2.0 Exploration

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2.

0 EXPLORATION

Keywords: plate tectonics, sedimentary basins, source rocks, maturation, migration,

reservoir rocks, traps, seismic, gravity survey, magnetic survey, geochemistry, mudlogs,

field studies.

Introduction and Commercial Application: This section will firstly examine the conditions

necessary for the existence of a hydrocarbon accumulation. Secondly, we will see which

techniques are employed by the industry to locate oil and gas deposits.

Exploration activities are aimed at finding new volumes of hydrocarbons, thus replacing

the volumes being produced. The success of a company's exploration efforts determines

its prospects of remaining in business in the long term.

2.1 Hydrocarbon Accumulations

Overview

Several conditions need to be satisfied for the existence of a hydrocarbon accumulation,

as indicated in Figure 2.1. The first of these is an area in which a suitable sequence of

rocks has accumulated over geologic time, the sedimentary basin. Within that sequence

there needs to be a high content of organic matter, the source rock. Through elevated

temperatures and pressures these rocks must have reached maturation, the condition

at which hydrocarbons are expelled from the source rock.

Migration describes the process which has transported the generated hydrocarbons

into a porous type of sediment, the reservoir rock. Only if the reservoir is deformed in a

favourable shape or if it is laterally grading into an impermeable formation does a trap

for the migrating hydrocarbons exist.

Sedimentary Basins

One of the geo-scientific breakthroughs of this century has been the acceptance of the

concept of plate tectonics. It is beyond the scope of this book to explore the underlying

theories in any detail. In summary, the plate tectonic model postulates that the positions

of the oceans and continents are gradually changing through geologic times. Like giant
rafts, the continents drift over the underlying mantle. Figure 2.2 shows the global

configuration of major plate boundaries.

The features created by crustal movements may be mountain chains, like the Himalayas,

where collision of continents causes compression. Conversely, the depressions of the

Red Sea and East African Rift Basin are formed by extensional plate movements. Both

type of movements form large scale depressions into which sediments from the

surrounding elevated areas ("highs") are transported. These depressions are termed

sedimentary basins (Fig. 2.3). The basin fill can attain a thickness of several kilometres.

Source Rocks

About 90% of all the organic matter found in sediments is contained in shales. For the

deposition of these source rocks several conditions have to be met: organic material

must be abundant and a lack of oxygen must prevent the decomposition of the organic

remains. Continuous sedimentation over a long period of time causes burial of the

organic matter. Depending on the area of deposition, organic matter may consist

predominantly of plant remnants or of phytoplankton. These are marine algae which

live in the upper layers of the oceans, and upon death sink in vast quantities onto the

seabed. Plant derived source rocks often lead to "waxy" crudes. An example of a marine

source rock is the Kimmeridge clay which has sourced the large fields in the Northern

North Sea. The coals of the carboniferous age have sourced the gas fields of the Southern

North Sea.

Maturation

The conversion of sedimentary organic matter into petroleum is termed maturation.

The resulting products are largely controlled by the composition of the original matter.

Figure 2.4 shows the maturation process, which starts with the conversion of mainly

kerogen into petroleum; but in very small amounts below a temperature of 50~ (kerogen:

organic rich material which will produce hydrocarbon on heating). The temperature

rises as the sediment package subsides within the basinal framework. The peak
conversion of kerogen occurs at a temperature of about 100~ If the temperature is

raised above 130~ for everf~ short period of time, crude oil itself will begin to "crack"

and gas will start to be produced. Initially the composition of the gas will show a high

content of C4 to C10 components ("wet gas" and condensate), but with further increases

in temperature the mixture will tend towards the light hydrocarbons (C1 to C3, "dry

gas"). For more detail on the composition of hydrocarbons, refer to Section 5.2.

The most important factor for maturation and hydrocarbon type is therefore heat. The

increase of temperature with depth is dependent on the geothermal gradient which

varies from basin to basin. An average value is about 3~ per 100 meters of depth.

Migration

The maturation of source rocks is followed by the migration of the produced hydrocarbons

from the deeper, hotter parts of the basin into suitable structures. Hydrocarbons are

lighter than water and will therefore move upwards through permeable strata.

Two stages have been recognised in the migration process. During primary migration

the very process of kerogen transformation causes micro-fracturing of the impermeable

and low porosity source rock which allows hydrocarbons to move into more permeable

strata. In the second stage of migration the generated fluids move more freely along

bedding planes and faults into a suitable reservoir structure. Migration can occur over

considerable distances of several tens of kilometres.

Reservoir rock

Reservoir rocks are either of clastic or carbonate composition. The former are composed

of silicates, usually sandstone, the latter of biogenetically derived detritus, such as coral

or shell fragments. There are some important differences between the two rock types

which affect the quality of the reservoir and its interaction with fluids which flow through

them.

The main component of sandstone reservoirs ("siliciclastic reservoirs") is quartz (SiO2).

Chemically it is a fairly stable mineral which is not easily altered by changes in pressure,
temperature or acidity of pore fluids. Sandstone reservoirs form after the sand grains

have been transported over large distances and have deposited in particular

environments of deposition.

Carbonate reservoir rock is usually found at the place of formation ("in situ"). Carbonate

rocks are susceptible to alteration by the processes of diagenesis.

The pores between the rock components, e.g. the sand grains in a sandstone reservoir,

will initially be filled with the pore water. The migrating hydrocarbons will displace the

water and thus gradually fill the reservoir. For a reservoir to be effective, the pores need

to be in communication to allow migration, and also need to allow flow towards the

borehole once a well is drilled into the structure. The pore space is referred to as porosity

in oil field terms. Permeability measures the ability of a rock to allow fluid flow through

its pore system. A reservoir rock which has some porosity but too low a permeability to

allow fluid flow is termed "tight".

In Section 5.1 we will examine the properties and lateral distribution of reservoir rocks

Traps

Hydrocarbons are of a lower density than formation water. Thus, if no mechanism is in

place to stop their upward migration they will eventually seep to the surface. On seabed

surveys in some offshore areas we can detect crater like features ("pock marks") which

also bear witness to the escape of oil and gas to the surface. It is assumed that throughout

the geologic past vast quantities of hydrocarbons have been lost in this manner from

sedimentary basins.

There are three basic forms of trap as shown in Figure 2.5. These are:

. Anticlinal traps which are the result of ductile crustal deformations

. Fault traps which are the result of brittle crustal deformations

. Stratigraphic traps where impermeable strata seals the reservoir

In many oil and gas fields throughout the world hydrocarbons are found in fault bound

anticlinal structures. This type of trapping mechanism is called a combination trap.


Even if all of the elements described so far have been present within a sedimentary

basin an accumulation will not necessarily be encountered. One of the crucial questions

in prospect evaluation is about the timing of events. The deformation of strata into a

suitable trap has to precede the maturation and migration of petroleum. The reservoir

seal must have been intact throughout geologic time. If a "leak" occurred sometime in

the past, the exploration well will only encounter small amounts of residual hydrocarbons.

Conversely, a seal such as a fault may have developed early on in the field's history

and prevented the migration of hydrocarbons into the structure.

In some cases bacteria may have "biodegraded' the oil, i.e. destroyed the light fraction.

Many shallow accumulations have been altered by this process. An example would be

the large heavy oil accumulations in Venezuela.

Given the costs of exploration ventures it is clear that much effort will be expended to

avoid failure. A variety of disciplines are drawn in such as geology, geophysics,

mathematics, and geochemistry to analyse a prospective area. However, on average,

even in very mature areas where exploration has been ongoing for years, only every

third exploration well will encounter substantial amounts of hydrocarbons. In real 'wildcat'

areas, basins which have not been drilled previously, only every tenth well is, on average,

successful.

2.2 Exploration Methods and Techniques

The objective of any exploration venture is to find new volumes of hydrocarbons at a

low cost and in a short period of time. Exploration budgets are in direct competition with

acquisition opportunities. If a company spends more money finding oil than it would

have had to spend buying the equivalent amount "in the market place" there is little

incentive to continue exploration. Conversely, a company which manages to find new

reserves at low cost has a significant competitive edge since it can afford more

exploration, find and develop reservoirs more profitably, and can target and develop

smaller prospects.
The usual sequence of activities once an area has beenselected for exploration starts

with the definition of a basin. The mapping of gravity anomalies and magnetic anomalies

will be the first two methods applied. In many cases today this data will be available in

the public domain or can be bought as a "non exclusive" survey. Next, a coarse twodimensional

(2D) seismic grid, covering a wide area, will be acquired in order to define

leads, areas which show for instance a structure which potentially could contain an

accumulation. A particular exploration concept, often the idea of an individual or a team

will emerge next. Since at this point very few hard facts are available to judge the merit

of these ideas they are often referred to as "play'. More detailed investigations will be

integrated to define a prospect; a subsurface structure with a reasonable probability of

containing all the elements of a petroleum accumulation as outlined above.

Eventually, only the drilling of an exploration well will prove the validity of the concept. A

wildcat is drilled in a region with no prior well control. Wells may either result in discoveries

of oil and gas, or they find the objective zone water bearing in which case they are

termed "dry'.

Exploration activities are potentially damaging to the environment. The cutting down of

trees in preparation for an onshore seismic survey may result in severe soil erosion in

years to come. Offshore, fragile ecological systems such as reefs can be permanently

damaged by spills of crude or mud chemicals. Responsible companies will therefore

carry out an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) prior to activity planning and draw

up contingency plans should an accident occur. In Section 4.0 a more detailed description

of health, safety and environmental considerations will be provided.

Gravity Surveys

The gravity method measures small (-10 -6 g) variations of the earth's gravity field caused

by density variations in geological structures. The sensing element is a sophisticated

form of spring balance. Variations in the earth's gravity field cause changes in the length

of the spring, which are measured (Fig 2.6). Measurements must be corrected for the
elevation of the recording station.

Magnetic Surveys

The magnetic method detects changes in the earth's magnetic field caused by variations

in the magnetic properties of rocks. In particular basement and igneous rocks are

relatively highly magnetic and if close to the surface give rise to short wavelength, high

amplitude anomalies in the earth's magnetic field (Fig. 2.7). The method is airborne

(plane or satellite) which permits rapid surveying and mapping with good areal coverage.

Like the gravity technique this survey is often employed at the beginning of an exploration

venture.

Seismic Surveys

It is fair to say that advances in seismic surveys over the last decade have changed the

way fields are developed and managed. From being a predominantly exploration focused

tool, seismic has progressed to become one of the most cost effective methods for

optimising field production. In many cases, seismic has allowed operators to extend the

life of 'mature' fields by several years.

Seismic surveys involve the generation of artificial shock waves which propagate through

the 'overburden' rock to the reservoir targets and beyond, being reflected back to

receivers where they register as a pressure pulse (in hydrophones - offshore) or as

acceleration (in geophones - onshore). The signals from reflections are digitised and

stored for processing and the resulting data reconstructs an acoustic image of the

subsurface for later interpretation. The objective of seismic surveying is to produce an

acoustic image of the subsurface, with as much resolution as possible, where all the

reflections are correctly positioned and focused and the image is as close to a true

geological picture as can be. This of course is an ideal, but modern (3D and 4D)

techniques allow us to approach this ideal.

Seismic is used

. in exploration for determining structures and stratigraphic traps to be drilled


. in field appraisal and development for estimation of reserves and formulation of

field development plans

. during production for reservoir surveillance purposes such as observing movement

of contacts, distribution of reservoir fluids and changes in pressure

Interpretation involves

. picking intervals or horizons of interest

. deriving the structure of the field or potential trap (both the stratigraphic detail and

the faulting)

. getting some insight into the reservoir quafity variations, such as porosity, of interest

to the petroleum engineer or geologist.

Geochemistry

Analysing the distribution of elements and compounds related to petroleum occurrences

has several applications, some of which are useful for production monitoring.

Geochemistry is employed for the following reasons:

. To detect surface anomalies caused by hydrocarbon accumulations: often very

small amounts of petroleum compounds have leaked into the overlying strata and

to the surface. On land, these compounds, mostly gases, may be detectable in

soil samples.

. To assess potential yield and maturity of source rocks and classify those according

to their "vitrinite reflectance

Field studies

There is only one method available that allows the study of the vertical and lateral

relationship of the different rock types of a reservoir on a scale of 1:1. This is the study

of outcrops. These are areas like quarries, roadcuts, cliffs, mines, etc., which consist of

a sequence known to be a reservoir in the vicinity or the lateral equivalent thereof.

Detailed investigation of a suitable outcrop can often be used as a predictive tool to

model:
. presence, maturity and distribution of source rock

. porosity and permeability of a reservoir

. detailed reservoir framework, including flow units, barriers and baffles to fluid flow

. frequency, orientation and geological history of fractures and sub-seismic faults

. lateral continuity of sands and shales

. quantitative description of all of the above for numerical reservoir simulations

Over the last decade some of the major oil companies have been using vast amounts

of outcrop derived measurements to design and calibrate powerful computer models.

These models are employed as tools to quantitatively describe reservoir distribution

and flow behaviour within individual units. Hence this technique is not only important for

the exploration phase but more so for the early assessment of production profiles.

Mudlogging

The technique of mudlogging is covered in this section because it is one of the first

direct evaluation methods available during the drilling of an exploration well. As such,

the mudlog remains an important and often under-used source of original information.

This first information about the reservoir is recorded, as a function of depth, in the form

of several columns. Although rather qualitative in many respects, mudlogging is an

important data gathering technique. It is of importance as a basis for operational

decisions, e.g. at what depth to set casing, or where to core a well. Mudlogging is also

cheap, as data is gathered while the normal drilling operations go on.

The rate at which the drill bit penetrates the formation gives qualitative information

about the lithology being drilled. For example, in a hard shale the rate of penetration

(ROP) will be slower than in a porous sandstone.

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