These key pieces of energy legislation
technology are designed, engineered, or have led to considerable job creation in
manufactured within a country/region Germany (8.2, 8.3, 8.5, 8.6). The gross
versus imported from abroad. This depends employment effects within the renewable
entirely on the decisions of countless energy sector have been estimated at
business leaders and is effectively 160,500 new jobs (2004), 277,300 (2007),
impossible to predict from the outset. 399,800 (2012), and 371,400 (2013) (Lehr et
al., 2015) – for reference, Germany’s total
Directionality: Bidirectional. The up-scaling workforce over this period was around
of renewables and energy-efficient 40 million. Wind power and bioenergy
technologies/consumption patterns can have been the biggest contributors to job
spur innovation and influence local, growth, with hydropower and geothermal
regional, and national employment. At energy playing relatively small roles. In
the same time, the countries and cities all cases, the number of jobs has grown
likely to attract these industries will need fairly consistently over time. Solar power
to have strong economies and pre-existing is a notable exception: employment in this
skills and capacity within the labour force; sector rose quickly until 2011/2012 but has
a strengthening of financial institutions since declined.
in lesser developed countries can aid such The rise and fall of Germany’s solar
efforts. power industry is well known, often held
up as an example of how an industry
can fail before reaching self-sufficiency.
However, this telling of the story
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE masks important details underlying the
RENEWABLE ENERGY macro-level dynamics (Pahle et al., 2016).
DEPLOYMENT AND JOB The explanations typically given are that
solar companies were too optimistic about
CREATION IN GERMANY future demand, leading to an overcapacity
Germany is one of the most advanced in production, and that strong competition
countries in the world in terms of from low-cost producers in other parts
renewable energy. Over the past few of the world, notably China, made it
decades, it has seen some of the greatest difficult for German firms to compete
deployment of wind, solar, bioenergy, and (bmwi, 2012; Lehr et al., 2015). Yet, what is
other forms of renewables of any major often forgotten is that other sub-sectors of
economy (7.2), and is a major producer of Germany’s solar industry have performed
renewable energy technologies (8.2, 8.3). well over the past decade. German pv
The so-called ‘Energiewende’, has also had equipment producers, for instance,
a marked impact on employment within achieved a 50% share of the world market
Germany – in most ways positive. as recently as 2015 (vdma, 2015).
Germany was the first country to The German wind energy industry,
enact a green electricity feed-in tariff which has had sustained success in recent
(fit) scheme when it did so in 1991 with years, provides a counterexample to the
the Electricity Feed-in Act. This was later broader solar industry dynamics. Why is
followed by the Renewable Energy Sources this sector different? As Claudy et al. (2010)
Act in 2000; several incarnations of this Act noted, German companies responsible for
(‘Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz’ in German) manufacturing wind turbines and related
160 equipment (e.g. Siemens and enercon)
have long been established worldwide;
they also have strong comparative
advantages vis-à-vis their global rivals.

This was generally not the case for
Germany’s solar industry as a whole. The
critical question is whether Germany’s
comparative advantages can be sustained
over the long term and this depends on the
skills of the work force and the ability of
domestic firms to innovate technologically.
Estimates of the net employment effects of
renewable energy deployment in Germany
provide a less clear-cut picture than for
gross employment. Different assessments
yield different answers: overall job creation
(net of jobs lost in other sectors outside of
renewable energy) may have been either
positive or negative over the past decade
(Blazejczak et al., 2013; Lutz et al., 2014).
Job creation has been described as a
‘welcome side effect’ of Germany’s
major policies to support renewable
energy deployment (Pahle et al., 2016).
Employment was never the express intent
of those policies; the main objective has
always been environmental concerns (such
as reducing emissions causing climate
change) and this continues to be the case.
Nevertheless, employment aspects are
thought to have played a role in creating
political support for the ‘Energiewende’,
especially with organised labour (e.g.
trade groups) (Joas et al., 2016). Federal
and state policies that attempt to nurture
domestic job growth and industrial
development are now emerging, either
explicitly or implicitly, including financial
tax incentives, favourable customs
duties, export credit assistance, quality
certification, and special loan structures
(Lewis and Wiser, 2007; Kuntze and
Moerenhout, 2012; Pahle et al., 2016).
161
0
7.1 SDG 13* The universal energy access
target is fully consistent with
the goal of combatting climate
change, as it is likely to have
only a minor effect on global
carbon emissions
7.2, 7.3 SDG 13* Decarbonising energy systems

through an up-scaling of
renewables and energy
+2 To achieve the temperature targets outlined
in the Paris Agreement, all countries will
need to decarbonise their energy systems
efficiency is a necessary but through an up-scaling of renewables and
not sufficient condition for energy efficiency. The pledged Nationally
combatting climate change, Determined Contributions (NDCs) provide
since less fossil energy means a good start, but these will need to be
lower GHG emissions strengthened considerably over time
7.2, 7.3
13.3, 13.a
13.2, To aid the rapid deployment
of renewables and energy-
efficiency measures, countries
+2 [13.2] Sponsor careful assessments of high-
impact areas for climate action and identify
where the use of renewable energy and
will benefit from integrating energy efficiency can make the most cost-
climate change measures effective interventions. Policies should then
such as carbon pricing into be designed to promote the incorporation
national planning, improving of this knowledge into national and
relevant education and regional strategies and planning. Energy
awareness, and mobilising and climate policies must be interlinked
funds for mitigation and must consider the entire lifecycle of
energy services in order to avoid policy
inconsistencies between reaching NDCs
[13.3] Provide funding for education, training

and public-awareness programmes to help
in informing local communities, in both
industrialised and developing countries,
about the importance of climate change
mitigation and the positive contributions
that renewable energy and energy effi-
ciency efforts can make. This should be
done within the broader context of national
development strategies, considering all
other SDGs
*The 2030 Agenda text on SDG13
does not specifically mention a [13.a] Developing countries should design
long-term temperature goal, but it their climate action programmes such that
does refer to the United Nations they attract and use available international
Framework Convention on Climate funding sources (e.g. from the Green
Change (UNFCCC) process, and Climate Funds). By strengthening their
the stated objective of the 2015 institutions and capacities to ensure their
Paris Agreement is “well below domestic programmes are financially viable
2°C above pre-industrial levels and transparent, these countries should be
and to pursue efforts to limit the able to increase the likelihood of obtaining
temperature increase to 1.5°C”. funding support
sdg 7 has a direct interaction with sdg 13,
Replacing a fossil-dominated energy
since today’s fossil-dominated energy
system by a cleaner, more efficient system is the main contributor to global

system would contribute to major ghg emissions. While the sdg 13 targets do
reductions in ghg emissions globally not mention specific goals for stabilising
global climate, they do acknowledge that
the United Nations Framework Convention
A dramatic, essentially immediate on Climate Change (unfccc) is the primary
up-scaling of renewables and energy international, intergovernmental forum
for negotiating the global response to
efficiency is necessary to limit global
climate change. That forum has of course
climate change to 2°C, or well below, already taken action, with the result
over the long term, the stated goal of being the Paris Agreement of December
2015 (unfccc, 2015), which endeavours
the Paris Agreement. If achieved by
to hold “the increase in the global
all countries, the sdg 7 targets could average temperature to well below 2°c
put the world on track to meeting above pre-industrial levels and to pursue
this challenge efforts to limit the temperature increase
to 1.5°c above pre-industrial levels,
recognising that this would significantly
Pursuing the sdg 13 targets for better reduce the risks and impacts of climate
integrating climate change measures change” (Art. 2). Informing that debate
were many scientific studies considered
into national planning, improving
by the Intergovernmental Panel on
education, awareness, and capacity Climate Change in its latest assessment
on climate issues, and mobilising (Clarke et al., 2014). The ipcc concluded
that a dramatic, essentially immediate
funds for mitigation will help ensure
up-scaling of renewables and energy
that the sdg 7 targets for renewables efficiency is necessary to limit global
and energy efficiency are achieved climate change to below 2°c over the long
term. To achieve this, the vast majority
of the world’s countries have pledged
Achieving universal access to
Nationally Determined Contributions
modern energy services by 2030 will (ndcs) – individualised plans for how each
not exacerbate climate change nation intends to reduce its emissions
over the next few years. Renewables (7.2)
and energy efficiency (7.3) are essential
elements in nearly all cases. Hence, from
this standpoint target 13.2 is already on
its way to being achieved; and this will
help underpin the sdg 7 targets. Similarly,
targets 13.3 and 13.a are also critical for
enabling the successful, rapid deployment
of renewable and energy-efficient
technologies and consumption patterns,
especially in developing countries where
financial capital may be in short supply,
institutions weaker, and information about
climate solutions scarcer.
163 Of particular importance to the poor KEY UNCERTAINTIES
in developing countries (in South Asia, (1) The speed with which countries are
Southeast Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa), willing to decarbonise their energy systems
the scientific literature indicates that through a rapid up-scaling of renewables

ensuring universal access to modern and energy-efficient technologies/
energy services by 2030 (7.1) is fully consumption patterns is unknown, as
consistent with the sdg 13 and Paris is the ambition of such actions post-
Agreement climate goals. In other words, 2030. It is the latter that will ensure that
energy access provision will not exacerbate long-term climate goals are met. (2) Also
climate change, as it is likely to have only unknown are the exact quantifications
a minor effect on global carbon emissions, for what a proper, decent level of energy
even if the modern fuels being supplied are access actually entails, in terms of the
still fossil fuels (e.g. natural gas, kerosene, full range of services required to escape
lpg) (pbl Netherlands Environmental the poverty trap. These threshold levels,
Assessment Agency, 2012; Riahi et in combination with fuel and technology
al., 2012; Rogelj et al, 2013). Although this choices, will determine the carbon
may seem counter-intuitive, it should emissions of the world’s poorest.
be remembered that, for instance,
advanced (fossil) cooking-stoves are many KEY DIMENSIONS
times more efficient than the outdated Time: While transforming the global
(renewable) biomass cooking-stoves energy system will be a decades-long
they replace. Decentralised renewable process, near-term and immediate actions
systems (e.g. solar panels, small-scale promoting renewables and boosting
wind, micro-hydro) offer additional low- energy efficiency are critical, given tight
carbon possibilities (Kaundinya et al., 2009; cumulative budgets for ghg emissions
Reddy et al., 2009). In discussing energy for staying well below the 2°c threshold.
access for the world’s poorest (7.1), it is A unit of carbon released into the
important to distinguish this target from atmosphere by the energy system between
the broader goal of sustained economic now and 2030 will still be there next
growth (sdg 8). Unless economic growth century and beyond.
is decoupled from carbon emissions,
which the scientific literature shows is Geography: Actions to promote renewables
feasible, then emissions are likely to rise and boost energy efficiency in one part of
considerably as the wealth and livelihoods the world are just as important as in any
of developing country households improve. other, since climate change is a global
The concern is that the world’s rural and problem. But some countries have bigger
urban poor – those living on less than us$ energy systems than others, some have
1.25 per day – could fail to join this wave of more carbon-intensive energy systems,
welfare improvement. And for this reason, and some rely more on transportation of
dedicated energy access policies are critical goods for their gdp; while some counties
for ensuring that, at the very least, their have two or all three of these conditions.
basic needs for energy services are met. Such countries can have a larger impact on
mitigating climate change through their
national actions (e.g. China, India, usa,
Europe, Brazil, Russia, Australia, Canada).
Governance: (1) Renewables and energy

efficiency can be fostered and incentivised
by a range of policy approaches, including
market- and policy-based measures. Many
164 measures have already been tested at local, integrating climate change measures into
regional, and national level. Experience national planning; improving education,
gained in one jurisdiction can help to awareness, and capacity on climate issues;
inform policy in another. Moreover, energy and mobilising funds for mitigation
and climate policy must be accorded to will go a long way in ensuring that the
phase out fossil fuels. Fossil fuel producing sdg 7 targets for renewables and energy
states must acknowledge their climate efficiency are achieved.
responsibility over the full lifecycle of their
resources and act accordingly. (2) With
regard to energy access provision, well-
designed policies are needed to influence
consumer preferences and ensure that
households make fuel- and technology-
purchasing decisions that are optimal both
for them and for society as a whole.
Technology: (1) Advancements in technology

are critical for decarbonising the global
energy system, namely in the adoption
of renewables on the supply side (solar,
wind, hydro, geothermal electricity
generation; biofuels). Carbon capture and
storage technologies must be deployed on
fossil fuel plants as well as on biomass-
to-energy plants in order to provide
opportunity for negative emissions
capacity worldwide. The demand side is
more complex: designing more energy-
efficient devices is necessary, but just
as importantly technology adoption
depends heavily on human behaviour and
consumer preferences. However, it is the
sector where some of the most important
abatement on emissions can be achieved.
(2) Similarly, for the provision of energy
access, poverty largely determines the
willingness and likelihood of low-income
households to adopt modern fuels,
cooking-stoves, and lighting technologies.
Directionality: Bidirectional. A dramatic,

essentially immediate up-scaling of
renewables and energy efficiency is
necessary to limit global climate change
to well below 2°C over the long term, the
stated goal of the Paris Agreement. The
sdg 7 targets, if achieved by all countries,
could put the world on track to meeting
this challenge. In the reverse direction,
pursuing the sdg 13 targets for better
SCORE
-3
0
+3
+
+2
7.1 1.4
/
0
-1
7.2, 7.3 1.4
+2
7.2, 7.3 1.5
SDG 1
+
/
0
-1
7.2 2.1
7.2 2.3
+2 +2
7.2, 7.3 2.3, 2.4
KEY INTERACTIONS
SDG 2
7.1 3.8
+1
+2
7.1, 7.2, 7.3 3.9
+1
7.3 3.4
/
0
-1
7.3 3.6
SDG 3
166
+ SDG 6 + SDG 8 + SDG 13
13.2, 13.3, 13.a

SCORE
6.1, 6.4, 6.5
+3
8.2, 8.3, 8.5, 8.6, 8.10
6.3, 6.6
SDG 13*
7.2, 7.3
7.2, 7.3
7.2, 7.3
7.2, 7.3
6.1, 6.4
8.3, 8.5, 8.6
+2 +2 +2 +2
7.2, 7.3
7.2, 7.3
SDG 13 *
7.1
+1 +1 +1
0
7.1
0
0 0
-1 / /
-1 -1
8.5
6.1, 6.4
8.1, 8.4
*The 2030 Agenda text

on SDG13 does not
specifically mention a
7.2, 7.3
long-term temperature
7.2
goal, but it does refer

7.2, 7.3
to the United Nations

Framework Convention
-3
on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) process,
and the stated
objective of the 2015
Paris Agreement is
“well below 2°C above
pre-industrial levels
and to pursue efforts
to limit the tempera-
ture increase to 1.5°C”.
167
A GUIDE TO SDG INTERACTIONS: FROM SCIENCE TO IMPLEMENTATION
KNOWLEDGE GAPS
The state of science is not yet robust 7 + 1

enough to score some target-level Researchers and analysts still have some
interactions or identify their particular work to do in determining what a proper,
dependencies (i.e. with respect to time, decent level of energy access actually entails,
geography, governance, technology, in terms of the full range of services required
and direction). As the science advances to escape the poverty trap.
and the evidence base grows, a more
comprehensive assessment should be 7 + 2
possible. This also implies, by extension, The indirect land-use change impacts of large-
that the target-level interaction scores scale bioenergy utilisation, and the result-
reported here could change in the future ant impacts on food prices, access to food,
as the evidence base advances. and farm incomes. Research should include
To provide decision-makers with a empirical studies (for past and existing poli-
more holistic view of the complex web cy) and national- and global-scale integrated
of interactions affected by sdg 7, this modelling frameworks (for future policy).
section identifies a number of knowledge
gaps where scientists should focus their 7 + 3
analytical attention in the coming years. The distributional impacts of air quality co-
This list is not intended to be exhaustive benefits of renewables and energy efficiency
as it draws only from the target-level (for different socio-economic groups in
interactions considered in the previous different parts of cities/regions).
section. Moreover, transcending these
sdg-specific knowledge gaps are the more The impacts of ‘active travel’ (walking and
general uncertainties related to a number cycling) on health and well-being. Research
of transformational driving forces that should focus on observational/empirical
are already shaping the future, such as studies.
‘big data’, the Internet of Things, and 3D
printing, among others. Real questions 7 + 6
remain regarding the knowledge gaps that The magnitude of future water demands for
will arise from such innovations. non-energy purposes: municipal, industrial,
Filling the gaps in knowledge agricultural. It is especially difficult to
summarised here will require collaborative predict the future water consumption
work between scientists across multiple ‘needs’ of developing country households.
disciplines, especially in the social sciences
(sociology, anthropology, demography, The impacts of the future climate on local
human geography, education, political hydrological conditions, as this affects
science, law, communication studies, water availability.
economics), natural sciences (climate
sciences, agricultural sciences, hydrology, The potential benefits of real-time demand-
atmospheric chemistry, health sciences), side power management of water process
engineering, and integrated systems equipment for integrating intermittent solar
modelling. and wind resources into the energy grid.
168 7 + 8
The net employment and competitiveness
impacts of the energy system transforma-
tion on local, regional and national econo-

mies, particularly over the near term.
The distributional effects of the energy
system transformation, within and
across countries. This is important for
understanding who benefits more and
who benefits less, for instance in terms of
employment opportunities and incomes.
What empirical case studies of past and
existing energy policy interventions
show about the net impacts on local,
regional and national employment and
competitiveness
The lack a welfare metric that goes beyond

the strictly economic formulation of gdp.
How energy related curricula can help

science literacy and promote better
employment and competitiveness?
How to minimise adverse side-effects

on those that may lose from the energy
system transformation (principally
businesses and workers in fossil energy
extraction and conversion).
The role of social innovation in decoupling

of energy consumption from economic
growth.
7 + 13
The role of human behaviour in the adop-
tion of energy-efficient, low-carbon tech-
nologies/consumption patterns and how
policies can influence consumer preferenc-
es toward choices that are beneficial for
both individuals and wider society.
How best to increase awareness and

capacity about solutions to climate change.
The potential for the democratisation of
the low-carbon energy system, including
greater decentralisation, such as energy
cooperatives and other community-based
energy initiatives, bioenergy villages and
renewable energy municipalities.
169
CONCLUDING
COMMENTS
With so many interactions between the

various sdg targets, it is clear that
government-led actions and policies will
be important for ensuring that the positive
outcomes are achieved as frequently
as possible and negative outcomes are
minimised or avoided. More than ever, this
requires policy frameworks that take an
integrated, holistic perspective. Pro-active
engagement and enhanced coordination
across government departments and
ministries, as well as across different levels
of government (from international to
national to local) will be required for this
to happen effectively. Otherwise, the ‘silo
approach’ to policymaking could persist
indefinitely. This would not serve the
achievement of the sdgs well.
The six summary tables in the target-
level interactions section provide options
for how policy could address the specific
target interactions in practice, in such a
way that the targets of the various sdgs are
pursued in concert, with potential conflicts
avoided or minimised as far as possible.
Although addressed to specific target
interactions, many of these policy options
are also relevant for other interactions.
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SDG14 CONSERVE
174
AND SUSTAINABLY
GOAL #14 LIFE BELOW WATER
USE THE OCEANS,

SEAS AND MARINE
RESOURCES FOR
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Stefanie Schmidt
Barbara Neumann
Yvonne Waweru
Carole Durussel
Sebastian Unger
Martin Visbeck
177
INTRODUCTION
sdg 14 focuses on human interactions with cutting role in the 2030 Agenda, and sdg 14
the ocean, seas and marine resources. interacts with all 16 other sdgs. The nature
It is underpinned by targets addressing and intensity of these interactions is highly
conservation and sustainable use of the context-specific and differs across the sdgs
ocean, seas and marine resources including and their associated targets.
coastal zones, and targets referring to The text that follows provides an
capacity building and ocean governance. overview of interactions at the goal level
Oceans cover more than 70% of the planet’s between sdg14 – the ‘entry level goal’ for
surface and play a crucial role in planetary this assessment – and the other 16 sdgs.
resilience and the provision of vital Taking into account all the underlying
ecosystem services. The status of the ocean targets of this entry goal, a set of key
and several of its resources and functions interactions is identified between the
have been deteriorating over the past sdg14 targets and those of other sdgs,
century. Oceans, seas and coastal zones are principally interactions within the range
subject to pollution, overexploitation and of the highest magnitude or strongest
climate change impacts such as warming, impacts based on available scientific
coastal erosion, sea-level rise, ocean literature and expert knowledge. The
acidification and deoxygenation. Several typology and seven-point scale for
coastal regimes are under noticeable characterising the range of positive and
stress, compromising the services they negative interactions described in the
provide. sdg 14 and its seven targets and opening chapter to this report is used to
three means of implementation are aimed assess the selected target-level interactions
at an urgent need to transform human and the context in which they typically
behaviour toward sustainable practices occur. Illustrative examples from different
when exploiting marine resources, and world regions show how these linkages
to taking action to preserve productive manifest themselves in practice. Policy
and resilient oceans and seas. The seven options are identified for how to maximise
targets largely reflect commitments under positive interactions and minimise
other international frameworks such as negative interactions between now and
the commitment to maintain or restore 2030, and beyond. The chapter concludes
fish stocks to levels that can produce with a list of key knowledge gaps related
maximum sustainable yields (made in to the interactions studied.
2002 under the Johannesburg Plan) or the
commitment to conserve at least 10% of
marine and coastal areas (provided under
the cbd Aichi Target 11). However, the 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development puts
use and conservation of the ocean and its
resources, including coastal areas, into the
wider sustainable development context for
the first time. The ocean space in general
and sdg 14 in particular have a cross-
178
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
GOAL LEVEL
14 + 1 often subject to wasteful fishing practices.

sdg14 is a critical enabler of poverty Reducing fishing effort on wild stocks
alleviation, and environmentally to sustainable levels will improve fish
sustainable economic growth and social stocks and provide a reliable food source
well-being (‘blue growth’), particularly in the long-term. Technology transfer and
in Small Island Developing States (sids) research capacity building in aquaculture
and Least Developed Countries (ldcs). and selective fishing can help enhance
Sustained incomes and economic benefits productive capacity and income generation
from fisheries, aquaculture and tourism for small-scale food producers. Creating
sectors depend heavily on the health mpas can provide fishery benefits and
of oceans and coasts. Strengthening remove pressure from key fishing areas
the resilience of oceans and coasts, for such as spawning grounds and nurseries,
example through conservation and and can enable fish stocks in adjacent
protection of coastal wetlands, will help areas to rebound. A potential negative
reduce shock exposure and enhance the side-effect of mpas however could be
resilience of poor coastal populations to that access to fishery resources and areas
extreme climate-related events. However, for aquaculture is limited. Increasing
blue growth policy interventions aimed at agriculture productivity and production for
achieving rapid economic growth to lift enhanced food security might also impair
people out of poverty might impair ocean ocean health through increased pollution
health and promote overexploitation of and nutrient run-off.
marine resources. Also, creating marine
protected areas (mpas) can constrain 14 + 3
access to resources and ecosystem services Many people live in coastal areas and
necessary for poverty alleviation. Similarly, depend on the food resources that the
prohibiting certain subsidies could limit oceans and seas provide. Contamination
options for developing fisheries sectors. of coastal zones or seafood with pollutants
can cause health problems. Reducing and
14 + 2 preventing marine pollution will thus
Seafood, whether farmed or caught in the help reduce pollution related deaths and
wild, is globally important as a source illnesses. In addition, healthy seas and
of protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, coasts can contribute to the overall health
calcium, zinc, and iron for one billion and well-being of coastal communities
people. Sustainable fisheries and aqua- and tourists. The ocean is a biodiversity
culture backed by healthy oceans and hotspot, home to a wide range of animals,
coasts are a necessary prerequisite to plants (algae) and bacteria that are
achieve food security and improved nutri- potentially relevant for the research and
tion, and to establish sustainable food development of vaccines and medicines.
production systems in islands and coastal However, exploring marine biodiversity
regions, particularly in sids and ldcs. for genetic and biochemical resources
However, most stocks are already fished (‘bioprospecting’) as part of marine
at or beyond sustainable limits and are pharmacology may have negative effects
179 on ocean sustainability in cases where this ment opportunities for women. Gender
causes disturbance or pollution, or triggers mainstreaming of policies and measures
overexploitation. on access to marine resources, seafood
markets or maritime sectors can contrib-

14 + 4 ute to ensure equal rights to natural and
Knowledge and capacity building, and economic resources. Likewise, promoting
training and awareness programmes on knowledge, capacity building and technol-
ocean and sea services will positively affect ogy transfer can contribute to the empow-
conservation and sustainable use of the erment of women where attention is paid
oceans, seas and marine resources. This to related gender issues.
will support the achievement of targets
under sdg14, especially those addressing 14 + 6
marine pollution, ocean acidification, and Oceans and seas are major sources of water
resource use including fisheries, as well as in the hydrological cycle and therefore
ocean governance. Thus, introducing ocean require sustainable management through
literacy into the curricula of education integrated water management that
programmes early and through all levels addresses the multiplicity and diversity of
of education is important to ensure global water actors. Ocean sustainability directly
understanding of ocean issues. Likewise, links to sustainable water management.
trained and skilled people are required Preventing marine pollution contributes
to support and contribute to sustainable to improving water quality and vice versa.
ocean development in all sectors, Conservation of marine and coastal areas
including the education sector, and across can support integrated water resource
policymaking, society, economy (e.g. in the management and contribute to protecting
context of blue growth) and environmental and restoring water-related ecosystems.
affairs. Investment in capacity building Sustainable aquaculture can contribute
and transfer of knowledge and technology to water-use efficiency and local water
in the marine field, and action taken on and sanitation management. In return,
quality education and training under sdg4 increasing water-use efficiency may have
(essentially all targets) will be especially positive feedbacks on marine and coastal
important for developing countries ecosystems and support their conservation
and sids. In return, healthy oceans, and sustainable use. For example,
sustainable resource use and conservation replacing open by closed recirculation
can contribute to building a culture of systems to reduce water demand would
sustainable development, globally. also limit waste water flow to the
environment. A potential negative side-
14 + 5 effect of strengthening coastal tourism or
Equal opportunities are an issue in many aquaculture as part of blue growth might
marine and maritime economy sectors. be the resulting impact on water quality
Activities ‘at sea’ and leadership positions and availability.
in fisheries or shipping are traditionally
male-dominated, limiting access to oppor- 14 + 7
tunities and resources for women. Despite, Increasing the share of renewable
a significant contribution made by women energy in the global energy mix and
in some sectors (for example, roughly 50% improving energy efficiency, reliability and
of employees in the seafood industry are affordability will enhance sustainability
women) their role is often overlooked and and help reduce ocean acidification
underpaid. Sustainable development of through reduced carbon dioxide emissions.
marine and maritime sectors can create Different types of ocean energy already
new opportunities for income and employ- contribute to the global renewable energy
180 supply and have the potential to expand 14 + 9
further in the future, particularly in island Sustainable use of marine and coastal
states and coastal regions. Strengthening ecosystem services for the development
marine research and transfer of marine of marine and maritime activities

technology in this field could support this (i.e. blue-growth) and equal access to
expansion and help increase the share of marine resources and trade options can
renewable energy in the global energy support industrialisation efforts and
mix. On the other hand, more energy promote innovation, especially in island
infrastructure in coastal and marine areas states and coastal regions. Likewise,
may have negative impacts; for example fostering sustainable infrastructure,
by increasing spatial competition with industrialisation, and research and
other uses (coastal and marine protected technologies may support the achievement
areas, fisheries, aquaculture, tourism). But of conservation and sustainable use of
synergies with other uses are also possible, the oceans. Trade-offs may occur where
for example by integrating aquaculture a balance must be found between ocean
and wind farming. conservation and restoration measures.
For example, reducing pollution or the
14 + 8 establishment of mpas can constrain
Conservation and sustainable use of industrialisation and infrastructure
oceans, seas and marine resources development in coastal regions.
can directly contribute to promoting
sustainable economic growth and 14 + 10
opportunities for decent work, Healthy oceans and coasts provide a
particularly in island states and coastal sustainable resource base for income
regions. Sustainable growth of marine growth in low-income populations. For
and maritime sectors such as fisheries, example, blue growth will help achieve
aquaculture and tourism supports greater in-country equality over the long-
employment and economic growth. term when supported by fiscal, wage,
Capacity building and transfer of and social protection policies. Moreover,
marine technology will help create the providing small-scale artisanal fishers
strengthened professional skills and with access to marine resources and
competences necessary for achieving the markets helps achieve socio- and economic
sdg 14 targets, and will also support youth inclusion. Restoring and maintaining
employment, education and training, ocean health also fosters the achievement
job creation and innovation, and enable of other sdgs aimed at improving
sustained long-term economic growth. livelihoods and well-being, and eliminating
Striving for healthy oceans, coasts and extreme poverty which all help to
marine resources and the improvement of reduce inequalities. However, improving
global resource efficiency in consumption ocean health and conserving coastal and
and production and decoupling economic marine resources also has the potential
growth from environmental degradation, to limit options for economic and income
are mutually supportive. However, trade- growth. Promoting the representation of
offs are possible where conservation and developing countries in decision-making
restoration measures limit economic within global economic and financial
growth, which can in turn impact ocean institutions can help strengthen the
health. engagement of ldcs and sids in the World
Trade Organization fisheries subsidies
negotiations, which may support the
elimination of certain fisheries subsidies.
Directing official development assistance,
181 and foreign direct investment towards the 14 + 12
sustainable use of marine resources can Sustainable consumption and production,
also provide greater economic benefits such as sustainable management of natural
especially for sids that rely on these resources or the reduction of wastes, are
resources for their economic growth. critical for ending overfishing, sustainably
managing marine and coastal ecosystems
14 + 11 and reducing marine pollution. Halving
Coasts are an attractive zone for human per capita global food waste at the retail
settlement and urban development, often and consumer level, for example, will have
driven by the opportunities for economic positive impacts on ecosystem protection,
activities and natural resources provided sustainable fisheries, and marine pollution
by coasts and coastal zones. About 65% through reduced nutrient inputs from
of all megacities worldwide are located agriculture. Achieving sound management
in coastal areas, and as a result coastal of chemicals throughout their lifecycle
areas generally show higher population will also help minimise marine pollution;
densities, growth and urbanisation trends from land-based and offshore industries.
than inland areas, which implies a direct Recycling and prevention of waste from
relation between ocean sustainability land-based sources is a prerequisite
and sustainable cities and communities. for reducing marine litter. Improving
This expansive and intensified utilisation ocean literacy and understanding of the
and change in coastal areas, which is also drivers of ocean decline could support
related to new uses such as aquaculture, transformations towards sustainable
coastal protection infrastructure or port consumption and production. More
construction, has many negative impacts directly, conserving and sustainably using
on coastal ecosystems. Synergies are likely the oceans, seas and marine resources
between the reduction in marine pollution has the potential to support sustainable
and the development of safe housing consumption and production patterns in
and environmentally friendly cities that ocean-based industries (fisheries, tourism,
aim at reducing energy consumption, maritime transportation, among others).
improving sewer management and
minimising the degradation of oceans and 14 + 13
seas at large. Similar bi-directional benefits Ocean and coastal ecosystems are essential
occur between sustainable management climate regulators, but are also directly
practices and conservation efforts in affected by climate change. Restoring
the coastal and marine environment and protecting the health of oceans,
and the development of safe, resilient coasts and marine resources contributes
and sustainable settlements. Conflicts to strengthening the resilience and
may occur where ocean and coastal adaptive capacity of both the natural
conservation and restoration limit options and human systems to climate change.
for urbanisation, housing, infrastructure Coastal ecosystems such as mangroves,
or transport upgrading. Promoting the saltmarshes and seagrass meadows
construction of new buildings using local contribute both to climate adaptation
materials may have negative impacts (e.g. protection from coastal hazards)
on coastal ecosystems from which the and climate mitigation (through carbon
building materials are removed, and on sequestration). Further co-benefits arise
their conservation and restoration. from reducing risks and vulnerabilities
and strengthening the resilience of coastal
communities to climate-related hazards
(such as by promoting poverty eradication,
food security, sustainable livelihoods,
182 capacity building or biodiversity). Where 14 + 16
sustainable ocean management is included Ocean governance, building on effective,
as a topic in education, training and accountable and transparent institutions
technology transfer in relation to climate and responsive, inclusive, participatory

change, it will contribute to raising and representative decision-making, will
capacity on climate change adaptation be essential to achieve sdg14. Likewise,
and mitigation and ensure more effective it will contribute to delivering peace,
climate change planning and management. justice and strong institutions. Specific
In turn, achieving action on climate synergies exist between tackling illegal,
change will help limit ocean acidification, unregulated and unreported (iuu) fisheries
already well underway owing to increased and the reduction of corruption and
levels of carbon dioxide in seawater, and bribery. Implementing international
will positively affect ocean management law as reflected by the un Convention
and conservation efforts. The potential on the Law of the Sea (unclos) and
for trade-offs is limited but possible. related agreements, such as the un Fish
Offshore installations for renewable Stocks Agreement, would enhance the
energy production may have negative conservation and sustainable use of
impacts on the marine environment, oceans and their resources. Aiming for
particularly on marine mammals. On the accountable and transparent institutions,
other hand, failing to mitigate climate as well as inclusive, participatory and
change and reduce global warming will representative decision-making is fully
increase climate related impacts on coastal consistent with aiming to improve
ecosystems, such as through warming capacities of marine management
and ocean acidification, but also through organisations to end unsustainable fishing
sea-level rise and related effects. This practices or to protect marine ecosystems.
may further constrain the protection and In the reverse direction, improving ocean
restoration of coastal ecosystems and governance for sustainability will be
reduce resilience and adaptive capacity important to achieve sdg16 with regard to
towards climate change. the oceans.
14 + 15 14 + 17
Ocean and coastal systems are hotspots for sdg17 is an important building block for
biodiversity, both in areas within and be- the 2030 Agenda, aiming at strengthening
yond national jurisdiction. Halting loss of the means of implementation for all
biodiversity improves the resilience of eco- sdgs. Global partnerships for sustainable
systems and supports healthy and produc- development are especially important in
tive oceans. Issues such as wildlife traffick- the context of oceans, seas and marine
ing, benefit sharing of genetic resources or resources, owing to the global connectivity
invasive species also concern marine and of marine ecosystems and the cross-cutting
coastal habitats and species, while ocean and often far-reaching effects of marine
conservation and sustainable use of marine resource use. Achievement of sdg14 will
resources contributes to the reduction of benefit particularly from the mobilisation
habitat degradation, biodiversity loss and of financial aid, strengthened technology
species protection. Conservation, resto- exchange, capacity building, better
ration and protection of terrestrial and policy coherence and multi-stakeholder
freshwater ecosystems will also benefit the partnerships.
health of oceans and seas: benefits derived
through reduced impacts from land-based
sources, such as non-point source pollu-
tion, erosion and sedimentation.
183
KEY INTERACTIONS AT
TARGET-LEVEL
sdg 14 is an integral part of the 2030 Six goals were selected for detailed
Agenda, linking to all 16 other sdgs. This analysis, each accompanied by an
section analyses some of these interactions illustrative example:
with a selected set of sdgs in detail at the
target-level. sdgs were selected based on SDG 1
the strength of their interlinkages with Western Indian Ocean
sdg 14 and the magnitude and scale of SDG 2
impact in relation to the overall objective Kenya and Tanzania
of the 2030 Agenda, while ensuring a SDG 8
balanced consideration of the economic, Baltic Sea
social and environmental dimensions. SDG 11
Target-level interactions are judged to Australia
fall within one of seven categories and SDG 12
are scored accordingly: indivisible (+3), G7 Action Plan to combat Marine Litter
reinforcing (+2), enabling (+1), consistent SDG 13
(0), constraining (-1), counteracting (-2), Paris Agreement
and cancelling (-3). Following a generic
analysis of the selected interactions,
specific examples are provided to
illustrate how interactions unfold in
different geographical and policy contexts.
As oceans are highly interconnected
ecosystems not confined by national
boundaries, national, regional and global
examples are provided.
SDG 14 + SDG 1

14.2 1.1, 1.2 Healthy and productive oceans benefit
small-scale fishers, improve tourism
revenue and increase potential for blue
+2 Raise awareness of local communities on the
importance of healthy oceans, and sustainable use of
coastal and marine resources for their livelihoods and
carbon markets sustained income
14.2 1.5 Healthy oceans and coasts help reduce

vulnerability to climate hazards +2 Strengthen the role of marine and coastal ecosystems
in climate change adaptation in national and regional
adaptation strategies and policies
14.3 1.1, 1.2 Minimising and addressing the impacts

of ocean acidification will improve fish
stocks, livelihoods and incomes
+2
14.4 1.1, 1.2 Sustainable fisheries stabilise income
and create opportunities for value-
addition
+2 Invest proceeds from fishing in produced capital (e.g.
fishing and transport vessels, ports, roads) and human
and institutional capacities
Develop recording and reporting methods whereby

artisanal and recreational fishers are engaged in data
collection and assessment of catch trends
14.4 1.1, 1.2 Higher value-added economic activities

may displace livelihoods and increase
poverty
-1
14.4 1.4 Sustainable fisheries stabilise income
and create opportunities for value-
addition
+2
14.5 1.1, 1.2 MPAs restrict access and can create
competition for scarce resources and
so constrain poverty reduction efforts
-1
14.7 1.1, 1.2 Sustainable tourism, fisheries, coastal
agriculture, mining, and mariculture can
create jobs and reduce income poverty
+3 Establish the social, economic and environmental
baselines for blue growth and develop roadmaps for
key sectors with trackable milestones backed with
environmental protection goals
14.7 1.1, 1.2 Increased economic activity creates
more pressure on coastal and marine
resources and more environmental
-1 Designate marine spaces for different social,
economic and environmental uses and objectives and
harm identify the trade-offs between competing uses
Create sovereign wealth funds to ensure flow

of benefits after non-renewable resources are
exhausted, avoid crowding out other economic
sectors, and develop measures to avoid the impacts
of inflation on the poor and vulnerable
14.7 1.3 Creating jobs in sustainable tourism,

fisheries, coastal agriculture, mining,
and mariculture can enable social
+2 Develop social protection policies and invest
proceeds from blue growth in social protection
programmes for the poor and most vulnerable. For
protection programmes example, old-age pensions, health insurance, and
unemployment insurance
185 KEY POINTS fish stocks and are therefore inextricably
linked to improved livelihoods and
Poor coastal communities in low
eradicating poverty (1.1, 1.2). The net
income countries are likely to suffer benefits of target 14.2 include improved
the most from changes in the coastal revenue from tourism, enhanced
and marine environments that biodiversity and fish stocks, and increased
potential for income from blue carbon
directly and indirectly support their markets. At the same time, coastal
livelihoods. Protection, restoration habitats protect homes, communities,
and management of critical coastal and businesses from extreme climate-
related events such as coastal flooding
and marine habitats have the most
and storm surges, and can help reduce
direct links to poverty eradication, the vulnerability of poor people (often
improving their livelihoods and with no insurance) (1.5) and the associated
reducing their vulnerability related economic impacts (1.1, 1.2).
Adapting fisheries to sustainable
to extreme climate events levels and eradicating iuu fisheries
(14.4) has a direct link to stabilising and/
Sustainable tourism, fisheries and or increasing productivity, profitability,
coastal agriculture in sids and ldcs and net economic benefits from fisheries
(World Bank, 2009), and to reducing
can create decent jobs that reduce
poverty (1.1, 1.2). For example, addressing
income poverty. To promote a iuu fishing will provide up to us$ 1.5–2
more inclusive pattern of growth billion per year for Sub-Saharan African
countries. However, certain fish stocks may
and development, simultaneous
recover slowly and this may delay poverty
expansion and development of social reduction efforts. Increasing value-addition
protection programmes for the poor also has a direct link to reducing fishing
and most vulnerable is necessary effort (Kelleher, 2015) (14.4) and can create
jobs in the post-harvest sectors (processing
and marketing) for women in Africa who
Higher economic activities aimed at have little or no access to natural and
poverty alleviation can create more economic resources (uneca, 2016) (1.4).
Value-addition also has potential to create
pressure on coastal and marine
business opportunities in expanding access
resources and environmental harms to credit, processing technology, storage
and can lead to long-term costs to facilities, and training (1.4). However,
replacing indigenous technologies by
the local economy
imported technologies, and deploying
newer advanced technologies from higher
KEY INTERACTIONS value-added economic activities may
sdg 14 targets interact with sdg 1 targets in threaten livelihoods and increase poverty.
the context of ending income poverty and The creation of mpas (14.5) in order to
multidimensional poverty (deprivation of conserve degraded and threatened species,
non-monetary factors including ecosystem ecosystems, habitats and biodiversity is
services, education, training, sanitation an important factor in the alleviation of
and health) (Liu et al., 2015; ilo, 2016). long-term poverty (Fisher and Christopher,
Protection, restoration and management 2007) (1.1, 1.2). However, mpas can conflict
of critical coastal and marine habitats with the social and economic objectives
(14.2) maintain biodiversity and rebuild of populations who may lose access to the
186 resources therein and can thus constrain KEY UNCERTAINTIES
poverty reduction goals. Their success (1) The main uncertainty relates to main-
therefore depends on how they are taining fish biomass and fishing effort to
developed and managed and how the costs levels that can produce maximum sustain-
and benefits of lost fishing opportunities able yield and at the same time ensure
are shared, for example. profitability to support livelihoods. (2) The
There are many linkages between overall effects of mpas are difficult to es-
target 14.7 and poverty eradication in sids tablish: while limiting access to resources,
and ldcs, which are highly dependent protected areas support the regeneration
on coastal and marine resources for of degraded habitats and stocks, which
economic development. Sustainable could in turn benefit coastal livelihoods. (3)
development of tourism, fisheries, coastal The impact of ocean acidification it is high-
agriculture, mining, and mariculture can ly species specific which makes it difficult
create jobs for many coastal populations to extrapolate from one species, habitat or
(1.1, 1.2). While these sectors have the area to another.
potential to increase income, maximising
synergies requires the simultaneous KEY DIMENSIONS
development and expansion of social Time: The time needed to restore natural
protection programmes. Depending on resources and ecosystems depends on
the available resources in each country, their status and dynamics. Building
design options can include social infrastructure and establishing support
insurance, old-age pensions, disability programmes takes time, as does
pensions, unemployment insurance and restoration of degraded habitats or fish
skills training (1.3). However, increased stocks.
economic activity can create more pressure
on coastal and marine resources and more Geography: (1) Geographical context is
environmental harm from pollution, and mainly a concern for rural island and
can lead to decreased economic activity, coastal communities, but also for urban
job losses and long-term costs to the local areas and informal settlements of coastal
economy (Kelleher, 2015). cities in less developed regions. (2) There
While climate change impacts on the may be spill-over effects to adjacent
health of marine ecosystems, habitats hinterland communities through trading
and species are not fully understood, of fish or other coastal and marine
minimising and addressing the impacts products.
of ocean acidification (14.3) will reduce
the negative consequences on commercial Governance: (1) Policies and strategies are
species like shellfish, loss of coral needed to ensure that investments are
reefs, and on the size, productivity and made with a focus on addressing the
stability of fish stocks and associated needs of the poor and to tackle spatial
livelihoods and incomes (1.1, 1.2). On the competition. Policies and strategies
other hand, significant changes in local directed at reducing poverty should
weather patterns and sea-level rise may acknowledge the importance of natural
make poverty reduction more difficult; capital for poverty alleviation and promote
prolonging existing poverty and creating sustainable use of natural coastal and
new poverty traps (Olsson et al., 2014). marine resources. Integrated governance
across scales and sectors is essential. (2)
As the transition to a blue economy may
lead to job losses in some traditional
sectors and the replacement of indigenous
technologies by imported technologies,
187 policy measures aimed at job creation in to about 4.5 million tonnes of fish per
other non-marine sectors may be needed to year (fao, 2009). Failure to address iuu
provide alternative livelihoods. fishing for example, which is common
in artisanal (nearshore) and industrial

Technology: Building sustainable fisheries, (further offshore) fisheries (unep / Nairobi
aquaculture and tourism may need context Convention Secretariat and wiomsa, 2015)
specific innovations in gear, monitoring, is expected to cost the South-West Indian
control and facility technology. Ocean region around us$ 400 million per
year (Harris and Gove, 2005).
Directionality: Interlinkages are bi- An estimated us$ 25 billion per year
directional. Healthy oceans and sustainable is derived from the coastal and marine
use of marine resources are a prerequisite resources in this region (unep / Nairobi
for ocean ecosystem services to contribute Convention Secretariat, 2009), mainly from
to poverty alleviation. At the same time, tourism, fisheries, coastal agriculture,
poverty alleviation will strengthen mining, mariculture, and ports and coastal
capacities and possibilities to conserve and transport. There is enormous potential
sustainably use ocean and coasts. to grow these sectors and to create jobs,
including within associated non-marine
sectors (14.7), with the value of Western
Indian Ocean assets estimated at us$ 333.8
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE billion (Obura et al., 2017). For example,
tourism – the largest contributor to gdp at
THE WESTERN INDIAN over us$ 11 billion per year, equivalent to
OCEAN REGION 40% of the total from marine and coastal
The Western Indian Ocean region includes resources (unep / Nairobi Convention
Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Secretariat and wiomsa, 2015) – can create
South Africa and the island states jobs in hotels, restaurants, housing and
of Mauritius, Comoros, Seychelles, residential activities, agriculture and
Madagascar and Réunion (France). It has fisheries and so provide quick revenue
a combined coastline exceeding 15,000 to alleviate poverty (1.1, 1.2). Investment
km (including island states) and a total in infrastructure such as road networks,
continental shelf area of about 450,000 airport facilities, amenities in the coastal
km² (unep / Nairobi Convention Secretariat, and beach zones, and ports for cruise
2009). Except for the Seychelles, tourism can also provide high revenue
Mauritius and South Africa, over 50% of for the economy and so benefit poor
coastal populations have low Human populations (1.1, 1.2).
Development Index (hdi) values and live Marine extractive industries are
below the poverty line (Gössling, 2006; expanding, with Kenya, Tanzania and
undp, 2006). Ensuring that the regions’ Mozambique beginning to explore for
critical habitats (coastal lowland forests, offshore oil and gas which could provide
mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs) economic benefits from income and
are protected, restored and managed (14.1, saving on fuel imports that could be
14.2, 14.5 ) is crucial to reducing poverty directed to poverty reduction programmes.
and increasing income for the 65 million Investing the proceeds from these non-
people that live within 10 km of the coast renewable resources into long-term
(Burke et al., 2011). sustainable economic opportunities for
Sustainable fisheries (14.4) are crucial poor populations, creating sovereign
for sustainable economic development of wealth funds, and building human
the countries that together generate about and institutional capacities will reduce
4.8% of the global fish catch; equivalent long-term poverty (1.2).
188 There are currently 83 mpas in the region.
Enhanced conservation measures in
existing mpas, and the creation of new
mpas (14.5) can encourage fee increases

in marine parks and reserves and for
licences (where they exist) and can increase
revenue from the tourism industry to
coastal communities (1.1, 1.2) (unep / Nairobi
Convention Secretariat and wiomsa, 2015).
Some countries have already set ambi-
tious targets in this regard: Seychelles aims
to establish mpas covering 30% of its 1.4
million km² of its exclusive economic zone
(eez) by 2020 and Zanzibar aims to
establish 15% of its coastal and marine
ecosystems as mpas.
Investment in climate change adapta-
tion (14.3) has great potential to reduce
poverty in coastal populations (1.1, 1.2) while
also reducing their vulnerability to natural
disasters (1.5). In Kenya and Madagascar,
blue carbon projects have been developed
to generate revenue from carbon credits to
coastal communities from the sustainable
management of mangroves.
189
SDG 14 + SDG 2

14.2 2.1 Healthy oceans will
enhance fisheries yields +1 Raise awareness of artisanal
fishers and local communities
to the importance of critical
habitats and ecosystems for
their food security and nutrition
14.4 2.1 Sustainable fisheries

are inextricably linked to
fish availability and food
+3 Strengthen and implement
existing laws and policies
to ensure responsible and
security sustainable fisheries and
where possible develop co-
management approaches with
local communities
14.4 2.2 Fish and fishery products

directly enable the
provision of micronutrients
+2 Strengthen and implement
existing laws and policies
to ensure responsible and
sustainable fisheries and
where possible develop co-
management approaches with
local communities
Encourage the use of voluntary

mechanisms such as ecolabels
to encourage safety of fish and
long-term sustainability
14.5 2.1, 2.2 MPAs enhance fish

recruitment in areas
adjacent to them
+1
14.5 2.1, 2.2 MPAs may limit access to
food resources and areas
for aquaculture
-1
14.5 2.5 Depending on their size,
MPAs can maintain
genetic diversity within
+1
species
190 KEY POINTS (Thilsted et al., 2016) for more than 10%
of the global population, especially in
Sustainable fishing and aquaculture
developing nations in the equatorial region
and healthy ocean ecosystems (2.2) (Golden, 2016). If the degradation of

and habitats are key to providing ocean ecosystems (14.1, 14.2, 14.3) and
food security and meeting nutri- decline in fish catches are not addressed
(14.4, 14.6) 845 million people (11% of the
tional needs in many developing and current global population) may become
developed countries micronutrient deficient (Golden, 2016).
Fish is also essential for growth, brain
function and maintaining the nervous
Increased agricultural productivity
system (Thilsted et al., 2016). This can
to provide food might constrain play a critical enabling role for brain
efforts to reduce marine pollution development and growth in children (2.2)
from agricultural run-off and and the nutrition of the nearly one-fifth
of pregnant women worldwide that have
nutrients iron-deficiency anaemia and the one-third
that are vitamin-A deficient (2.2) (Golden,
2016). Protein and trace elements derived
KEY INTERACTIONS from aquatic sources are added to animal
sdg 14 is inextricably linked with enhancing feeds to enhance agricultural productivity
food security (2.1) and nutritional needs (2.3, 2.4) and can increase income for
(2.2) in developed and developing countries small-scale food producers. However,
(Thilsted et al., 2016), and mainly interacts without adequate pollution prevention
with sdg2 through sustainable fishing and measures, marine pollution (14.1) from
aquaculture (14.4, 14.6), safeguarding agricultural run-off of nutrients (nitrogen,
the health of ocean ecosystems and habitats phosphorus) can adversely affect fish
(14.1, 14.2, 14.3), and the creation of availability (2.1, 2.2). While creating mpas
mpas (14.5). In 2010, fish provided more (14.5) can enhance fish recruitment and
than 2.9 billion people with almost 20% of productivity for better food security and
their average per capita intake of animal nutrition, and can increase fish production
protein and 4.3 billion people with about in adjacent areas (2.1, 2.2), they may
15% (fao, 2014). A significant proportion limit access to food resources for coastal
of the food security of nutritionally communities and may limit areas available
vulnerable people (2.1) comes from fish for aquaculture (1.1, 1.2). Depending on
and exceeds that of most of terrestrial their size (large or isolated), mpas can
animal foods (Béné et al., 2016). However, preserve genetic diversity within species
stocks of the most important species (Munguía-Vega et al., 2015) (2.5).
are fully fished and/or overfished and
rebuilding them to biologically sustainable KEY UNCERTAINTIES
levels (14.4) could increase fisheries yields (1) While the link between fisheries and
(2.1) by 16.5 million tonnes (fao, 2014) aquaculture and food security is well
to meet the global demand for fish and established, long-term food security and
fishery products. nutrition depends on the status of stocks,
Responsible and sustainable fisheries and the health of the associated ecosystem.
(14.4) also reinforce target 2.2 by providing (2) A key uncertainty relates to achieving
long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids total food security where access and
and essential micronutrients – vitamins distribution of harvested fish is limited due
D and B and a range of minerals (calcium, to post-harvest losses.
phosphorus, iodine, zinc, iron, selenium)
191 KEY DIMENSIONS ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
Time: (1) The period required for wild
stocks to recover depends on the
BEACH MANAGEMENT
UNITS IN KENYA AND
stock status after collapse. (2) Building

infrastructure and establishing support TANZANIA
programmes takes time.
Coastal communities in Kenya and
Tanzania rely heavily on fisheries for
Geography: (1) It is mainly rural island and
food security (2.1) and nutrition (2.2). In
coastal communities that are affected, and
Tanzania, 70% of the population relies on
urban areas and informal settlements of
fish (freshwater and marine) for protein
coastal cities in less developed regions.
(unep/Nairobi Convention Secretariat
(2) There may be spill-over effects to
and wiomsa, 2015). For the last ten years,
adjacent hinterland communities through
beach management units (bmus) have
trading of fish or other coastal and marine
been established in Kenya and Tanzania
products.
as a co-management approach between
government and local communities
Governance: Adopting a nexus approach to
to share responsibilities for resource
fisheries management, marine ecosystem
management and the conservation of fish
conservation and agriculture can help
stocks (14.4) for enhanced food security
overcome trade-offs and maximise
(2.1) and sustainable livelihoods. bmus are
synergies.
currently governed by the Kenya Fisheries
Management and Development Act 2016
Technology: Ensuring sustainable fisheries
and the Tanzania Fisheries Act 2003 and
and aquaculture may need context specific
Fisheries Regulations 2009, and draw their
innovations for monitoring and control of
membership from a wide range of sources
activities, among others.
(fishers, boat owners, boat crew, traders,
processors, boat builders and repairers, net
Directionality: Bi-directional. Sustainable
repairers) with jurisdiction over distinct
seafood is essential to ensure food security,
geographical areas to manage fish landing
especially in coastal areas and islands. At
stations on behalf of fisheries departments
the same time, establishing food security
and are empowered to levy fees (unep/
risks increasing pressure on fish stocks and
Nairobi Convention Secretariat and
marine ecosystems beyond sustainability.
wiomsa, 2015). bmus are now considered
a central element of artisanal fisheries co-
management in Tanzania (over 170 bmus)
and Kenya (73 bmus) (Kanyange et al., 2014).
The shift from a top-down centralised
fisheries governance approach has also
proved useful for addressing the lack of
government staff to manage fisheries
and continued budget cuts (Kanyange
et al., 2014), as well as to reduce conflict
between and among stakeholders. The
bmu approach can play a critical enabling
role to address threats from deteriorating
aquatic habitats (14.2) and declining fish
stocks (14.4) and to enhance food security.
192
SDG 14 + SDG 8

14.1, 14.3, 14.4 8.4 Tackling marine pollution, ocean
acidification and unsustainable
fisheries all reinforce the
+2 Establish product lifecycle
monitoring schemes to identify
opportunities to improve
efficient and sustainable resource efficiency and provide
consumption and production of incentives and support for
resources respective innovation
Identify sources and pathways

for marine pollution and improve
production policies and waste
management accordingly
14.2, 14.5 8.1, 8.3 Taking measures to protect

and restore marine and coastal
ecosystems (e.g. establishing
-2 Develop and adopt regional/sea-
basin based marine spatial plans
to coordinate conservation,
MPAs) might entail restrictions economic uses and impacts
for economic activities and in line with sustainable
therefore limit opportunities development criteria
for economic growth and job
creation and vice versa
14.4, 14.7 8.1, 8.5 Sustainable fisheries, aqua-

culture and tourism will
contribute to economic growth
+2 Ensure policies for marine
resource uses like fisheries
include sustainable exploitation
and to achieving full employ- limits and that these are
ment and vice versa implemented, followed-up and
reviewed
Promote job diversification

and development in green/blue
growth sectors in coastal areas
14.7 8.9. Increasing economic benefits

through sustainable coastal and
marine tourism forms part of
-1/ Ensure policies to manage
and develop tourism include
provisions on pollution and
promoting sustainable tourism
as such +1 waste management and respect
conservation needs of sensitive
habitats and species
Build capacities and raise

awareness among actors and
stakeholders on sustainable
practices
Create incentives for sustainable

tourism development
193 KEY POINTS However, measures such as taxes and levies
on plastic bags and fertilisers, may conflict
Protection and restoration of
with other important poverty-reduction
marine ecosystems and fisheries sectors, such as coastal agriculture.

resources and options for short-term Although economic growth and
economic growth, productivity and job creation focused on short-term
developments or entailing negative
job creation policies and measures environmental impacts might be restricted
might constrain each other by conservation policies and measures
aimed at maintaining marine ecosystem
health and resources, Russi et al. (2016)
Healthy oceans and fisheries
demonstrated that protecting marine and
resources provide the necessary coastal ecosystems is vital for a sustainable
basis for sustainable job and growth blue-green economy in Europe, providing
policies for maritime sectors and livelihood and income opportunities and
helping climate change adaptation in
coastal areas coastal communities.
Ensuring sustainable exploitation of
Coastal tourism is a key contributor marine resources and restoring ocean
to promoting sustainable tourism health will lead to an overall benefit for
sustainable economic development and
as a driver for local employment,
employment. For example, it is estimated
cultures and products that ending overfishing and achieving
sustainable fisheries (14.4) would generate
KEY INTERACTIONS eur 3188 billion annually, which could
sdg 14 and sdg 8 mostly interact through support the equivalent of 32,000 full-time
their targets for conservation and fishing jobs and 69,000 (full- and part-time)
sustainable resource use with the processing jobs every year in the eu
nature of the interaction highly context- alone (nef, 2012). Increasing economic
specific. In general terms, oceans are benefits through sustainable use of marine
important for the global economy and resources to reinforce economic growth
employment; among others, they provide and employment development (8.1, 8.5)
natural resources and space for business can be especially important in sids and
development and are essential for climate ldcs (14.7). For example, capture fisheries
regulation. About 30% of mineral oil is and aquaculture often play a major role in
extracted from the ocean, and shipping national economies of sids, particularly
routes are the most important transport in the Pacific where they can contribute
lanes for global trade (Maribus, 2015). as much as 10% of gdp. Fisheries and
Ocean-based activities are estimated to aquaculture production in this region were
generate global revenue in the range us$ valued at us$ 3.2 billion in 2014 (Gillett,
3–5 trillion per year (fao, 2014). While 2016). Deep-sea mining for minerals is an
designating parts of marine and coastal emerging economic activity that could
areas for protection might constrain provide new income sources to sids and
options for growth and jobs in some ldcs, and generate jobs and growth in
cases, they may help generate jobs and the domestic private sector (unep, 2012).
growth opportunities in others. Tackling However, guidelines and policies for
marine pollution through improving waste their sustainable extraction must first be
management and increasing recycling adopted. Increasing economic benefits
can enable a shift to circular economies, through sustainable marine and coastal
create ‘green’ jobs, and improve tourism. tourism (14.7) forms part of promoting
194 sustainable tourism (8.9) in coastal areas cases will depend on a comprehensive
and islands. Tourism has increased over strategic approach to sustainability of
the past 40 years with coastal tourism economic development, natural resource
now one of the main components in productivity and maintenance of

some areas, especially small island states ecosystem services.
(United Nations, 2016). Tourism represents
5% of world gdp and contributes up to Geography: Concerns mainly island and
7% to employment (unep, 2012). Almost coastal communities. There may be spill-
half of all international tourists travel to over effects into the coastal hinterland.
coastal areas, in some sids accounting
for up to 25% of gdp (Ramsar and unwto, Governance: Cross-sectoral coordination
2012). The oceanic island characteristics in regulatory and enabling policies
of sids provide large potential for marine and programmes is needed. Integrated
tourism development, as demonstrated in governance across scales and sectors is
Fiji where tourist resort development has essential, especially to ensure synergies are
been combined with traditional coastal utilised. For example, the success of mpas
fishing villages (fao, 2014). In Europe, can depend on how the costs and benefits
coastal and marine tourism is the largest of lost fishing opportunities and mpa
maritime activity, employing almost effects are shared.
3.2 million people and generating eur
183 billion in gross value added in 2011 Technology: Technology and its transfer
(ecorys, 2013). However, coastal tourism are central to various aspects of ocean
can also have negative effects on ocean sustainability. For example to improve
health and sustainable resource use that selectivity of fishing gear or minimise
need to be addressed to ensure sustainable marine pollution from land and sea-
development and to avoid conflict with based sources in order to contribute
other sdg targets (14.1, 14.2, 14.4). These to sustainable economic growth and
include: seasonal increase in consumption, employment.
pollution and waste; development of
infrastructure such as hotels or airports Directionality: Bi-directional. Sustainability
often in or near sensitive habitats like of policies and measures to promote
coral reefs; malpractice in recreational economic growth and employment will
activities such as diving, snorkelling or be directly relevant for conservation and
wildlife watching (wwf, no date); and sustainable use of oceans, seas, and marine
modifications of beaches and coastal resources while their health status will
waters to increase their attractiveness affect growth and job opportunities.
(United Nations, 2016).
KEY UNCERTAINTIES
Interactions are context-specific and
depend on national and local conditions,
cultures and policies.
KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: Short-term growth and employment
opportunities risk being unsustainable
and thus undermining the achievement
of sdg14 and sdg8. Generating sustainable
growth and employment opportunities
will be a long-term investment and in most
195 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE in annual value in tourism, agriculture
and fisheries alone (bcg, 2013). Building
THE BALTIC SEA on these findings, the eu has launched a
The Baltic Sea is a semi-enclosed inland Baltic Sea agenda identifying options and
sea with around 85 million people instruments for the support of sustainable
within its catchment area (Ahtiainen et blue growth in the region (European
al., 2013). Its resources provide multiple Commission, 2014).
ecosystem services that can contribute
to economic growth, and to increasing
and diversifying employment in many
sectors including seafood, sand and gravel
extraction, shipping, recreation and
tourism (Ahtiainen and Öhman, 2014). The
three largest maritime economic activities
– fisheries for human consumption,
shipping and ship-building – provided
360,000 jobs and eur 16.6 billion gross
value added in 2010 (eunetmar, 2013). The
maritime sector is central to the economy
and employment in the coastal regions
of all Baltic States. Several segments of
the maritime sector have potential to
help develop economic productivity (8.2)
and full employment (8.5), and to reduce
youth unemployment (8.6). In the period
2008–2010, energy generation by offshore
wind farming in the region increased by
20%, cruise tourism by 11% and marine
aquaculture by 13%. Short-sea shipping,
coastal tourism, yachting and marinas, and
environmental monitoring are considered
to have high growth potential in the Baltic
Sea (Brodzicki and Zaucha, 2013). Tourism
and fisheries are the two most important
sectors for employment, providing 244,000
of 360,000 jobs in the eu maritime sectors
(Brodzicki and Zaucha, 2013). However,
the potential of the blue economy,
especially sectors such as tourism or
marine aquaculture, depends on healthy
oceans and marine resources. The Baltic
Sea is severely affected by eutrophication,
pollution and unsustainable fishing
practices, which threaten ecosystems
and ecosystem services and associated
economic activities such as fisheries and
tourism (helcom, 2010). Failing to restore
the Baltic Sea to good ecological health
will impair its ability by 2030 to add an
additional 550,000 jobs and eur 32 billion
196
SDG 14 + SDG 11

14.1
11.6
11.1, 11.3, Tackling marine pollution
reinforces the provisioning of
safe housing and quality of basic
+2 Ensure integrated planning and
management in coastal areas;
include integrated coastal
services, sustainable urbanisation management, marine spatial
and integrated settlement planning and harmonise with
planning and management, and urban planning and regional
reducing the environmental development policies; ensure
impact of cities such as in the coherent policymaking across
context of waste management, administrative boundaries
and vice versa including upstream catchment
areas (applies to all target
interactions)
Develop and monitor

implementation of effluent
discharge and waste management
standards and of litter control
and litter prevention measures
in coastal areas as well as in
upstream catchment areas
Ensure participation of societal

actors and stakeholders from
different groups in planning and
decision-making together with
coastal and marine managers,
where relevant (applies to all
target interactions)
Increase public awareness of the

role and importance of coastal
and marine ecosystems (applies
to all target interactions) and
sensitise stakeholders on pollution
prevention
Provide training and capacity

building for practitioners
on integrated planning and
management (applies to all target
interactions
14.2 11.1, 11.3,

11.4, 11.5, 11.6
Sustainable coastal zone
management and protection of
coastal ecosystems reinforces
+2 Ensure that coastal ecosystems
are sustainably managed,
protected or restored, within as
the achievement of various well as around coastal settlements
SDG11 targets, including the
safeguarding of coastal natural
heritage (e.g. coastal wetlands),
and vice versa
197
14.2
11.3
11.1, 11.2, Fostering sustainable coastal
zone management and increased
protection efforts for coastal
-1/ Ensure ecological connectivity
between offshore ecosystems,
coastal ecosystems and coastal
-2
ecosystems may result in urban ecosystems and ensure

constraints for or even counteract their protection
the achievement of several SDG11
targets, depending on the strength Promote nature-based solutions
of integration of approaches and to integrate coastal protection,
policies. Interactions may also urban development and coastal
work in the opposite direction conservation
14.2, 14.5 11.c The construction of new

buildings using local materials
possibly receives constraints,
-1/ Ensure that construction
recommendations and policies
do not counteract policies set up
counteracting or even cancelling
from sustainable ecosystem
management and conservation
-2/ to sustainably manage, protect,
restore and conserve coastal
ecosystems
depending on the strategies and
measures taken under these, and
vice versa
-3
14.3 11.4 Tackling ocean acidification
reinforces the protection and
safeguarding of coastal natural
+2 Enforce climate mitigation and
adaptation measures
heritage such as coral reefs Ensure conservation of critical

coastal ecosystems and integrated
coastal management to build
resilience
14.5
11.3
11.1, 11.2, Constraints or counteracting
of SDG11 targets concerning
settlements and transport
-1/ Ensure that sufficient
representative coastal ecosystems
are conserved and protected from
systems in the coastal zone could
arise from increased conservation
efforts in the coastal zone,
-2 human influence
Improve education and increase

depending on the conservation awareness of the role and
status applied or of measures importance of coastal and marine
intended ecosystems and the multiple
benefits from sustainable use and
conservation
Geographically, most interactions
The key linkages are through
between sdg14 and sdg11 occur in coastal
pollution, coastal and marine areas (Agardy et al., 2005; Duxbury and

management including settlement Dickinson, 2007; Stojanovic and Farmer,
planning and infrastructure 2013; Barragán and de Andrés, 2015) but
due to the land-sea nexus and long reach
development (onshore and offshore), of land-based activities, interactions may
and restoration and conservation of span from upstream catchment areas out
coastal ecosystems into marine waters, especially for pollution
(Agardy et al., 2005; Crossland et al., 2005).
A strong land-sea nexus around human
Conservation is explicitly addressed settlements and urban areas creates
in both sdgs potential for benefits to local communities
and coastal and marine ecosystems as well
as trade-offs. For instance, protecting and
The strong land-sea nexus conserving the coastal environment (14.2,
of interactions is especially 14.5) around urban areas will necessarily
impose urbanisation constraints (Xu et
relevant for settlement planning,
al., 2008), potentially limiting options for
development and infrastructure, ensuring housing and services for all (11.1),
due to a potentially long reach access to transport (11.2) and inclusive
urbanisation (11.3). But tackling marine
between upstream catchments
pollution under target 14.1 reinforces and
and downstream coastal areas and contributes synergistically to ensuring
marine waters safe housing, basic services and upgrading
slums (11.1), enhancing sustainable
urbanisation (11.3) and reducing the
Most linkages have potential for
environmental impact of cities (11.6)
bi-directional effects and include (Nunes et al., 2016). The policy and
synergies and trade-offs. Avoiding management measures required to reduce
negative effects requires integrated coastal and marine pollution (especially
that originating from urban centres)
approaches cognisant of the include upgrading sewage and wastewater
transboundary nature of interactions management systems and improved urban
in coastal zones planning. Furthermore, action on ocean
acidification (14.3) will also benefit the
safeguarding of natural heritage of coastal
Coordinated actions and integrated areas (11.4); coastal ecosystems such as
approaches have potential to coral reefs provide a wide range of benefits
from livelihoods to biodiversity but can be
support both sdgs
severely affected by ocean acidification.
Trade-offs are possible, depending on
whether policies and management are
approached in an integrative manner and
across sectors as well as administrative
or jurisdictional boundaries. Sustainable
management of coastal areas (14.2) can
enable better human settlement planning
and management (11.3), including the
199 provisioning of safe housing or upgrading hinterland, a trend that is regionally
of slums located in the coastal zone (1.1), modified in terms of extent and drivers but
can safeguard natural heritage (11.4) which is generally expected to continue
by ensuring the inclusion of coastal, (Barragán and de Andrés, 2015; Neumann

catchment, and wetland protected areas, et al., 2015; Merkens et al., 2016). About
can contribute to disaster management 65% of all megacities are located in coastal
(11.5) such as the reduction of flooding or areas, and population projections suggest
erosion, and can reduce the environmental the number of megacities will increase
impacts of cities (11.6). Here also, from 20 in 2010 to 25 by 2025 (Brown et
trade-offs are possible depending on al., 2013). Population growth, urbanisation
how the policies and measures adopted trends and increasing demand and
integrate these targets. Promoting the competition for resources, transport and
construction of new buildings utilising energy are increasing pressure on coastal
local materials (11.c) may have negative zones and their ecosystems, and in turn
impacts on coastal ecosystems and hinder on the capacity to provide resources in
the restoration and protection of marine a sustainable way (Sekovski et al., 2012;
and coastal areas (14.2, 14.5). Although Barragán and de Andrés, 2015).
some countries like the Maldives (Jaleel,
2013) have established strict regulations, KEY UNCERTAINTIES
mining of corals for construction material (1) The main uncertainties concern the
is an issue in many coastal countries and lock-in effects that infrastructure brings to
island states, such as the Solomon Islands cities, and policy and governance decisions
(Albert et al., 2015) and Kiribati (Babinard on urban development. (2) Further
et al., 2014). This is also the case for timber uncertainties concern the socio-economic
extraction from mangroves and sand impacts due to degradation of coastal
mining from coastal systems (Masalu, 2002; habitats and ecosystems, and to the overall
Agardy et al., 2005; Babinard et al., 2014). complexity of interactions within the
In the other direction, target 11.c may coastal social-ecological system.
encounter constraints due to protection
and conservation measures taken under KEY DIMENSIONS
targets 14.2 and 14.5. Time: Decisions are generally of a long-
Overall, implementing sdg14 will term nature because they tend to lock-in
provide opportunities for sustainable technologies and infrastructure with long
coastal development and urbanisation, lifecycles.
and for the protection of cultural and
natural heritage in coastal areas; and Geography: Interactions between sdg14 and
sustainable and integrative settlement sdg11 mainly concern urban settlements
planning and development as promoted in coastal zones, with some effects
under sdg 11 will support the achievement especially pronounced in low-lying coastal
of sdg14 targets aiming at protection and areas, but may also apply to smaller
conservation of coastal and marine areas. coastal settlement structures and regions
Planning and management across scales neighbouring coastal settlements, as well
and sectors, cognisant of the land-sea as to urban areas further upstream within
nexus is therefore essential to reach the catchment (land-sea nexus).
targets from both sdgs and minimise
possible trade-offs. In this context, it is Governance: Strong local governments
important to note that coastal zones show and urban institutions as well as
on average higher population densities coherent policymaking and governance
and experience stronger population across administrative and jurisdictional
growth and urbanisation rates than their boundaries are essential for formulating
200 integrated solutions and effective (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2004,
implementation (i.e. coordination). 2012, 2016). In contrast to regional inland
areas which experience strong population
Technology: Technology is central to some decline, population growth is high in

ocean/coast impacts from cities and human capital cities, most of which occur along
settlements. It is essential for pollution the coast, and in non-metropolitan coastal
management and relevant for disaster areas (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2016).
reduction. Destructive technologies such This coastal migration trend, often referred
as breakwater construction can negatively to as the ‘sea change’ phenomenon and
influence coastal and marine ecosystems, manifesting in increasing urbanisation
accelerate coastal erosion or cause coastal of the Australian coastline with coast-
squeeze, and so require cautious and specific developments such as ‘canal
integrative planning. estates’ and waterfront housing (Harvey
and Stocker, 2015), has been attributed to
Directionality: Most of the identified lifestyle decisions by residents as well as
synergies and trade-offs have potential for to financial interests of developers and
bi-directional effects. to State government policies (Gurran and
Blakely, 2007; Danaher, 2008). Leading
to further coastal sprawl, these changes
place many pressures on coastal systems
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE (habitat degradation, pollution, changes
EXPLORING LINKAGES in hydrology) as well as on social and
BETWEEN URBANISATION community structures (Green, 2010;
Harvey and Caton, 2010; Stocker, 2012).
AND THE OCEANS AND They also create demand for infrastructure
COASTS IN AUSTRALIA developments (11.2) and challenges for
Being a continent nation, Australia has an coastal planning and management (11.3,
exceptionally long coastline (35,900 km 14.2) and climate change adaptation
without islands), an extensive maritime (11.5), especially since most of these
offshore area connected to large ocean developments occur in low-lying coastal
basins and seas, and over 8200 islands areas (Harvey and Stocker, 2015).
(Short and Woodroffe, 2009; Australian As in many other countries, the
Government - Geoscience Australia, combination of pressures from urban
2016). Owing to their length and extent, development, flood mitigation measures,
Australia’s coasts and marine waters and the use of land and water in and
contain a wide range of ecosystems. around catchment areas and coastlines has
Challenges in ensuring sustainable changed enormously and even destroyed
coastal management (14.2), pollution some Australian coastal ecosystems (14.2)
management (14.1), and a reduction in (Australian Government, 2011; McDonald
urban footprint (11.6), together with the and Foerster, 2016). Low-lying coastal areas
need for sustainable urban development are frequently exposed to flood hazards and
(11.3), safe and sustainable transport coastal erosion (11.5), with climate change
systems (11.2) and disaster risk reduction through sea-level rise increasing exposure
(11.5), result from a combination of both and vulnerability to coastal hazards for met-
human and environmental pressures ropolitan populations as well as for remote
(Stocker et al., 2012). Although the coastal areas (Harvey and Woodroffe, 2008;
Australian coastline has many remote Australian Government, 2011). Australian
sections, about 85% of the population lives coastal waters also contain important
within 50 km of the coast; mostly along shipping routes (Harvey and Caton, 2010).
the east, south-east and south-west coast Commercial and recreational fishing, and
201 aquaculture are other coastal activities that
create environmental concern (Harvey and
Caton, 2010; Australian Government, 2011),
with recreational fishing rated as more

significant than commercial fishing in some
regions (McPhee et al., 2002; Cooke and
Cowx, 2006).
Protecting coastal environments
and critical aquatic habitats (14.2) has
been designated one of Australia’s six
national priorities under its ‘Caring for
our Country’ programme (Australian
Government, 2013). Important steps
were taken on the protection and
rehabilitation of coastal and aquatic
ecosystems through increased community
participation, the improvement of water
quality, and the protection of Ramsar
wetlands and highly valued ecosystems
such as the Great Barrier Reef. This
included efforts to address key threats
to wetlands, to clean up estuaries and
coastal hotspot areas, and to protect
habitats for biodiversity and ecosystem
services. Australia has also designated 36
marine and coastal wetlands under the
1971 Ramsar Convention, six marine and
coastal World Heritage sites under unesco,
and several small and large-scale coastal
and marine protected areas (14.5). Despite
these achievements and recent efforts
towards more systematic conservation
planning, Barr and Possingham (2013)
found marine conservation in Australia
is lacking representation of the full
range of ecosystems and their diversity.
Conservation of coastal ecosystems
is further challenged by conflicting
interests and jurisdictional issues arising
from multiple land-sea interactions
and transboundary effects, calling
for integrated land-sea conservation
planning and management to tackle these
challenges (Álvarez-Romero et al., 2011;
Kenchington, 2016).
202
SDG 14 + SDG 12
14.1 12.1, 12.2,

12.3, 12.4, 12.5
Sustainable production and
consumption, sustainable
management of natural resources,
+3 Develop integrated policies and
action plans on marine litter
recycling, and sound management Promote circular economies and

of chemicals and wastes will help improve recycling along the entire
prevent marine pollution value chain, including streamlining
the prevention of marine litter into
policies related to consumption and
production
14.4 12.2, 12.3 Sustainable fisheries contribute

to sustainable management
of natural resources. Specific
+3 Develop fisheries policies
based on maximum sustainable
yield, promote the adoption
management measures, such as of sustainability and discard
discard bans or selective fishing elimination targets for all fish
methods reduce food losses along stocks and support context-specific
the production chain technical innovation for resource
efficiency
14.4 12.6 Adoption of labelling schemes and

voluntary codes of conduct by
companies by the fishing industry
+1 Promote and establish sound
seafood eco-labelling
will help support sustainable

fisheries
14.7
12.a
12.2, 12.3, Increase in benefits for SIDS
from sustainable use of marine
resources can enable sustainable
+3 Strengthen capacities for impact
assessment and sustainable
management of fisheries and
management and efficient use of aquaculture
natural resources, a reduction in
food wastes, and strengthened Establish incentives for sustainable
scientific and technological and resource-efficient use of
capacity marine resources and coastal
areas
203 KEY POINTS and species from harmful effluents
and discharges, involves better waste
Many close synergies between
management and sustainable chemical
sdg 14 and sdg 12 with some policies, and will enable the achievement
targets inextricably linked in both of environmentally sound management
directions of chemicals and wastes (12.4) and a move
towards a circular economy (12.5).
A reduction in food waste at the
Sustainable management and retail and consumer level will support
protection of marine and coastal more sustainable, less output-orientated
forms of agriculture (e.g. organic or small
ecosystems, and sustainable fishing
holder farming) and so reduce land-based
practices can lead to more efficient pollution, such as from nutrients.
use of natural resources and less Sustainable and efficient use of natural
resources and recycling will decrease fossil
food waste and loss
fuel use (e.g. from smelting or maritime
transportation), and so help reduce ocean
Sustainable consumption and acidification. Tackling marine pollution
production patterns (in agriculture, requires a transformation of production
chains which will encourage companies to
industry, private households) can
develop and improve their sustainability
help prevent and reduce marine policies (12.6). Increasing the role of
pollution, minimise the effects of ecolabels as a tool to drive sustainable
fisheries (14.4) is an additional enabling
ocean acidification, and protect
factor.
marine and coastal ecosystems
KEY UNCERTAINTIES
KEY INTERACTIONS (1) The effects of land-based pollution
sdg14 has close synergistic positive links and the sources of pollutants have
with sdg12 (ranging from ‘enabling’ been well studied in many parts of the
over ‘reinforcing’ towards ‘indivisible’ world. Nevertheless, monitoring data
interactions at the target-level). Achieving for specific types, amounts and sources
sustainable fisheries, restoring stocks and are lacking for many regions. (2) There
ending iuu fisheries (14.4) will contribute are also uncertainties concerning links
to sustainable management and efficient with ecosystem dynamics as well as with
use of natural resources and is therefore management and governance across
indivisible for reaching target 12.2 and sectors to address land-ocean interactions.
reducing food waste (12.3). Likewise,
increasing economic benefits to sids KEY DIMENSIONS
from sustainable natural resources (14.7) Time: The necessary transformational
reinforces the achievement of targets changes will require substantial efforts and
12.2 and 12.3. The marine environment time. Achieving sustainable management
is at the receiving and accumulating end and protection of marine and coastal
of consumption and production chains. ecosystems by 2020 seems unrealistic in
Land-based pollution, such as nutrients light of the time frame for target 12.3
from agriculture and input of wastes, is (sustainable management of natural
among the key impacts on the marine resources by 2030). Achieving sustainable
environment. Tackling marine pollution fisheries by 2020 will contribute to
(14.1) (especially from land-based sources) achieving sustainable natural resource
to protect marine ecosystems, habitats use by 2030. Also, pollutants such as
204 plastic debris, remain long-term in the ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE
environment if not removed, leading to
considerable time lags for environmental
G7 ACTION PLAN TO
COMBAT MARINE LITTER
responses to measures with regard to

sustainable consumption and production Marine litter is one of the main
patterns. contributors to marine pollution. Plastics
are of growing concern owing to their
Geography: Over 70% of the planet’s persistence in the marine environment
surface is covered by oceans, and 20 of and to their impacts on wildlife and
31 megacities with more than 8 million potentially, humans consuming marine
people are within the low-elevation coastal proteins. In 2010, 275 million tonnes of
zones (Brown et al., 2013). Consumption plastic waste were estimated to have been
and production patterns in coastal generated by 192 coastal countries, with
communities and megacities will greatly 4.8–12.7 million tonnes of this entering the
affect ocean sustainability. At the same ocean (Jambeck et al., 2015). Key factors
time, development in sids will be crucial for the largest amounts of marine litter
given their large proportion of ocean from countries were population size and
space. the quality of waste management. Under a
business-as-usual scenario, the cumulative
Governance: Ocean governance is based amount of plastic waste entering the
on the legal and institutional framework ocean from land-based sources could
established under unclos. Many pressures increase by an order of magnitude by 2025
and drivers of ocean decline are located (Jambeck et al., 2015). The input is not
on land, outside the mandates of marine expected to peak before 2100, and without
management organisations. Greater drastic transformative action in line with
integration between legal governance sdg12 the amount of waste generated
regimes for land, air/climate and the will continue to grow with increased
ocean will create synergies for sdg 14 population and increased per capita
and sdg 12. Voluntary or market-based consumption associated with economic
policy approaches can foster better goal growth (Hoornweg et al., 2013, 2015).
achievement. Growing public awareness has
led to widespread action at different
Technology: Technology is central to scales and by different actors, including
sustainable aquaculture, resource ‘fishing for litter’ initiatives by civil
efficiency and a circular economy. society organisations, scientific research
programmes, national strategies and
Directionality: Bi-directional, but measures by governments or action plans
asymmetric for some targets. Sustainable by international organisations such as the
fisheries will directly support sustainable Regional Seas Conventions. The impacts of
management and efficient use of natural marine litter on ocean sustainability were
resources. For many pressures, the recognised by the 2030 Agenda. Namely,
marine environment is the end point for pollution from land-based activities,
pollutants from unsustainable production including marine debris and nutrient
and consumption patterns on land. pollution (14.1) and floating plastic debris
(14.1.1). Recent studies have also shown
the toxicity of microplastics, for example
leading to reduced fertility of marine
organisms (Cressey, 2016).
In 2015, the Heads of State and
Government of the seven strongest
205 economic countries addressed the of preventing litter (12.1, 12.8); promoting
effects of marine pollution from litter outreach and education activities leading
and adopted the G7 Action Plan to to individual behaviour change that can
Combat Marine Litter. The Action Plan reduce the amount of litter entering the
includes several actions that enable the environment, internal waters and the
achievement of target 14.1 through seas (12.1, 12.8); supporting the initiation
addressing sustainable consumption and of a harmonised global marine litter
production patterns. It reflects the need monitoring effort and the standardisation
to take action outside the traditional of methods, data and evaluation (12.b);
regulatory scope of regional seas supporting efforts by the United Nations
conventions or other ocean governance Environment Programme and other
bodies and supports an integrated, cross- organisations to help understand the
sectoral approach to reducing marine sources, pathways and impacts of marine
pollution. Although primarily aimed at litter (12.1, 12.8); and supporting and
reducing marine litter there are strong calling for additional research initiatives to
interdependencies with sdg12 and address marine litter (12.a).
reinforcing feedbacks can be expected if
implemented coherently, particular for
targets 12.1, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.8 and 12.a.
Actions that support target 14.1 and at the
same time directly contribute to sdg 12
include: improving countries’ systems
for waste management, reducing waste
generation, and encouraging reuse and
recycling (12.1, 12.4. 12.5); incorporating
waste management activities into
international development assistance
and investments and supporting the
implementation of pilot projects where
appropriate (12.1, 12.a); investigating
sustainable and cost-effective solutions
to reduce and prevent sewage and
stormwater-related waste, including
microplastics entering the marine
environment (12.1, 12.4); promoting
relevant regulations and incentives to
reduce the use of disposable single-use
and other items, which impact the marine
environment (12.1, 12.4, 12.5); encouraging
industry to develop sustainable packaging
and remove ingredients from products to
gain environmental benefits, such as by
voluntary phase-out of microbeads (12.1,
12.5, 12.6); promoting best practice along
the whole plastics manufacturing and
value chain from production to transport,
such as aiming for zero pellet loss (12.1,
12.6); assessing and analysing removal data
to support and target outreach efforts,
potential policy options, and other means
SDG 14 + SDG 13
14.1, 14.2, 14.3, 14.4,

14.5, 14.6 13.1
Action taken to strengthen the health
of coastal and marine ecosystems
including fish stocks will reinforce
+2 Enforce climate mitigation measures
Take action to protect, restore and

the strengthening of environmental strengthen the mitigation and adaptation
and societal resilience and adaptive potential and resilience of coastal and
capacities to climate change, and vice marine ecosystems to climate change
versa
Ensure the adequate sharing of information,
data and technologies
Improve education and build awareness

of the benefits arising from sustainable
management and conservation of marine
and coastal ecosystems for climate change
mitigation and adaptation
14.2, 14.3, 14.5

13.2, 13.a, 13.b
Action taken for promoting healthy
oceans and coastal systems will
also enable or even reinforce the
+1/ Promote coastal ecosystems as blue
carbon systems for climate change
mitigation where appropriate
development and integration of climate
change measures into policies, planning
and management, such as by promoting
+2 Provide and sustain capacity building and
support to LDCs and SIDS in developing
coastal ecosystems serving as blue and implementing sustainable projects
carbon systems, and vice versa for mitigation, adaptation and resilience
building
Ensure the adequate sharing of information,

data and technologies
14.2, 14.3, 14.4, 14.5,

14.6
13.3
13.1, 13.2,
Policies and measure taken to adapt
to climate change may counteract or
even cancel SDG14 targets aiming at
-2/ Ensure coherent and integrated coastal
zone management and coastal protection
management
the protection and conservation of
coastal ecosystems, such as if technical
protection measures fail to provide
-3 Develop nature-based solutions that
promote both coastal and marine
enough space for saltmarshes to keep up conservation and sustainable urban
with sea-level rise (coastal squeeze) development in an integrated way
14.a 13.3, 13.b Increasing marine scientific knowledge,

research capacities and technologies
will enable or even reinforce awareness
+1/ Build human and institutional capacity
and ensure participation of relevant
stakeholders and societal actors in
raising and capacity building for climate
change mitigation measures, planning
and management, and vice versa
+2 policymaking and management
Build transdisciplinary partnerships for

climate change action and programmes
Develop, maintain and support early

warning systems on coastal and marine
hazards
207 KEY POINTS et al., 2014). They also deliver important
maintenance services for fisheries, such
Oceans and coasts are closely linked
as by providing nursery grounds for fish
with mitigation and adaptation (Brander et al., 2012). These processes and

action on climate change and services contribute to building resilience
related hazards, resulting in strong to climate change both for the human and
environmental components of this tightly
synergistic and bi-directional links coupled system.
between sdg 14 and sdg 13 over But marine and coastal ecosystems and
various targets coastal regions are also directly affected by
climate change (Rhein et al., 2013; Pörtner
et al., 2014; Wong et al., 2014; Stocker, 2015).
Strong synergies exist between Ocean warming and ocean acidification or
sdg 14 and sdg 13 in terms of capacity changes in ocean circulation patterns will
have potentially large impacts on marine
building, knowledge exchange
and coastal ecosystems. These range from
and technological innovation. degradation of coral reefs to changes in
Investment in these areas under species composition and distribution,
with potentially critical effects for fish
either goal will support the
stocks and fisheries (Pörtner et al., 2014;
achievement of targets under both, Visbeck et al., 2014; Wong et al., 2014).
as well as the achievement of targets Coastal ecosystems and human coastal
relevant to building resilience and communities are increasingly exposed to
the effects of sea-level rise and extreme
adaptive capacity
events, especially through coastal flooding
and erosion or saltwater intrusion into
Failing to tackle sdg 13 will have coastal aquifers. Coastal ecosystems may
major consequences for oceans and be unable to cope with the rate at which
sea-level is rising and changes in light
coasts; however, sustainable use and
availability, salinity or circulation patterns
conservation of oceans and coasts are occurring, risking degradation or even
and their resources can contribute ecosystem loss and possibly reducing the
protection and mitigation potential of
to climate change mitigation and
coastal ecosystems (Wong et al., 2014).
adaptation Cumulative impacts from direct
and indirect (via climate change)
human pressures on marine and coastal
KEY INTERACTIONS ecosystems are potentially large and
Oceans and coastal ecosystems are require concerted action in both directions
essential elements of the Earth system, of sdg 14 and sdg 13. Strengthening the
and have an important role in climate resilience of ocean and coastal ecosystems
regulation (Heckbert et al., 2011; Visbeck by reducing pollution (14.1), restoring their
et al., 2014). Coastal ecosystems such as health (14.2), tackling ocean acidification
mangroves have great potential for climate (14.3), managing fish stocks sustainably
mitigation through carbon sequestration (14.4, 14.6) and protecting coastal and
(Luisetti et al., 2013; Warner et al., 2016) marine areas and biodiversity (14.5)
and for adaptation by providing protection helps strengthen the overall resilience
from coastal hazards and climate change and adaptive capacity of coastal systems
impacts such as sea-level rise and increased to climate change (13.1). It will also co-
storminess (Agardy et al., 2005; Spalding facilitate the integration of climate change
208 measures into policies and planning Geography: Interactions primarily concern
(13.2), the promotion of mechanisms for island and coastal zones, but are also of
raising capacity to climate change-related global importance owing to the relevance
planning and management (13.b), and of marine and coastal systems for global
the implementation of commitments climate regulation.
on climate mitigation taken under the
United Nations Framework Convention on Governance: Ocean sustainability
Climate Change (unfccc) (13.a). Increasing needs integrated governance such as
research capacity, scientific knowledge and coordination of regulatory measures and
marine technology (14.a) can contribute incentives among different sectors and
to developing capacity on climate change across different scales. Besides climate
adaptation and mitigation (13.3) and to change adaptation and mitigation and the
effective climate change planning and overall strengthening of the health and
management (13.b), especially in coastal resilience of coastal and marine systems
ldcs and sids. In turn, targets under in the context of climate change, this
sdg13 that aim at building resilience to also includes energy and technology or
climate-related hazards (13.1), integrating consumption and production patterns.
climate change measures into policies
(13.2), improving education, awareness and Technology: Outcomes depend on technology
institutional capacity (13.3) and addressing transfer for capacity building, but also
the needs of developing countries under on the development of technologies
the unfccc (13.a), for example with regard and measures in consideration of the
to adaptation measures, may support complexity of the system.
sustainable ocean management and conser-
vation (14.2, 14.5). Targets under sdg13 Directionality: While positive synergistic and
may also help reduce ocean acidification bi-directional interactions occur between
(14.3), and have positive impacts on sdg14 and sdg13, there is also potential
fisheries (14.4, 14.6) and economic benefits for negative interactions. The strength of
for sids and ldcs (14.7). Trade-off are impacts, synergies and trade-offs often de-
possible depending on how measures are pends on the degree of policy and manage-
aligned between sdg 14 and sdg 13. ment integration between both goals.
KEY UNCERTAINTIES
There are uncertainties linked to natural
dynamics, the complexity of interlinkages
within the natural system and between
the natural and the human systems, and to
management and good governance.
KEY DIMENSIONS
Time: (1) The timing of ocean and coastal
restoration and conservation depends
on natural dynamics and the level of
degradation. Building capacity takes time
but has a long-term effect. (2) Climate
change-related planning and management,
and adaptation and mitigation measures,
have different time scales of implemen-
tation and effect and should thus always
complement each other.
209
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE Conserving and enhancing sinks and
reservoirs of greenhouse gases (Art. 5) and
THE PARIS AGREEMENT establishing mechanisms to contribute
The fundamental global agenda for to the mitigation of greenhouse gas emis-
combating climate change is the United sions and to support sustainable
Nations Framework Convention on development (Art. 6). These elements
Climate Change (unfccc, 1992). The most have synergistic links to targets 14.2 and
recent agreement under the unfccc, 14.5 when considering the carbon sink
the Paris Agreement, entered into force potential of coastal ecosystems and the
on 4 November 2016. This agreement need to protect, conserve or restore
“aims to strengthen the global response this potential. Such mechanisms could also
to the threat of climate change, in the be established under target 13.b.
context of sustainable development and Strengthening adaptation options and
efforts to eradicate poverty” (unfccc, “enhancing adaptive capacity, strength-
2015). Key elements of the Paris Agreement ening resilience and reducing vulnerability
of relevance to oceans and coasts, their to climate change, with a view to
contributions to sdg13 and the achievement contributing to sustainable development”
of sdg 14 include the following. (Art. 7). This is a direct link to target
Holding the increase in global tempera- 13.1, but also contains an indirect and
ture to below 2°c and aiming for a synergistic link to sdg14 targets working
maximum of 1.5°c above pre-industrial towards healthy and resilient marine
levels (Art. 2). This long-term temperature and coastal ecosystems (14.1, 14.2, 14.5,
goal will support the achievement of 14.4, 14.6).
targets that aim at healthy and resilient Addressing loss and damage “associ-
marine and coastal ecosystems (14.2, ated with the adverse effects of climate
14.5) and those that promote sustainable change, including extreme weather events
fisheries management (14.4, 14.6) and and slow onset events, and the role of
economic benefits for sids and ldcs (14.7). sustainable development in reducing the
Although science has issued warnings risk of loss and damage” (Art. 8). This
that the agreed temperature limits could directly links to both sdgs by addressing
have critical effects on the Earth system the protective potential and mitigation po-
(Knutti et al., 2016), slowing global tential of coastal ecosystems (13.1, 14.2, 14.5).
warming will support the overall strength- Reaffirming the obligations of devel-
ening of resilience and adaptive capacity oped countries for supporting developing
of the natural system and the human Parties in their efforts on mitigation and
system towards climate change (13.1). adaptation to climate change through
Targeted reduction of emissions and finance and voluntary support, technology
achieving of a balance between greenhouse transfer and capacity building (Arts. 9,
gas emissions and sinks in the latter 10, 11). These goals directly link to all targets
half of the 21st century, including success- under sdg13 but measures taken here will
ful preparation, communication and also benefit the achievement of sdg 14 due
maintenance of Intended Nationally to the central role that oceans and coasts
Determined Contributions (indcs) as play in the climate system.
established under Art. 4. Reducing green- Implementing the Paris Agreement will
house gas emissions and concentrations thus support achieving sdg 13 and sdg 14
in the atmosphere is fundamental for and the 2030 Agenda as such. However,
minimising ocean acidification (14.3), and aligning policies and developing integrated
the required indcs relate directly to approaches will be essential for ensuring
targets 13.2 and 13.3. the best possible outcomes and for minimis-
ing potential trade-offs.
SCORE
-3
0
+3
14.2 1.1, 1.2 +
14.2 1.5
14.3 1.1, 1.2
+2 +2 +2 +2
14.4 1.1, 1.2
SDG 1
-1
14.4 1.1, 1.2
+2
14.4 1.4
-1
14.5 1.1, 1.2
+3
14.7 1.1, 1.2
-1
14.7 1.1, 1.2
+2
14.7 1.3
+
+1
14.2 2.1
KEY INTERACTIONS
14.4 2.1
+3
+2
14.4 2.2
+1
14.5 2.1, 2.2
SDG 2
-1
14.5 2.1, 2.2
+1
14.5 2.5
+2
14.1, 14.3, 14.4 8.4
-2
14.2, 14.5 8.1, 8.3
+2
14.4, 14.7 8.1, 8.5

/
-1
+1
14.7 8.9
SDG 8
+
14.1 11.1, 11.3, 11.6
+2 +2
14.2 11.1, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6
/
-1
14.2 11.1, 11.2, 11.3
/
-3
-2 -1
14.2, 14.5 11.c
SDG 11
+2
14.3 11.4
/
-2
-1
14.5 11.1, 11.2, 11.3 +
14.1 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5
+3 +3
14.4 12.2, 12.3
+1
14.4 12.6
+3
14.7 12.2, 12.3, 12.a
SDG 12
+
+2
14.1, 14.2, 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, 14.6 13.1
/
+2
+1
14.2, 14.3, 14.5 13.2, 13.a, 13.b
/
-3
-2
14.2, 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, 14.6 13.1, 13.2, 13.3
/
+2
+1
14.a 13.3, 13.b
SDG 13
-3
+3
SCORE
212
KNOWLEDGE GAPS
Knowledge gaps exist in relation to all an integrated information base on oceans,

sdg 14 targets and their interactions seabed resources, marine life, and risks
with other targets in the 2030 Agenda. to habitats and ecosystems. The table
The reasons for these gaps and their provides a non-exclusive list of knowledge
dimensions vary. In some cases (such as gaps that have been identified in relation
food security and sustainable fisheries, to the target-level interaction analysis
or maritime industries and job creation), provided in this chapter.
interactions have already been analysed
and are regularly monitored in many
marine regions and countries. In contrast, 14 + 1
for example in the relation between The social and economic value of oceans,
marine conservation and poverty ecosystem services, and risk analysis (in
alleviation or between marine ecosystems relation to extractive industries) in low-
and climate change, knowledge is limited, income countries within their coastal
fragmented or exists only in generic terms waters and eezs
often not updated on a regular basis. The
knowledge gaps that exist are not always The impact of an expansion in blue jobs,
caused by lack of data or information value addition, and new technologies on
but also access restrictions, lack of jobs in traditional sectors
standardised data collection protocols, lack
of coordination across political or sectoral Options to maintain fish stocks at
boundaries, or by capacity limitations for biologically sustainable levels by limiting
the analysis and translation of data and fishing effort while ensuring profitability
other types of information into policy Human and institutional capacity gaps in
advice. low-income countries
In general terms, integrated research,
monitoring and data analyses will be 14 + 2
needed in combination with targeted Under- or misreporting of landings of
capacity development to fill existing artisanal catches in low income countries
knowledge gaps. Having regard to limited Stock assessments in artisanal fisheries in
resources especially in sids and ldcs, low-income countries
consideration should also be given to the
development and applicability of data-poor 14 + 8
assessment approaches and models. How marine ecosystem services link to
Sea-basin based open-access platforms economic and social development in
to marine data should be created. concrete terms and how this changes
They could for example be developed over time. Especially in developing
based on existing platforms or as joint countries, this links to limited expertise on
initiatives by member states and existing valuation techniques, their application and
regional organisations. They should be collection of the necessary data
interoperable and free of restrictions on
use, with the specific target of developing
213 How to minimise negative effects of How human health is affected by the
economic and social development on release of microplastics to the marine
marine ecosystems ecosystems
The potential for sustainable blue growth 14 + 13

in individual marine regions, sea basins What are the effects and impacts of the
and countries long-term temperature targets established
under the Paris Agreement, on oceans,
The value of ecosystem services (especially seas, coasts and their ecosystems
non-marketed ones) and how to integrate
monetised and non-monetisable values for What are the impacts of climate change on
policy analysis and reporting the health of marine ecosystems, habitats
and species in low-income countries, and
14 + 11 how can these be mitigated or reduced
How increased coastal development,
urbanisation and coastal environments How resilient are marine and coastal
interact and influence each other ecosystems to climate change, and what
How urban and regional planning and are suitable and effective conservation and
fiscal policies influence the coastal management measures to provide climate
environment and vice versa, and how mitigation, nature-based adaptation and
to develop integrated cross-boundary the reversion of negative effects such as
governance (i.e. across the land-sea nexus) coral bleaching
and across administrative boundaries and
jurisdictions The influence of climate change on fish
stocks
Gaps in capacity, especially in developing
countries, for ensuring sustainable
human settlement planning and regional
development
14 + 12
The status of stocks and fisheries including
the level of discards and how they should
be managed to provide for maximum
sustainable yield
How aquaculture affects marine systems in

specific contexts, particularly with regard
to inputs of chemicals and nutrients to the
marine environment and to effects on wild
fish stocks and how these can be reduced
How to minimise post-harvest loss in

seafood production and supply chains,
especially through small-scale artisanal
fisheries
How to achieve better waste management,

recycling and reduce marine pollution of
all kinds, including marine debris
214
CONCLUDING
COMMENTS
sdg 14 plays a cross-cutting role in the 2030

Agenda, interacting with many other
sdgs. Transformation towards more inte-
grated and aligned policies and measures
in response to these interactions, backed
by tailor-made capacity building and
strengthened institutions, is a prerequisite
for achieving the 2030 Agenda.
Progress has been made towards more
integrated governance of the ocean.
However, silo-based decision-making often
irrespective of ecosystem-dynamics and
meaningful ecological boundaries still pre-
vails in many cases. Decision-making
needs to take due account of the environ-
mental dimension as an indispensable
enabler for sustainable development and
ensure that this dimension is not lost
when negotiating between conflicting goals
and targets, especially in relation to
potential trade-offs and conflicts. To date,
degradation of the marine environment
has outpaced development of the interna-
tional ocean governance landscape.
Achieving sdg14 and its associated targets,
and other sdgs where the ocean plays
a crucial role will thus depend on a robust
implementation framework, including
mechanisms for tracking commitments,
regional cooperation and integrated
thematic assessments (Unger et al., 2017).
Building on these general considera-
tions, the six summary tables in the
target-level interactions section provide
options for how policy could address the
specific target interactions in practice.
Although addressed to specific target
interactions, many of these policy options
are also relevant for other interactions.
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LOOKING AHEAD
NEXT STEPS
220 The conceptual framework and assessment of key interactions of
the four goals presented in this report are intended as a starting point
for further work towards a more complete understanding of how
LOOKING AHEAD: NEXT STEPS
the sustainable development goals (sdgs) fit together. The proposed

framework guides a more detailed analysis and enables structured
deliberations on how to implement the 2030 Agenda coherently,
in order to maximise development outcomes. Making interactions
explicit and understanding the full impacts of policies and actions
across goals stimulates important knowledge gathering and
learning processes, and has very concrete and tangible value for
achieving efficiency and effectiveness in sdg implementation, for
driving meaningful multi-stakeholder partnerships, and for country
level monitoring, evaluation and review. The sdgs as an inter-
nationally-agreed single agenda with a 2030 time horizon integrating
many policy dimensions provides a convergence point to support
collaboration across scientific, policy and practitioner communities.
REFLECTIONS ON THE SEVEN-POINT

SCALE AND METHODOLOGY
The report presents a typology and an approach to scoring sdg
interactions that can be replicated and refined for each and every
goal, and importantly, at different geographical scales, whether
global, regional, national or sub-national, with varying data and
evidence availability.
The framework on which this work is based identifies causal
and functional relations underlying progress or achievement
of the sustainable development goals and targets: positive inter-
actions are assigned scores of +1 (‘enabling’), +2 (‘reinforcing’)
or +3 (‘indivisible’), while interactions characterised by trade-offs
are scored with -1 (‘constraining’), -2 (‘counteracting’), or -3
(‘cancelling’). By systematically assessing the interactions and
relationships between goals and targets, this report supports hori-
zontal coherence across sectors.
The approach taken relied on an interpretive analytical process
whereby research teams combine their knowledge and expert
judgment with seeking of new evidence in the scientific literature
and extensive deliberations about the character of different
specific interactions. A potential caveat emerged in that even when
starting from similar understandings about interactions and the
main conceptual underpinnings of the framework, the different
teams landed in somewhat varying interpretations of how to apply
the framework and score interactions. This poses a challenge in
terms of replicating the study.
Nevertheless, a strength of the approach was that it generated
a highly iterative process for deepening the understanding of target
interactions. Each team had valuable debates about the terms
of the scale and several revisions were made to scores in different
chapters over the course of the work. In fact, in many respects it
could be argued that the process of deciding on the score was
221 possibly more valuable than the final result, since it required
a detailed study of the literature, a consideration of the issues and
potential context dependencies, a review of limitations and
gaps in current knowledge, and discussion with others. To this

extent, the assessment becomes a vehicle for triggering dialogue
interpretation and learning process.
Based on this assessment, there should be ample potential for
carrying out similar interaction assessment exercises among
governments and other societal stakeholders concerned with sdg
implementation, as well as in the country or regional contexts
where there are limited data and evidence.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO POLICYMAKERS
Based on the analysis, four recommendations to better identify
and manage interactions across sdgs to inform planning and
implementation stand out:
1. SYSTEMATICALLY IDENTIFY THE INTERACTIONS

BETWEEN AND AMONG THE 17 GOALS TO INFORM PRIORITY-
SETTING IN A GIVEN CONTEXT
This could take the form of a matrix including the 17 goals where
at each intersection the most significant interactions at target-
level are identified and scored using the seven-point scale. Identify-
ing a priori the most relevant interactions requires bringing together
a wide range of expertise spanning goals, disciplines and sectors.
Building such an exercise into the planning for national imple-
mentation of the sdgs would provide a useful overview of key
interfaces between goals, and support the management of inter-
actions across government departments, for example, through
early identification of potential conflicts. Key interlinking targets
that operate as connectors or enablers can also be identified –
even if they may not be singled out initially as key priorities in
a particular context – thus helping to develop a more joined-up
narrative of what it will take to achieve the sdgs as a whole.
It would help governments in their priority-setting by empha-
sising where the achievement of one objective will not be
possible without simultaneous or even preliminary action on others,
thus informing how to plan sequencing of actions for optimal
impact, and highlighting needs for integration between policy areas
or jurisdictions. For instance, tackling urban air pollution requires
determined action to move away from fossil fuels as well as
achieving energy efficiency targets in the transport, housing and
industrial sectors.
Beyond the particular scores determined in such an assessment
exercise, the process of collectively mapping interactions and
scoring the degree of interdependency is valuable in itself. By provi-
ding a common terminology and methodology, it encourages
cross-sectoral and cross-disciplinary conversations that go beyond a
traditional, siloed approach.
222 2. MAP EXISTING INSTITUTIONS AND ACTORS TO ASSESS
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF STATUS QUO FOR
DELIVERING THE SDGS
Mapping the existing institutional landscape in a particular country /

context and identifying key actors for implementing the sdgs
is needed to assess the extent to which the existing institutional
set-up is fit for purpose to deliver on the sdgs and address their
interactions. If certain targets are in conflict with progress in targets
under other goals, then governance mechanisms must be put in
place to manage these interactions and address potential tensions
and conflicts. For example, if the Ministry of Agriculture puts
food security through agricultural intensification as its key sdg2
target, while the Ministry of Water’s target is to dramatically reduce
agricultural water pollution under sdg6 and sdg14, and the Ministry
of Environment’s target is to reduce biodiversity loss and expand
conservation zones under sdg15, then mechanisms must be put
in place to negotiate how the sets of targets should be moved forward.
Moreover, it is widely recognised that while the responsibility
of achieving the 2030 Agenda lies with countries, non-state actors
have a key role to play. Understanding how the sdgs interact
with one another can enable a better understanding of the roles
stakeholders can play and harness meaningful partnerships for
delivering on the sdgs. Based on key intervention points identified
through the assessment of interactions, clusters of issues can be
identified and provide a framework for cross-sectoral collaboration
around a set of common priority issues.
Governments focus on multiple concurrent ‘public good’ goals,
for which there are multiple beneficiaries and where the goods
or services are not adequately provided by the private sector or non-
profit sector. This is even more true of international goals, for
example those designed to address global problems such as climate
change and conflict. For example, when the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change works together with
other international agencies such as the World Trade Organization,
this global level of governance can be used for setting priorities
based on critical global outcomes and provide a framework for nest-
ed and subsidiary levels of governance and policy.
3. ENACT CHANGE TO ENABLE HORIZONTAL MANAGEMENT OF SDGS

The sdgs’ ambition and emphasis on integration, challenge current
institutional and governance arrangements and require new
mechanisms for driving policy integration and coherence. Leader-
ship and the development of cross-cutting coordination mecha-
nisms will be key to achieving this in practice. Some countries have
already developed cross-ministerial and consultative mechanisms
such as in Germany, Colombia or Finland. But this also needs to be
aligned with decision-making and implementation processes,
whether for resource allocation, data and information collection and
sharing, support for research and innovation, or institutional and
individual capacity development. How these processes develop will
be country-specific.
223 4. APPLY AN INTEGRATED PERSPECTIVE TO MONITORING,
EVALUATION AND REVIEW
Beyond the monitoring of individual targets and goals, what
is needed is an integrated perspective to monitor progress towards

achievement of the sdgs. At the outset, it is recommended
to draw up an initial matrix of interactions to serve as a baseline.
Data and information systems should be integrated in order
to monitor interactions between targets. Ideally, there should be a
definition of headline indicators to monitor progress across various
sdg domains.
Assessment and scoring of interactions should be conducted at
various stages in the planning and implementation of policies,
as well as in the evaluation of policy outcomes. Using the initial ma-
trix of interactions as a baseline, comparisons should be made
in order to identify synergies and trade-offs within the implemen-
tation processes and to establish the extent to which it was possible
to minimise trade-offs and maximise synergies.
The seven-point scale can therefore provide a basis for review
and impact assessment, and makes it possible to identify important
cross-cutting gaps in data and knowledge.
NEXT STEPS FOR THE

SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY
The scientific community has been focusing for a long time on
deepening its understanding of social and ecological systems,
and their interlinkages. This report represents a contribution
towards this broad array of scholarly work. The following sections
outline possible next steps and a few examples of ongoing
initiatives that seek to develop the knowledge and solutions for
addressing the sdgs in an integrated way.
1. CONTINUE TO GROW THE SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE BASE

The sdgs highlight the need for more integrated research for sus-
tainable development across natural, social, health sciences,
economics and engineering. They also require a stronger drive
towards transdisciplinary research. This report draws on
the scientific literature on interactions related to the four sdgs
explored in detail, and identifies a number of knowledge gaps.
An important contribution that could be made by the scientific
community is to continue growing and critically assessing new
knowledge on individual or clusters of sdgs through observations,
data sharing and integration, empirical research and context-
sensitive analysis, theory development, modelling, and scenario
development.
One way that scientists are organising themselves is through
Future Earth, a ten-year international research initiative that
aims to develop the knowledge for responding effectively to the
224 risks and opportunities of global environmental change and for
supporting transformation towards global sustainability in
the coming decades. Future Earth mobilises the global scientific
community while strengthening partnerships with policy-

makers and other societal actors to co-design and co-produce new
knowledge and solutions.
The growing body of sustainability science literature poses a
challenge in itself in bringing synthetic, authoritative, timely
and policy-relevant insights. The sdgs could be used as a knowledge
management framework to mobilise and structure key scientific
evidence in support of the sdgs. This could also take the form of
thematic assessments, to support the implementation of all sdgs
and make the scientific literature on interactions more accessible.
The scoring approach and synthesis work undertaken within
this report points also to a need for a broad-based assessment
of scientific knowledge on the sdgs and their interactions. Such
comprehensive synthesis could build on the Global Sustainable
Development Report, a United Nations report published every four
years with the contributions of the scientific community.
2. APPLY A SYSTEMS APPROACH

This report has mostly focused on an examination of binary inter-
actions. In other words, interactions between target A and
target B, recognising that interactions can be far more complex,
multidimensional and dynamic with feedbacks and unforeseen
consequences. Further work on interactions could usefully apply a
systems-approach.
A systems approach can be taken at various organisational levels
depending on the goals and targets and the spillover to other
goals and targets. For example, where policies such as agricultural
intensification can have unintended consequences, such as nitrate
or E. coli pollution of freshwaters, national governments then need
to consider appropriate policy instruments.
One project that seeks to address the full spectrum of transfor-
mational challenges related to achieving the 17 sdgs in an inte-
grated manner so as to minimise trade-offs and maximise benefits,
is The World in 2050 (twi2050). This global research initiative
brings together a large consortium of researchers, modelling teams,
and policymakers around the world to explore science-based
transformational and equitable pathways to sustainable development
combining quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Strengthening integrated science to deliver the knowledge and
implementation pathways will require capacity building to work
across disciplines and include non-scientists in research processes.
It will also mean that scientists will need to work harder to
bridge disciplines, knowledge systems, and find efficient ways to link
and share datasets from diverse sources.
225 3. EMBED INTERACTIONS IN MONITORING AND REVIEW
Throughout the development process of the Sustainable Development
Goals in the un’s Open Working Group, the importance of consid-
ering the sdgs as a whole rather than in isolation was emphasised.

The Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development
Goals Indicators tasked with providing a proposal for a global indi-
cator framework for the follow-up and review of the 2030 Agenda
highlighted the new data requirements for the monitoring of the sdgs
and their 230 indicators agreed in March 2016 as well as the impor-
tance of interlinkages. Subsequently a working group has been estab-
lished to look at interlinkages between goals and targets, and
within the statistics underlying the indicators with a view to build
a more integrated analysis of the economic, social and environ-
mental developments related to the sdgs. The working group will
conduct its work between 2016 and 2018.
One approach towards more integrated reporting is the proposal
to develop a set of Essential Sustainability Variables (esvs). The
aim of these esvs would be to provide a minimum set of integrated,
headline indicators in which the indicators themselves focus on
interactions between sdg goals and targets to ensure that they are
addressed in an integrated fashion.
4. STRENGTHEN THE SCIENCE-POLICY INTERFACE

The scope of the ambition set by the 2030 Agenda calls for a wide
mobilisation of expertise, resources, competences, and enthu-
siasm from the global to the national and local levels. One important
dimension of this much-needed science-policy-society interface
is the need to strengthen science advisory mechanisms to decision-
makers at both the global and the national-level to support
evidence-based decision-making and solution-building. Strength-
ening science systems at the national level and connecting
scientists to decision-makers as well as strengthening capacities of
scientists to engage in a timely and adequate manner to allow
scientific evidence to be effectively used will be a critical enabler to
navigate the complexity and the urgency of the sdgs.
ANNEX
THREE ILLUSTRATIVE
EXAMPLES OF
INTERACTIONS
BETWEEN SDG 2 AND
THE OTHER SDGS
Literature referred to in the texts may be found
within the References section to the chapter on SDG 2
227 THE COMPOUND CHAL- The Amazon is a typical example of a
‘frontier economy’ (Boulding, 1966)
LENGE S OF DEFORESTATION, where economic growth, based on the
FOOD AND ENERGY
ANNEX
perpetual conquest of land and resources,

PRODUCT ION FOR CLIMATE is sometimes seen as infinite (Becker,
MITIG ATION, ECOSYSTEM 2005). Deforestation to provide land for
agriculture, cattle ranching and large-
PROTECTION AND HEALTH IN scale hydropower generation has been the
THE AMAZON REGION prevailing model for rural development
over the last 50 years (Nobre et al., 2016).
In Amazonia, smallholder farmers play a
SUMMARY OF KEY TRADE-OFFS
critical role in the maintenance of global
Land use conversion for agriculture agrobiodiversity, and generally use few
purposes such as cattle ranching agro-chemicals (Kawa et al., 2015), but
were responsible for up to 69% of Amazon
or soybean production (2.3) or biofuel
deforestation between 2006 and 2011.
production (7.2) may counteract Deforestation declined between 2004 and
the maintaining of ecosystems and 2012, but increased sharply in 2016.
forest conservation/protection (15.1,
THE NEXUS FOOD-WATER-ENERGY-
15.2, 15.5, 2.4) DEFORESTATION
Much of the total deforested area in
Hydroelectric power generation (7.2), the Brazilian Amazon (legal Amazonia)
can lead to the flooding of forested has been converted to pasture for cattle
ranching, approximately 70–88% in
areas (especially constraining 15.2)
1995 (Margulis, 2004) and 62% in 2008
and a decrease in agricultural (Almeida et al., 2016). For Mato Grosso
productivity in the lowland Amazon State, increased soybean production
between 2000 and 2007 accounted for
floodplains (sdg 2)
12% of the deforestation, with 71% of
newly cultivated soybean fields planted
Deforestation due to intense agri- in formerly deforested areas. Since
culture / pasture expansion, can 2009, 46% of the increase in agricultural
production was achieved through changes
counteract efforts to combat climate
in agricultural management practices
change (sdg 13) and constrain (Arvor, 2009). The effect of biofuel
climate adaption by increasing climate production on deforestation has not been
assessed globally, but biodiesel from
instability and extreme events (13.1).
soybean in Mato Grosso may have been
Such a trend may be exacerbated by responsible for up to 5.9% of the direct
dams which also lead to an increase annual deforestation over the past few
in greenhouse gas emissions years (Gao et al., 2011). On 24 July 2006,
the Soybean Moratorium was signed,
which effectively reduced the deforested
Land use conversion for agricultural land for soybean production. Since first
purposes (2.3) may constrain sdg 3 agreed, the moratorium has been renewed
every year, and it is currently renewed
due to an increase in exposure
without end date (Greenpeace, 2016).
to malaria risk (3.3) and/or mercury Land use change pressures can be further
contamination of soil (3.4, 3.9) reduced by investing in second generation
228 biofuels and public transport, with In this case, water use to increase the
positive impacts for the Brazilian economy share of renewable energy (7.2) via
(Obermaier M., pers. comm.). Large parts hydroelectricity, may also counteract the
ANNEX
of the Amazon are suitable for palm oil maintaining of ecosystems (2.4) and the
production and profitable (Englund et pursuit of forest conservation / protection
al., 2015). Lack of interest in sustainability (15.1, 15.2, 15.5) and also constrain the
criteria in key consumer markets may capacity to reach food and nutrition
worsen production standards in Brazil, security (2.1, 2.2) as well as the capacity for
including social sustainability of rural small-scale food producers to increase their
workers on the plantations. This illustrates food production and revenues (2.3).
the competition over land use and trade-
offs between sdg2 (mainly the targets CONSEQUENCES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE
emphasising agriculture productivity Converting forest to pasture is estimated
improvement, such as 2.3) and the need to to result in an average temperature in
halt deforestation (15.1, 15.2, 15.5). crease of 1.0–1.5°C in deforested area
Intense agriculture based solely during the dry season due to the change in
on short-term productivity without surface energy budget (Gash et al., 1996).
sustainability may counteract sdg targets Deforestation due to intense agricultural
related to forest conservation/protection. expansion highlights how target 2.3 can
This negative interaction also illustrates counteract combatting climate change and
the potential conflicts between the can constrain climate adaption by increasing
various sdg2 targets, where unsustainable climate instability and disasters (13.1).
agriculture productivity (2.3) may The impact of land use change on
constrain the maintenance of ecosystems precipitation is not clear and needs further
(2.4). Negative interactions of this type study. A possible explanation for the
are exacerbated by biofuel production precipitation reductions observed in the
as a means of increasing the share of last two decades over the southern and
renewable energy in the energy mix (7.2). south-eastern Amazon could be the change
Biofuel production is one of the in albedo between forests and pasture.
strongest links between agriculture, In all countries with a large part of
deforestation and green energy (Kahn et territory belonging to the Amazon
al., 2014). Hydroelectric power generation (Brazil, Columbia, Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador),
is another. The Brazilian plan calls for 30 agriculture, forest and land use change
new large dams in the next 30 years (Brazil account for over 83% of total ghg
mme, 2011). This would cause the flooding emissions. These countries rely heavily on
of 12,000 km2 of forested area (Fearnside, agriculture and forestry for climate change
2000). Apart from a significant increase mitigation (Börner and Wunder, 2012).
in ghg emissions, well known in tropical However, mitigation solutions in these
countries (Kemenes et al., 2007), one of the sectors imply a high level of technological
consequences will be decreased productivity complexity. Less demanding technology
in the lowland Amazon floodplains due to solutions to mitigate ghg emissions such
the retention of nutrients by reservoirs. as land retirement and primary forest
This endangers food production, because conservation do exist but involve higher
floodplains contain most of the traditional implementation costs for smallholdings
agriculture, coupled with fishing livelihoods than for medium to large farms.
(fish disappear after dam construction),
hunting and forest product gathering,
with major seasonal variations driven by
the annual flood cycle, also affected by the
dams (Barham et al., 1999).
229 CONSEQUENCES ON BIODIVERSITY an increase in exposure to malaria risk:
STOCK DEPLETION deforested areas provide favourable con-
A study in the southwestern Amazon, ditions for malaria vector breeding
ANNEX
indicates that post-logging timber species and feeding, while forest and secondary
composition and the total value of forest forest can provide resting sites for adult
stands do not recover beyond the first- mosquitoes after feeding. Consequently,
cut, suggesting that the most valuable (in the more the forest and secondary forest
commercial terms) timber species become patches interact with deforested patches,
rare or even disappear in old logging the more the landscape is favourable to
frontiers (Richardson and Peres, 2016). vectors and vector-human encounters
Intense agriculture expansion may (Li et al., 2016). This trend illustrates how
thus constrain the achievement of sdg 15 deforestation for the purposes of con-
on biodiversity, and may in particular version to another type of land use such as
counteract target 15.5 on the reduction agriculture can counteract the ending of
of habitat degradation, halting the loss communicable diseases such as malaria (3.3).
of biodiversity and the extinction of
threatened species.
Aquatic biodiversity will decline as a
direct result of Amazonian dam projects
due to the loss, fragmentation and
degradation of riparian and terrestrial
habitats (Lees et al., 2016).
IMPACTS ON HEALTH
In the Tapajos Amazon region, conversion
of forest to pasture results in soil erosion
and the transfer of soil sediments into
waterways, causing mercury pollution.
Inorganic mercury, which is naturally
present in the soil, is then transformed
into methylmercury through bacterial
activity and enters the aquatic food web,
with the highest mercury concentrations
occurring in the top predators at the
ends of food chains. The majority of
riverside dwellers eat fish several times
per week. Methylmercury is a neurotoxin,
and various studies have reported
nervous system dysfunction associated
with mercury exposure among these
communities (Fillion et al., 2009). This
example shows how land conversion for
agriculture purposes aligned with target
2.3 may constrain health, particularly the
reduction of deaths and illness caused by
hazardous chemicals (3.9) and the fight
against non-communicable diseases (3.4).
A recent study on the border between
Brazil and French Guiana summarised
the links between land use change and
230 PUTTING SUSTAINABLE international partnerships and
LAND MANAGEMENT AT capacity-building are key to
THE HEART OF SENEGAL’S mitigating such trade-offs (sdg 17)
ANNEX
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
STRATEGY Intensive peri-urban agriculture
using fertilisers and pesticides to
SUMMARY OF KEY SYNERGIES increase productivity and therefore
Sustainable land management and farming revenue (2.3) constrains
improving land and soil quality (sdg 2) can:
water quality (6.1, 6.3) and increases
Reduce land degradation/ associated diseases (3.9)
desertification and increase fertility
and biodiversity protection (15.3)
BACKGROUND
As is the case in many African countries,
Reduce soil erosion and maintain
the population of Senegal is growing
the physical structure of the soils rapidly. Population is expected to triple
and thus their water-holding between 2013 and 2050. This rapid growth
capacity as well as regulating soil is indicative of a marked demographic
transition that is increasing demand for
quality (6.6) goods and services, and increasing pressure
on natural resources and the environment.
Sequester carbon and mitigate Senegal is currently the second fastest
climate change (sdg 13). Such co- growing economy in West Africa, behind
Côte d’Ivoire (World Bank, 2017). In 2015,
benefit impact contribute to sdg 2
gdp grew by 6.5%, which had not been
food security targets as sequestered achieved since 2003. The fastest growing
carbon, when mineralised, releases sector is the primary sector, boosted
by growth in extractives, fishing, and
nutrients for plants
agriculture. Exports from the primary
sector are increasing rapidly.
Play a major role in food security West Africa suffered a long period of low
and poverty alleviation in urban and annual rainfall between 1968 and 1998.
This significantly reduced the availability
peri-urban areas (1.1, 1.2)
of surface water and the recharge of
groundwater, resulting in saltwater
Summary of key trade-offs intrusion in the main coastal basins.
However, the situation has now reversed,
and average rainfall for the period since
Depending on soil quality, improv-
2006 is greater than the average recorded
ing plant production may counteract for the period 1940–2012. According to the
action on climate change (sdg 13) Senegalese Directorate of Management
and Planning of Water Resources, water
resources are now adequate in rivers,
Some agriculture practices can
watercourses and underground. However,
have adverse impacts on terrestrial distribution and management of these
ecosystems (sdg 15). Strong resources are unsatisfactory. Less than
50% of the water available in the Senegal
231 River is estimated to be used for irrigated At the same time, by ratifying the Paris
agriculture. Agreement within the United Nations
Climate models project that by 2050 Framework Convention on Climate
ANNEX
average temperature in Senegal will Change, Senegal undertook to reduce its

have increased by 3–4°C. The greatest global ghg emissions, some of which were
changes in rainfall are projected to occur generated by the agriculture sector, and to
in semi-arid regions. Rainfall during the implement adaptation measures such as
cropping season is projected to drop by technologies to combat land degradation
20%, with the rainy season ending earlier and access to drinking water.
(Sultan and Gaetani, 2014).
SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT:
AGRICULTURE THE MANY BENEFITS PROVIDED BY SOIL
Agriculture plays an important role in the ORGANIC MATTER
national economy. It is the main economic Soils provide many ecosystem services that
activity in rural areas of Senegal. In the are essential to communities and their
country as a whole, 60% of the working environment. The role played by organic
population is employed in agriculture. matter in soil functioning has now been
However, agriculture accounts for only a clearly established (Feller et al., 2012;
small proportion of gdp (8%). Banwart et al., 2014): it maintains fertility,
assures primary production and maintains
LAND DEGRADATION the physical structure of the soils and
By ratifying the United Nations Convention thus their water-holding capacity as well
to Combat Desertification in 1994, Senegal as regulating soil quality (sdg 6). As the
undertook to implement a National Action main carbon sink of terrestrial ecosystems,
Plan (nap). In its third report, the Ministry soils also regulate the exchanges of carbon
for the Environment and Nature Protection dioxide and other ghgs between the soil
(Ministère de l’environnement et de la and the atmosphere. Increasing organic
protection de la nature, 2004) assessed land matter stocks, therefore, helps to mitigate
degradation in Senegal, and showed that climate change (sdg 13). However, it is also
almost 60% of arable land was subject important that some of the organic matter
to degradation, mainly related to water stored in soils should be mineralised
scarcity and water erosion. Despite consid- to ensure the release of nutrients, such
erable investment efforts to implement as nitrogen, for plants, thus improving
the nap, the report revealed that degradation productivity (sdg 2). Recent research (e.g.
had continued, increasing poverty. Wood et al., 2016) showed that different
forms of soil organic matter do not have
NEXUS OF LAND DEGRADATION, FOOD the same magnitude of effects on climate
SECURITY, CLIMATE AND WATER change mitigation or crop yield. There
CHALLENGES is, therefore, a trade-off between actions
In 2014, Senegal adopted “a new required to mitigate climate change
development model to accelerate its (sdg13) and actions required to improve
progress toward emerging market status plant production (sdg 2). Anticipating
[which] constitutes the reference for the impact of action plans on the targets
economic and social policy […]” (Ministry associated with these two goals requires a
of Economy, Finance and Planning, 2014: detailed knowledge of the processes that
Executive Summary). In the agricultural determine soil organic carbon dynamics.
sector, the successful implementation Such knowledge can help to reinforce
of priority actions, such as water synergies within the nexus and mitigate or
management, improving soil quality and even overcome some constraints and trade-
land reform depends on several factors. offs between the goals.
232 In West Africa and Senegal, sustainable forests” (fao, 2012: Preface). De Schutter
land management is the core issue of (2011) pointed to the need for security
action plans to combat land degradation. of land tenure to ensure national food
ANNEX
These plans focus on water management security, and stressed the importance of
(sdg 6), fertility and biodiversity (sdg 15) not transposing the Western model of
(Liniger et al., 2011). In these regions, the property rights to resolve competition
viability of production systems depends for land between local communities and
to a great extent on the management of companies willing to invest in agriculture
organic residues (crop residues, manure, in developing countries.
etc). In savanna regions, production To meet this challenge of rational land
systems are organised as a ring around governance, Senegal has drawn up Land
the villages (Manlay et al., 2004) with a Occupation and Use Plans, for example
gradual increase in intensification from for the Lac du Guiers region (see http://
the savanna area towards the centre of ppr-srec.org/fiches-actions/observatoire-
the village. This spatial organisation and participatif-de-veille-sur-le-foncier-opvf-
the recycling of organic residues are key phase-pilote-dans-la-zone-du-lac-de-guiers-
for soil organic matter stocks (Manlay et au-senegal.html).
al., 2004). Because regions with sandy soils
have a low storage capacity, increasing SOCIAL AND ENVIRONM ENTAL LINKS
productivity should be the priority target BETWEEN URBAN, PERI-URBAN
of agricultural action plans. In 2010, the AND RURAL AREAS
Senegal Ecological Monitoring Centre, In 1976, 34% of the population in Senegal
together with its partners, published lived in cities (République du Sénégal,
a set of best practices for sustainable 2014). By 2013, this had increased to 49%,
land management in Senegal (cse, 2010). with around 50% of this urban population
This showed the diversity of existing concentrated in Dakar. Urbanisation has
practices, highlighting the potentially thus accelerated during recent decades.
harmful effects of some practices on There are many complex factors explaining
other aspects such as biodiversity (sdg15). the increased number of people living
Although these best practices exist, Botoni in cities in Senegal. However, Gueye et
and Reij (2009) stressed that upscaling al. (2015) showed that drought has had
them requires a strong international a major impact on migration to cities.
commitment (sdg 17: Strengthen the Successive droughts (1970–1973, 1976–1977,
means of implementation and revitalise 1983–1984) had an almost immediate
the global partnership for sustainable effect on the economy of Senegal, which
development) and the use of dedicated is largely based on agriculture (peanuts,
funds to fully meet the multiple challenges millet, rice, cowpea, manioc, etc), with
of combating land degradation, ensuring the migration of rural populations to
food security, water management and cities which were forced to accommodate
mitigation of, and adaptation to, climate these new inhabitants in a short space of
change. time. Farmers, accounting for a very high
proportion of these new arrivals, helped
GOVERNANCE OF LAND TENURE: to develop peri-urban agriculture, thus
A SAFEGUARD TO AVOID HARMFUL meeting the increased food demand in
IMPACTS cities. Peri-urban agriculture is a source
According to the fao, “The eradication of of revenue for the poorest households in
hunger and poverty, and the sustainable urban areas (Golhore, 1995). It therefore
use of the environment, depend in large plays a major role in action to end poverty
measure on how people, communities and (1.2). In Senegal, a 250% increase in
others gain access to land, fisheries and production is forecast with an increase
233 in the area under cultivation (Gueye IMPLEMENTING CLIMATE
et al., 2015). However, this peri-urban SMART AGRICULTURE TO
agriculture model has a detrimental effect
ADDRESS CALIFORNIA’S
ANNEX
on population and human health (Ba et

al., 2016). Research undertaken in the WATER CHALLENGES
large metropolis of Dakar (in Pikine and Josette Lewis (World Food Center), Jan Hopmans
Niayes) showed that developing intensive (Department of Land, Air, Water Resources)
peri-urban agriculture using fertilisers Josue Medellin Azuara (Center for Watershed
and pesticides to increase productivity Sciences)
and, thus revenue from farming (2.3),
had a detrimental effect on water quality SUMMARY OF KEY SYNERGIES
(6.3) and drinking water (6.1). In a study
Access to nutritious food (2.1) contri-
of more than 100 wells in the Niayes area,
Sall and Vanclooster (2009) found the water butes to ending malnutrition (2.2)
was severely polluted by nitrates and so
called for the rapid implementation of
SUMMARY OF KEY TRADE-OFFS
environmentally-friendly farming practices
to ensure sustainable production (sgd12). Agricultural production can reduce
In these peri-urban farming systems, efforts air quality (3.9)
to increase production currently tend
to degrade water quality. This harmful
interaction constrains the achievement Nitrate leaching from fertiliser
of target 3.9. A survey of the market- use and animal production contami-
gardening systems in Pikine (a suburb of
nates drinking water (6.1)
Dakar) showed that nearly 7% of produce
(lettuce) was contaminated by Salmonella,
a human pathogen (Ndiaye et al., 2011). Fertilisers and animal waste run-off
may pollute surface water (6.3)
Agriculture is a major user of fresh-

water, challenging sustainable water
withdrawal and supply (6.4)
California is among the top ten agricultural

economies globally and the largest in
the usa, with an estimated us$ 50 billion
per year in farm-gate revenue. While
agriculture, together with food and bever-
age processing, accounts for less than 5%
of the overall state economy, it continues
to play a significant role in rural incomes.
California agriculture is highly market-
orientated, with continued shifts toward
high value products that take advantage of
the Mediterranean climate and can compete
globally on quality and safety, which is
evident through its 23% share in total
export revenue.
234 With over 76,000 farms ranging from SUSTAINABLE & RESILIENT
small, organic to large commercial AGRICULTURE: SDG 6 - WATER
operations, producing over 400 different With a dry climate, water is an essential
ANNEX
agricultural commodities, California resource for agricultural productivity and

plays an important role in providing climate resilience in California. During
access to safe and nutritious food to end the current five-year drought, agriculture
malnutrition in all forms (2.1, 2.2) and has received no or greatly reduced surface
ensuring sustainable and resilient food water allocations, leading to a negative
systems (2.4). Achieving these, presents economic impact on the agriculture sector
both synergies (reinforcing) and trade-offs amounting to us$ 2.2 billion in 2014
(constraints) to meeting other sdgs. As (Howitt et al., 2014; Medellin-Azuara et
California has one of the strongest records al., 2016).
on environmental regulation in the usa, With the Poter-Cologne Act of 1969,
its policy approaches to minimising trade- California began regulating water quality
offs between agriculture and environ- prior to the passage of the national
mental objectives may be instructive. Clean Water Act. State water quality
regulations were further strengthened
NUTRITION AND HEALTH: SDG 2 & SDG 3 to reduce run-off from irrigated lands (in
California is responsible for almost half 2003) and improve groundwater quality
the u.s. production of vegetables, fruits, (in 2001). However, nitrate leaching into
and nuts, and 20% of dairy products. groundwater in regions with intensive
Thus, California’s agriculture plays a very agricultural crop and livestock production
significant role in the nutritional quality leads to groundwaters that exceed
of the u.s. diet, reinforcing access to drinking water quality standards (Harter
safe and nutritious food (2.1) and ending et al., 2012). As many people outside
malnutrition (2.2). However, Californian large urban centres depend on wells for
agriculture also poses constraints on other drinking water, agricultural practices
health targets. Farm activities account constrain access to safe and clean drinking
for 21% of ozone-forming gases and more water (6.1) and improving water quality
than half of particulate emissions (from through reducing pollution (6.3). To
fertilisers and dust) in the San Joaquin reduce nitrate leaching from fertiliser use,
Valley (Cowan, 2005; arb, 2008). This policy responses being considered include
constrains reducing the number of deaths increasing taxes on nitrogen fertilisers
and illness from hazardous chemicals and increased regulatory measures in the
and air, water, and soil pollution and form of grower nutrient management
contamination (3.9). Californian air plans. To offset the impact of these
pollution laws had exempted farms from measures on the economic sustainability
permitting requirements until 2004, when of Californian agriculture, funding from
a series of new regulations on farms, wine taxes on fertiliser sales have been used
fermentation, and large cattle and dairy since 1990 for research to assist farmers
operations began requiring state pollution in reducing the environmental impact of
permits to address this trade-off. Finally, fertiliser use. This research has resulted
agriculture constrains access to clean in recommendations and tools used
drinking water, a health concern being by growers to sustain productivity and
addressed through regulatory measures. facilitate compliance with water quality
regulations.
Competition across urban, environ-
mental, and agricultural sectors has
intensified with increased environmental
priorities and the needs of growing
235 urban populations, along with periodic irrigation systems which contributes to
droughts. Of the total estimated surface this efficiency gain, has simultaneously
water available, from runoff stored constrained sustainable groundwater
ANNEX
in reservoirs and from stream flow, management. Drip irrigation significantly

agriculture withdraws 40%, while the reduces groundwater recharge rates, and
environment accounts for 50%, with the the number of irrigated acres expanded as
urban sector accounting for the remaining farmers shifted to groundwater supported
balance (California Department of Water drip and thus independence from canal
Resources, 2013). In normal water years, infrastructure providing surface water.
about 70% of developed water use (surface Research, funded by agricultural producer
+ groundwater) is for irrigated agriculture. organisations such as the Almond Board
However, in periods of drought, less water of California, along with public sources, is
is allocated to irrigation districts and examining the possibility of deliberately
the share of irrigation water declines to flooding agricultural lands in the rainy
50% or less. In normal years, about one winter months to increase groundwater
third of total developed water is from recharge, advancing new solutions to
groundwater; the level increases to 50% reinforce sustainable management of this
or more in periods of drought such as critical resource.
in the last few years. Increased reliance
on groundwater constrains ensuring SUSTAINABLE & RESILIENT AGRICULTURE:
sustainable withdrawals and supply of CLIMATE CHANGE - SDG 1 3
freshwater to address water scarcity (6.4). The concept of Climate Smart Agriculture
It also constrains access to clean drinking – balancing mitigation, adaptation, and
water (6.1). In 2016, the State was forced productivity – is increasingly integrated
to allocate us$ 19 million to provide into California’s agricultural policy
emergency drinking water to thousands framework. While agriculture accounts for
of people, largely in agricultural regions, only 8% of state ghg emissions, it will, in
due to overdraft of groundwater wells. To turn, be significantly impacted by climate
address concerns over the sustainability change. The projected reductions in
of groundwater for both agricultural and precipitation and more frequent periods of
drinking water needs, California passed drought are a major driver for adaptation.
the Sustainable Groundwater Management Furthermore, rising temperatures will
Act in 2014 to regulate groundwater significantly impact major crops: almonds
pumping. The impact of this new law is and stone fruits require winter chilling,
not yet clear, but will clearly constrain and wine grapes have climatic specificity
agriculture in regions of the state that rely for different varieties. The state passed a
entirely on groundwater for irrigation. comprehensive climate change law in 2006
Thus, a potential impact is a reduction in that called for reducing ghg emissions
state-wide crop acreage. through the use of a cap and trade system.
The relationship between agriculture This policy has since been strengthened by
and water resources is complex and additional regulations and investments in a
requires action at both the farm and basin low carbon economy, including in the area
scale. During the past 50 years, the water of agriculture. While the original policy did
use efficiency of California agriculture not set ghg emission caps on agriculture,
has increased: total agricultural water it does regulate emissions from food and
use has declined while at the same time, beverage processing in the state, thus
the shift toward higher value crops has connecting sdg 13 with sdg 2. In September
significantly increased the productive use 2016, the state enacted new regulations
of that water. However, the shift toward on short-lived climate pollutants to
more efficient drip and micro sprinkler meet more ambitious climate mitigation
236 goals. This regulation calls for methane incentives and new tools and technologies
reductions in the dairy production that are driving continuous improvement
sector. Livestock production accounts in the agriculture sector to reconcile these
ANNEX
for about half of California’s agricultural constraints between goals. This is evident
emissions, with the majority of dairy in the continued growth in economic value
production in large, confined operations. of the sector and the increasing evidence
It is expected that the new methane of improvements against environmental
emissions regulations could significantly measures.
constrain the economic viability of the
dairy industry through very significant
increases in costs associated with changing
manure management practices (Lee,
2016). At the same time, the priority given
to climate change in state policy has
provided a framework for synergies with
agricultural productivity and adaptation
through public investments in incentives
for growers to adopt climate mitigating
practices. Funds from carbon credit
auctions support incentives (subsidies)
for growers in the areas of healthy soils,
more water and energy efficient irrigation
systems, and installation of dairy digesters.
A recent review of research in California
demonstrates that these technologies and
management practices offer co-benefits for
both ghg emission reductions and either
productivity or climate resilience benefits
(Byrnes et al., 2016), reinforcing the
economic and environmental sustainability
of agriculture. Thus, while the climate
mitigation policy framework in the state
may have some constraining impacts on
agriculture, it also provides reinforcing
investments in the productivity,
sustainability, and resilience of the sector.
The case of California illustrates some
of the approaches to reconciling across
goals for an economically viable, highly
diverse food system and a sustainable
environment. Increased regulation for
health and environmental concerns, more
limited allocation of water for agriculture,
and international trade competition
constrain California agriculture and will
continue to drive changes in the amount
and types of agriculture produced. At the
same time, investments by the state and
national governments and agricultural
producer organisations are providing
LEAD COORDINATOR Claudia Ringler Deputy Division Director, Division
Anne-Sophie Stevance (ICSU) of Environment and Production Technology
(International Food Policy Research Institute)
OVERALL EDITORS Stefanie Schmidt DG MARE (European Commission)
Dave Griggs, Måns Nilsson, Frédérique Seyler Deputy Director of the department
Anne-Sophie Stevance, David McCollum on Internal Dynamics and Continent surface
(Institute of Research for Development
AUTHORS José Siri Research fellow, (United Nations University
Anthony Capon Professor Planetary Health (University International Institute for Global Health)
of Sydney) Sebastian Unger Scientific Coordinator (Institute for
Ralph Chapman Director, Graduate Programme in Advanced Sustainability Studies)
Environmental Studies (School of Geography, Martin Visbeck Professor in physical oceanography
Environment and Earth Sciences, University of (GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research
Wellington) and Kiel University)
Elinor Chisholm Department of Public Health (New Yvonne Waweru Project Scientist (Institute for
Zealand Centre for Sustainable Cities, University of Advanced Sustainability Studies)
Otago)
Jean-Luc Chotte Ecologie Fonctionnelle & Biogéochimie EDITORIAL TEAM
des sols & des Agro-écosystèmes (Institute of Carolyn Symon (science editor)
Research for Development) Denise Young, Johannes Mengel,
Christopher N.H. Doll (United Nations University - Howard Moore (independent editor)
Institute of Advanced Studies)
Carole Durussel Project Scientist, Ocean Governance, DESIGN TEAM
(Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies) Johannes Mengel (coordination)
Luis Gomez Echeverri Senior Research Scholar Nora Coenenberg and Pia Bublies
(International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis) (illustrations and graphics)
David Griggs Professor in sustainable development www.nocoii.com, www.piabublies.de,
(Monash Sustainability Institute, Monash
University) PBLC Design – Daniel Behrens and
Philippa Howden-Chapman Director, He Kainga Thomas Ackermann (layout)
Oranga/Housing and Health Research Programme www.pblcdsgn.de
(New Zealand Centre for Sustainable Cities,
University of Otago) ADVISOR
David McCollum Research scholar, Energy Program Gisbert Glaser
(International Institute for Applied Systems
Analysis) SUGGESTED CITATION
Ludovic Mollier Project officer, Sustainable International Council for Science (ICSU), 2017.
Development Goals and Finance for Development A Guide to SDG Interactions: from Science to
(Institute of Research for Development) Implementation [D.J. Griggs, M. Nilsson, A. Stevance,
Måns Nilsson Research director (Stockholm D. McCollum (eds)]. International Council for Science,
Environment Institute), Professor of the practice of Paris
policy analysis (KTH Royal Institute of Technology)
Barbara Neumann Research Associate, Coastal Risks DOI: 10.24948/2017.01
and Sea-Level Rise Research Group, (Institute of
Geography, Kiel University) ICSU would like to thank the US National
Simon Parkinson Research Scholar, Energy program Science Foundation (NSF) for its support
(International Institute for Applied Systems of this work.
Analysis)
Keywan Riahi Programme Director, Energy Program
(International Institute for Applied Systems
Analysis)
PEER-REVIEWERS Martin Obermaier (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,
Anik Bhaduri (Griffith University, Australia) Brazil)
Kathryn Bowen (Australian National University) Marlon Pareja (De La Salle University Dasmarinas,
Clainos Chidoko (Great Zimbabwe University) Philippines)
Amy Choong (National University of Singapore) Farhan Rauf (Our Own Public Health Institute, Pakistan)
Marius Christen (University of Basel, Switzerland) Thomas Reuter (University of Melbourne, Australia)
Guéladio Cissé (Swiss Tropical and Public Health Adam Samms (Royal Roads University, Canada)
Institute, Switzerland) Lidion Sibanda (South Africa)
Charles Ebikeme (ICSU) R.B. Singh (University of Delhi, India)
Uwe Fritsche (International Institute for Sustainability Patricia Solis (Texas Tech University, United States)
Analysis and Strategy, Germany) Bill Sonntag (Environmental Protection Agency,
Franz Gatzweiler (Urban Health and Well-being United States)
programme, China) Kalum Udagepola (Scientific Research Development
Thomas Skou Grindsted (Roskilde University, Denmark) Institute of Technology, Australia)
Yabi Ibouraïma (Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Benin) Ashish Upadhyay (Center for Environmental Planning
Nafiseh Jafarzadeh (Massachusetts Institute and Technology, India)
of Technology, United States) Ed Urban (Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research,
Johnson Jament (University of Northampton, United States)
United Kingdom) Claude Villeneuve (Université du Québec, Canada)
Saroj Jayasinghe (University of Colombo, Sri Lanka) Gabriela Wülser (Swiss Academies of Arts and
Kristina Jönsson (Lund University, Sweden) Sciences, Switzerland)
Daniel Kachelriess (CITES, Switzerland) Nima Yazdan Panah (Massachusetts Institute of
Shelton Kagande (University of Zimbabwe) Technology, United States)
Richard Kenchington (University of Wollongong,
Australia)
Ushehwedu Kufakurinani (University of Zimbabwe)
Sigrid Kusch (Independent, Germany)
David Leblanc (UNDESA)
Martin Le Tissier (University College Cork/Future Earth
Coasts, Ireland)
Yong Liu (Tianjin University, China)
Stewart Lockie (James Cook University, Australia)
Dand Ly Quoc (Chiang Mai University, Vietnam)
Julius Madzore (Zimbabwe)
Kudzai Makoni (Africa Community Development and
Research Center, Zimbabwe)
Itai Offat Manyanhaire (Zimbabwe Open University)
Michelle Merrill (National Ecology and Environment
Foundation, United States)
Peter Messerli (Centre for Development and
Environment, Switzerland)
Tawanda Mushiri (University of Zimbabwe)
Godfrey Ndlovu (National University of science and
Technology, Zimbabwe)
Gilchriste Ndongwe (Zimbabwe Evidence Informed
Policy Network)
Aidin Niamir (Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate
Research Institute, Germany)
Ana Raquel Nunes (Warwick Medical School,
United Kingdom)
The United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development was adopted in September 2015.
It is underpinned by 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets. National policy-
makers now face the challenge of implementing
this indivisible agenda and achieving progress
across the economic, social and environmental
dimensions of sustainable development worldwide.
For this report, a team of scientists evaluated the key

target-level interactions between an ‘entry goal’
and all other goals, and attributed a score to these
interactions based on their expert judgment and
as justified through the scientific literature. For their
work, they used the 7-point scale pictured below.
The report is based on the premise that understand-

ing the range of positive and negative interactions
among SDGs is key to unlocking their full potential
at any scale, as well as to ensuring that progress
made in some areas is not made at the expense of
progress in others. The nature, strengths and
potential impact of these interactions are largely
context-specific and depend on the policy options
and strategies chosen to pursue them.
INTERNATIONAL
FOOD POLICY
RESEARCH
INSTITUTE
IFPRI

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A GUIDE TO

SUSTAINABLE AND MODERN ENERGY FOR ALL

dience for this report.

Using a 7-point scale, a team of scientists evaluated the key

The assessment identified 316 target-level interactions overall,

This analysis found no fundamental incompati­bilities between

The process of systematically identifying and scoring inter­

This approach provides a basis for a science-policy dialogue on

There is clearly no one-size-fits-all approach to understanding

SCORING EXAMPLE: EFFECTS OF CLEAN ENERGY

Nevertheless, a strength of the approach was that it generated

SDG 2: END HUNGER, ACHIEVE FOOD

KEY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER GOALS

for women’s empowerment and gender equality as it opens up

being. This will require a careful and context-sensitive assessment

SDG 3: ENSURE HEALTHY LIVES AND

KEY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER GOALS

86 target-level interactions: 81 (positive) and 5 (negative)

IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

Modern energy is fundamental to human development, and the

KEY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER GOALS

impacts as well compensation mechanisms that support the most

SDG 14: CONSERVE AND SUSTAINABLY USE

KEY INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER GOALS

resources, but coastal settlements are a major factor in increasing

IMPLICATIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

between the four Sustainable Development Goals presented

Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,

OVERALL AIM OF THE SDGS

between these goals and associated targets to support

WHY ARE INTERACTIONS IMPORTANT?

productivity and agricultural trade) and environmental dimensions

the poorest – yet, sustain­able development of biofuels could also

INDIVISIBLE REINFORCING ENABLING CONSISTENT CONSTRAINING COUNTERACTING CANCELLING

The framework identifies categories of causal and functional re­lat­­-

– how­one set of conditions in society or the environment affects

KEY DIMENSIONS THAT SHAPE

given interaction should, if possible, include an assessment of the

PLACE-SPECIFIC CONTEXT DEPENDENCY

Thus, what constitutes a positive interaction and a negative

cohe­rence across sectors. Coherence can be defined as ­“an attribute

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL INTERACTIONS AND

SECTORAL TRANSNATIONAL GOVERNANCE MULTILEVEL IMPLEMENTATION

An important type of coherence relationship exists across trans-

presents a mixture of key sdgs aimed at human well-being,

sdg 2 integrates and links food security,

2 + 1 Africa (World Bank, 2016), South Asia

till agriculture, increased nutrient use while improving agricultural production is

cancer. Not addressing food security and 2 + 6

of no-till agriculture, and additional of land use change, land degradation

West Africa (Senegal)

TARGETS KEY INTERACTIONS SCORE POLICY OPTIONS

2.1, 2.2 1.1, 1.2 Food and nutrition security are

Advance agricultural research and development

Build resilience by setting up pro-poor policy

Consider the role of diversification in strategies

Countries (ldcs), liberalisation can have

poor and small-scale food producers’

This analysis found no fundamental incompatibilities between

The process of systematically identifying and scoring inter

the poorest – yet, sustainable development of biofuels could also

The framework identifies categories of causal and functional relat-

– howone set of conditions in society or the environment affects

coherence across sectors. Coherence can be defined as “an attribute