Ceris-Cnr, W.P.

N° 2/2006

Classifications of Innovations
Survey and Future Directions

Mario Coccia
(Ceris-Cnr, Italia & Max-Planck Institute of Economics,
Germania)
National Research Council of Italy, Ceris-Cnr
Via Real Collegio, 30
10024 Moncalieri (Torino) – Italy
Tel.: +39.011.6824.925; Fax: +39.011.6824.966; email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT. The purpose of this paper is to focus on similarity and/or heterogeneity of

taxonomies of innovation present in the economic fields to show as the economic literature
uses different names to indicate the same type of technical change and innovation, and the
same name for different types of innovation. This ambiguity of classification makes it
impossible to compare the various studies; moreover the numerous typologies existing in
the economics of innovation, technometrics, economics of technical change, management
of technology, etc., have hindered the development of knowledge in these fields. The
research presents also new directions on the classification of innovation that try to
overcome these problems.

KEYWORDS: Classifications, Taxonomy, Technical change, Product, Innovation Patterns, Management

of Technology, Economics of innovation
JEL CODES: B11, B12, B20, B41, O30

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. I am grateful to Secondo Rolfo (Ceris-Cnr, Italia), Ian McCarthy (SFU Business, Simon Fraser
University, Vancouver; Canada) for useful suggestions to a preliminary draft of this paper. Any errors are my sole
responsibility.

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WORKING PAPER CERIS-CNR
Anno 8, N° 2 – 2006
Autorizzazione del Tribunale di Torino
N. 2681 del 28 marzo 1977

Direttore Responsabile
Secondo Rolfo

Direzione e Redazione
Ceris-Cnr
Istituto di Ricerca sull’Impresa e lo Sviluppo
Via Real Collegio, 30
10024 Moncalieri (Torino), Italy
Tel. +39 011 6824.911
Fax +39 011 6824.966
[email protected]
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Finito di stampare nel mese di August 2006

 Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................................ 7

1. CLASSIFICATION OF TECHNICAL CHANGE AND INNOVATION INTENSITY:

A LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Taxonomies of innovation in economics of innovation ............................................................. 8
1.2 Classifications of innovations within the management of technology (MOT) ........................ 11

2. DISCUSSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS .................................................................................... 14

3. CONCLUDING REMARKS................................................................................................................ 16

REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................... 17

WORKING PAPER SERIES (2006-1993) ...........................................................................................I-VI

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 Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

INTRODUCTION the word has also been imported in social

sciences. Taxonomies are meant to classify

T
phenomena with the aim of maximizing the
he capacity to innovate is an important
differences among groups. The term taxonomy
strategic option for many firms and
refers to a branch of systematics concerned with
countries. It is also a central and
the theory and practice of producing
enduring research theme for academics, which
classification schemes. Thus, constructing a
have spent the last 70 years defining, explaining
classification is a taxonomic process with rules
and measuring innovation in its many forms. A
on how to form and represent groups (taxa),
popular and fundamental approach that has
which are then named (nomy). The social
accompanied these studies is the classification
sciences have two general approaches to
of innovation, which is both a process (to
classification: the empirical and theoretical. The
classify) and an output of the process (a
principal difference between these two social
classification). The classification provides
science approaches is the stage at which a theory
models for ordering, labeling, and articulating
of differences is proposed and evidence then
knowledge about the diversity of innovations.
sought to validate the theory (Warriner, 1984;
Classification helps us to arrange and structure
Rich 1992; Doty and Glick, 1994). Theoretical
our knowledge in a way that is more fruitful and
classifications in the social sciences begin by
transferable that a simple list of descriptions.
developing a theory of differences which then
The classifications of technical change and results in a classification of organizational types,
innovation, and its interpretation, remains one of known as a typology. Only when the
the most difficult problems for scholars to classification has been proposed is a decision
analyze, due to the several variables involved made as to where an entity belongs in the
and because the innovation can have different classification. With the empirical approach,
causes of origin. social science classifications begin by gathering
As classification is a common process in the data about the entities under study. The data are
physical, life and social sciences: the result is a then processed using statistical methods
diverse range of interpretations and frequent (numerical taxonomy) to produce groups
misuse of classification terms, theories and according to the measures of similarity and
methods. Although the words "category" and statistical techniques used. Thus the overall aim
"taxonomy" are almost synonyms, they are very is to use data to construct the classification,
different in age. As early as 2,300 years ago, the instead of supporting it, but in reality, data are
father of all taxonomies, Aristotle, often used, seldom collected without an expectation about
the word "Kathegoría". The word taxonomy is, what they will reveal or validate. While, for
on the contrary, a recent one, dating to the first example, a "taxonomy" is considered useful, if it
half of the eighteenth century. Several scholars, is able to reduce the complexity of the
including Linnaeus, to classify minerals and population studied into easily recallable
animal and botanical species used it. The macro-classes, the “classifications” are often
scientists and philosophers of the Enlightenment highly desegregated, both in natural and social
introduced this neologism by recovering an sciences (Archibugi, 2001). Although the term
ancient Greek word (táxon, arrangement, array) classification has been used throughout this
and associating it to nómos. Since then the word paper, there is no agreement about the general
has been very successful and is still used in use of the term. Classification as an output (a
natural sciences to classify species, minerals and product of the process of classifying) deals with
the phenomena. It should be noted that the term how groups and classes of entities will be
flourished in the natural sciences a century arranged, in accord with the taxonomic
before Charles Darwin proposed his theory of approach used (McKelvey, 1982). It is a
evolution, though in more recent times framework (e.g. a matrix, a table, a dendrogram,
taxonomies have tried to describe and explain etc.) for ordering and representing, regardless of
the static characteristics of objects as well as whether a theoretical or empirical approach is
their evolving patterns. Over the last decades, used. The terms classification scheme or

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Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

classification system are often used to Empirical studies classify innovations in two
distinguish and identify classification as an fields: 1) at the macro level, the characteristics
output. Examples of such schemes and systems of innovation that are new to the world, market
include the Linnaean System of nomenclature, or sector are considered (Maidique and Zirger,
the Periodic Classification of chemical elements, 1984; Lee and Na, 1994). In this case, the
the Mercalli scale, the Dewey Decimal innovativeness is based on factors that are
Classification System for organizing books and exogenous to the firm, such as the familiarity of
other bibliographic items and the North an innovation to the world and the industry or
American Industrial Classification (NAIC) and the creation of new competitors due to the
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) systems introduction of new innovations; 2) at the micro
for naming and organizing industry sectors. level, innovation is new to firm or to the
The purpose of this paper is to focus on consumer (More, 1982). Some researchers use
similarity and/or heterogenity of taxonomies of both yardsticks (Ali et al., 1995; Cooper, 1979;
innovation present in the economic fields to Cooper and de Brentani, 1991). The innovation
show as the economic literature uses different classifications can be divided according to two
names to indicate the same type of technical fields of study. These two perspectives show
change and innovation, and the same name for different characteristics of innovation will be as
different types of innovation. The taxonomies of described in the following sections.
innovation can be divided in two sets of analysis
(section 1): economics of innovation and
management of technology. Section two 1.1 Taxonomies of innovation in economics
of innovation
presents a discussion and the new directions in
the classification of the technical change and After Schumpeter (1939), according to whom
innovation that try to overcome the pervious technical knowledge is acquired both through
problems. invention and innovation, economists identified
several kinds of innovations within technical
change (Mensch, 1979; Priest and Hill, 1980;
1. CLASSIFICATION OF TECHNICAL Archibugi and Santarelli, 1989; Durand, 1992;
CHANGE AND INNOVATION INTENSITY: Dosi, 1988; Clark, 1985; Freeman, 1984).
A LITERATURE REVIEW Pavitt (1984) classified innovation according
to the firms that generate it, identifying four
Souder and Shrivastrava (1985) said “we can’t sectorial taxonomies. Pavitt intended the
begin to make decisions about technology until taxonomy to describe the behavior of innovating
we understand it, and we can’t begin to really firms, to predict their actions and to suggest a
understand it until we can measure it”. framework for policy analysis. Taxonomy was
Garcia and Calantone (2002) state that composed of four main categories:
innovations are frequently classified in
− The first was supplier dominated firms active
taxonomies in order to identify their innovation
in traditional industries such as clothing and
characteristics and the degree of innovativeness furniture (i.e. firms which innovate by
involved. According to Durand (1992) four acquiring machinery and equipment).
different perspectives can be adopted in order to − The second was specialized suppliers of
analyze the intensity and the significance of capital goods and equipment who live in
technical change: 1) Technological input: symbiosis with their customers.
technical novelty or scientific merit; 2) − The third was science-based firms born to
Competence throughput: new requirements on exploit new scientific discoveries in fields
the competencies (resources, skills and such as electronics, chemicals,
knowledge), transilience (Abernathy and pharmaceuticals and aerospace, where the
Utterback, 1985); 3) Perception of the market: main source of knowledge is associated with
market novelty, new functions proposed to in-house R&D laboratories.
customers; 4) Strategic output: impact on the − The fourth was scale-intensive firms active
competitive position of the firms. in mass production industries.

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 Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

In subsequent versions Pavitt has added variety of specific applications. Although their
another category to classify the emerging combined effect is extremely important in the
information-intensive firms, which have their growth of productivity, no single incremental
main source of technological accumulation in innovation has dramatic effects, and they may
the advanced processing of data and are typical sometimes pass unnoticed and unrecorded.
in sectors or industries such as banking, However, their effects are apparent in the
retailing, internet, software, and so on. steady growth of productivity, which is
According to Archibugi (2001) this has led to reflected in input-output tables over time by
the disappearance of one of the former major changes in the coefficients for the
categories: namely specialized supplier firms. existing array of products and services
According to Pavitt's latest thoughts, these firms (Freeman et al., 1982).
are somehow forced to become
information-intensive or scale-intensive or to − RADICAL INNOVATIONS. These are
become non-innovative: "We have also discontinuous events and in recent times is
excluded a 'supplier dominated' trajectory since usually the result of a deliberate research and
... it leaves accumulated technological skills and development activity in enterprises and/or in
strategic initiative with suppliers. Firms university and government laboratories. They
intending to move from this position try to adopt are unevenly distributed over sectors and over
either scale-intensive strategies (e.g. certain time. Freeman and Soete’s research did not
textile firms), or information-intensive strategies support the view of Mensch (1979) that their
(e.g. certain retailing firms)" (Pavitt et al., 1989, appearance is concentrated particularly in
p. 96-97). Archibugi et al. (1991), state that periods of deep recessions. They would agree
supplier-dominated firms have a distinctive and with Mensch that, whenever they may occur,
significant technological trajectory and can be they are important as the potential springboard
equally innovative by acquiring machinery and for the growth of new markets, or in the case of
capital equipment. radical process innovations, such as the
Freeman et al. (1982), Freeman and Soete oxygen steelmaking process, of big
(1987) categorize various types of technical improvements in the cost and quality of
change and distinguish among: existing products. Over a period of decades a
radical innovation, such as nylon or the
− INCREMENTAL INNOVATIONS. These occur contraceptive pill, may have fairly dramatic
more or less continuously in any industry or effects, but in terms of their economic impact
service activity, although at a varying rate in they are relatively small and localized, unless a
different industries and over different time whole cluster of radical innovations are linked
periods. They may often occur, not so much as together in the rise of entire new industries and
the result of formal research and development services, such as the synthetic materials
activity, but as the outcome of inventions and industry or the semiconductor industry. Strictly
improvements suggested by engineers and speaking, at a sufficiently disaggregative level,
others directly engaged in the production radical innovations would constantly require
process, or as a result of initiatives and the addition of new rows and columns in an
proposals by users. Many empirical studies input-output table. But in practical terms, such
have confirmed their great importance in changes are introduced only in the case of the
improving the efficiency in use of all factors of most important innovations and with long
production, for example Townsend's (1981) time-lags, when their economic impact is
study of the Anderton shearer loader in the already substantial (Freeman et al., 1982).
British coalmining industry. They are − NEW TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS. Keirstead
particularly important in the follow-through (1948), in his exposition of a Schumpeterian
period after a radical breakthrough innovation theory of economic development, introduced
and frequently associated with the scaling up the concept of 'constellations' of innovations,
of plant and equipment and quality which were technically and economically
improvements to products and services for a inter-related. Obvious examples are the

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Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

clusters of synthetic materials innovations and place the concept of paradigm change has the
petrochemical innovations in the thirties, bringing out the elements of inertia in the
forties and fifties. They include numerous system. Whilst there are similarities in all these
radical and incremental innovations in both concepts, the approach of Perez (1985) is the
products and processes (Freeman et al., most systematic and has some important
1982). distinguishing features in relation to the
structural crises of adaptation with which we are
− CHANGES OF TECHNO-ECONOMIC PARADIGM concerned. She argues that the development of a
(TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTIONS). These are new “Techno-economic paradigm” involves a
far-reaching and pervasive changes in new “best practice” set of rules and customs for
technology, affecting many (or even all) designers, engineers, entrepreneurs and
branches of the economy, as well as giving rise managers, which differs respects from the
to entirely new sectors. Examples given by previously prevailing paradigm. Changes of
Schumpeter were the steam engine and electric Techno-economic paradigm are based on
power. Characteristic of this type of technical combinations of radical product, process and
change is that it affects the input cost structure organizational innovations. They occur
and the conditions of production and relatively seldom (perhaps twice in a century)
distribution for almost every branch of the but when they occur, they necessitate changes in
economy (Freeman et al., 1982). the institutional and social framework, as well as
in most enterprises if their potential is to be fully
exploited. They give rise to major changes in the
A change in techno-economic paradigm thus
organizational structure of firms, the skill mix
comprises clusters of radical and incremental
and the management style of industry. The
innovations and embraces several 'new
Schumpeterian “creative destruction” may thus
technology systems' (Coccia, 2005). Once a new
be only partial in some instances. Note that
Techno-economic paradigm has become
nothing is said so far about what is being
established throughout the economy it may be
changed, nor in what sense the change is taking
described as a 'technological regime'. Nelson
place. Nelson and Winter (1982) introduced the
and Winter (1982) have also used the concepts
concept of technological trajectories to describe
of technological regimes and of natural
both continuous changes and discontinuities in
trajectories in technology. Their General natural
technological innovations: continuous changes
trajectories' correspond perhaps most closely to
are often related to progress along a
'paradigms'. Bresnahan and Trajtenberg (1995)
technological trajectory - the direction of
state that technical progress and growth appear
advance within a technological paradigm - while
to be driven by a few “General Purpose
discontinuities are associated with the
Technologies” (GPT’s) such as stream engine,
emergence of a new technological paradigm.
electric motor and semiconductors. GPT’s
represent the technological regimes or change of Forces from which technological innovation
techno-economic paradigm and are may originate are two: market pull versus
characterized by pervasiveness, inherent technology push (Darroch and Jardine, 2002). In
potential for technical improvements, and fact, for this reason innovations are often
innovational complementarities, giving rise to characterized as incremental versus radical. Dosi
increasing returns-to-scale. (1988) states that an incremental innovation is
more likely to be a market pull innovation,
Dosi (1982) used the expression 'change of while a radical innovation is generally
technological paradigm’ and made comparisons originated by scientists and often incorporates
with the analogous approach of Kuhn (1962) to new technologies or new combinations of
‘scientific revolutions' and paradigm changes in existing technologies (Van de Ven and Garud,
basic science. In these terms 'incremental 1993). Thus, radical innovation is often a
innovation' along established technological technology push innovation (Cooper, 1979;
trajectories may be compared with Kuhn's Green et al., 1995; O’Connor, 1998).
normal science. Whilst strict analogies are out of

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 Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

1.2 Classifications of innovations within the apparel, and consumer electronics products.
management of technology (MOT) The portable radio or cassette player in Sony's
Walkman, used established technologies to
Within the MOT, the classifications of
create a new niche in personal audio products.
innovation are focused on product, competition,
Innovation of this sort represents what
system of production and market. Abernathy
Utterback (1996) has called sales maximization,
and Clark (1985) provide the most important
in which an otherwise stable and well specified
taxonomy. They define transilience as: the
technology is refined, improved or changed in a
significance of innovation for competition
way that supports a new marketing thrust. In
depends on its capacity to influence the firm's
some instances, niche creation involves a truly
existing resources, skills and knowledge - What
trivial change in technology, in which the
we shall call its 'transilience'. Similarly in Dosi’s
impact on productive systems and technical
words (1982; 1988): "Progress upon a
knowledge is incremental. But this type of
technological trajectory is likely to retain some
innovation may also appear in concert with
cumulative features". The market transilience
significant new product introductions, vigorous
scale is in the vertical dimension, and the
competition on the basis of features, technical
technology transilience scale in the horizontal.
refinements, and even technological shifts. The
This creates a transilience map, with four
important point is that these changes build on
quadrants representing a different kind of
established technical competence, and improve
innovation (Figure 1).
its applicability in emerging market segments.
ARCHITECTURAL INNOVATION. New technology
REGULAR INNOVATION. The creation of niches
that departs from established systems of
and the laying down of a new architecture involve
production, and in turn opens up new linkages
innovation- that is visible and after the fact
to markets and users, is characteristic of the
apparently logical. In contrast, what they call
creation of new industries as well as the
“Regular" innovation is often almost invisible, yet
reformation of old ones. Innovation of this sort
can have a dramatic cumulative effect on product
defines the basic configuration of product and
cost and performance. Regular innovation
process, and establishes, the technical and
involves change that builds on established
marketing agendas that will guide subsequent
technical and production competence and that is
development. In effect, it lays down the
applied to existing markets and customers. The
architecture of the industry, the broad
effect of these changes is to entrench existing
framework within which competition will occur
skills and resources. Research on rocket engines,
and develop. They have thus labeled innovation
computers and synthetic-fibers has shown that
of` this sort "Architectural"; it is graphed in the
regular innovation can have dramatic effect on
upper right hand quadrant of the transilience
production costs, reliability and performance.
map.
Regular innovation can have a significant effect
on product characteristics and thus can serve to
INNOVATION IN THE MARKET NICHE. Using new
strengthen and entrench not only competence in
concepts in technology to forge new market
production, but linkages to customers and
linkages is the essence of architectural
markets. It is important to note that these effects
innovation. Opening new market opportunities
tend to take place over a significant period of
through the use of existing technology is central
time. They require an organizational environment
to the kind of innovation they have labeled
and managerial skills that support the dogged
"Niche Creation", but here the effect on
pursuit of improvement, no matter how minor. The
production and technical systems is to conserve
effects of a given regular innovation on
and strengthen established designs. There are
competition are thus of less connect than the
numerous examples of niche creation
cumulative effects of a whole series of changes
innovation, ranging from the Timex example
(Abernathy and Clark, 1985).
referred to earlier, to producers of fashion

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Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

Disrupt Existing/Create New Linkages

Niche Creation Architectural

Conserve/Entrecth Disrupt/Obsolete Existing
Existing Competence Competence
Regular Revolutionary

Conserve/Entrecth Existing Linkages

Source: Abernathy and Clark (1985)

Fig. 1: Transilience map

− REVOLUTION INNOVATION. Innovation that Abernathy and Utterback (A-U, 1985) put
disrupts and renders established technical and forward a well-known model also linking these
production competence obsolete, yet is applied variables and describing patterns of innovations.
to existing markets and customers, is the fourth The A-U model led to the concept that a
category in the transilience map and is labeled "dominant technology" emerges, as innovation
"Revolutionary”. The reciprocating engine in becomes essentially incremental. The A-U
aircraft, vacuum tubes, and mechanical model, although purely descriptive, stands as a
calculators are recent examples of established landmark in the strategic management literature
technologies that have been over thrown on technological innovation. Moreover the S-
through a revolutionary design. Yet the classic curve has been used to describe the origin and
case of revolutionary innovation is the evolution of technologically discontinuous/
competitive duel between Ford and General radical innovations (Figure 2).
Motors in the late 1920s and early 1930s
A major problem that arises from A–U’s
(Abernathy and Clark, 1985).
model lies in their binary categorization of the
intensity of innovation: are there not indeed
A second classical and useful categorization
innovations that are neither radical nor
distinguishes between product and process
incremental? Abernathy and Clark (1985)
innovation. Utterback (1996) provides the
acknowledged this point. They clearly suggest a
definition of a discontinuous or radical
continuum for technical change defined by polar
innovation “change that sweeps away much of a
extremes: their scale ranges from incremental to
firm’s existing investment in technical skills and
radical innovation. They do not say however
knowledge, designs, production technique, plant
what falls in between and where. There is
and equipment”. Rothwell and Gardiner (1998)
indeed a continuously varying intensity of
focus on technological discontinuity:
change. All radical innovation is not equally
innovations are radically new inventions
radical; all incremental innovation is not just an
establishing landmark new products, and as
additional small improvement of what already
such, create new industries; reinnovations or
exists. There are some intermediary changes that
improvements on existing product design
both disrupt and continue. The order breaking /
(incremental), existing product (generational),
order creating distinction suggested by
new products (new mark products), improved
Anderson and Tushman should allow for order
materials, improving existing products
breaking-creating categories.
(improvements), improving subsystems of
existing products (minor details). Kleinschmidt Durand (1992), among these categories,
and Cooper (1991) distinguish between high- introduces the micro radical innovations. In fact
moderate-low innovativeness. Anderson and he states that “Moving from 64k DRAM’s
Tushman (1986) actually suggested a typology electronic memories to 128k then to 256k, etc.,
of technical change that mixes the radical/ were by no means radical changes, nor were
incremental categories with the product/process they simply incremental evolutions”.
classification. In a more dynamic way

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 Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

Fig. 2: Types of innovation. Source: Rycroft R. W., Kash D. E. (2002)

In synthesis the management of technology o dichotomous categorization – discontinu-

uses the following taxonomies in order to ous, continuous (Anderson and Tushman,
classify product innovation (Garcia and 1990; Robertson, 1967); instrumental,
Calantone, 2002): ultimate (Grossman, 1970); variations,
o eight categories – reformulated, new parts, reorientation (Norman, 1971); true,
remarchandising, new improvements, new adoption (Maidique and Zirger, 1984);
products, new users, new market, new original, reformulated (Yoon and Lilien,
customers (Johnson and Jones, 1957); 1985); innovations, reinnovations
o five categories – systematic, major, minor, (Rothwell and Gardiner, 1988); radical,
incremental, unrecorded (Freeman, 1994); routine (Meyers and Tucker, 1989);
evolutionary, revolutionary (Utterback,
o tetra categorization – incremental, modular,
1996); sustaining, disruptive (Christensen,
architectural, radical (Henderson and
1997); really new, incremental (Schmidt
Clark, 1990); niche creation, architectural,
and Calantone, 1998; Song and Montoya-
regular, revolutionary (Abernathy and
Weisse, 1998); breakthrough, incremental
Clark, 1985); incremental, evolutionary
(Rice et al., 1998); radical, incremental
market, evolutionary technical, radical
(Balachandra and Friar, 1997; Freeman,
(Moriarty and Kosnik, 1990); incremental,
1994).
market breakthrough, technological
breakthrough, radical (Chandy and Tellis,
2000); incremental, architectural, fusion, Garcia and Calantone (2002) use the level
breakthrough (Tidd, 1995; Tidd et al. macro versus micro, marketing versus
2001); technology perspectives and apply Boolean
o triadic categorization - low, moderate, high logic to identify three labels for innovations:
innovativeness (Kleinschmidt and Cooper, radical, really new and incremental. The radical
1991); incremental, new generation, innovations are those which cause discontinuity
radically new (Wheelwright and Clark, of marketing and technology, both at a macro
1992); and a micro level (Van de Ven and Garud,
1993). Incremental innovations occur only at the

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Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

micro level and cause either discontinuity of although in other fields there are many different
marketing, or discontinuity of technology, but scales used to classify (and quantify) an event or
not both. Really new innovations include the power of a change. Amongst the most
combinations of these two extremes. These three common examples is the MCS scale (Mercalli,
definitions show a reduction in the degree of 1883; Cancani, 1903; Sieberg, 1930) or the
innovativeness in the following way: radical→ Richter scale 1958 used in geophysics to
really new → incremental. Moreover, at the measure the intensity magnitude of earthquakes;
macro level, the discontinuities are exogenous to the international scale of nuclear events (INES);
the firm. At both a macro and a micro level the the scale invented by the English admiral
greater the innovativeness -as far as Beaufort to measure the force of the wind, the
discontinuity of marketing/technology is Douglas scale concerning the state of the sea,
concerned- the greater the impact on the the Saffir-Simpson scale for Hurricanes, and so
innovative products. If the discontinuity of the on. For this reason, a scale of technological
market or of the technology is low, the product innovation intensity, is a meta-taxonomy of the
will have a low level of innovativeness. economic impact of technological innovation,
subsuming less comprehensive taxonomies
(Coccia, 2005). This new approach is called
‘seismic’ because the aim is to classify and
2. DISCUSSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS quantify innovation and technical change
through an evaluation scale similar to that used
The abundance of types mentioned means that in seismology by Mercalli, who evaluate the
different types of innovation are called by the intensity of earthquakes through the description
same name and the same innovation is classified of the effects on the geographical environment.
in different manners. Gertrude Stein and In fact, according to this new approach to
William Shakespeare stated “a rose is a rose is a classify technical change, the socio-economic
rose. And a rose by any other name would smell system is changed by innovations that modify
just as sweet”. Garcia and Calantone (2002) the economic space with a series of effects both
mention some examples such as the typewriter on the subjects and the objects (the
and the Canon laser photocopier to show that the technological intensity measures the strength of
same innovation can be placed at the beginning the technical change produced by the innovation
or the end of the scale, according to the within the economy). Moreover, the metrics of
researcher. The ambiguity of this classification this approach quantifies the economic and social
makes it impossible to compare the various impact of technical change, over time and space,
studies and, according to the authors, the through a indicator called Magnitude of
numerous typologies existing in the economics Technical Change (Figure 3).
of innovation, technometrics, economics of The scale of innovation intensity is described
technical change, MOT, etc., have hindered the in table 1. It shows that some of the taxonomies
development of knowledge in these fields. for innovations presented in economic literature
A new taxonomy that tries to overcome the are synthesized in new levels, called innovation
limits of exiting classification it is the scale of degrees. This scale synthesizes the abundance of
technological innovation intensity, elaborated by innovation taxonomies presented in economic
Coccia (2005). The idea was to develop a way to literature where different types of innovation are
measures the economic impact of innovation called by the same name and same innovations
and to provide assessment of the effects on the are classified in different levels. The innovation
geo-economic system. In fact, in the economics degree allows a comparison among various
of innovation, there are no classifications for the innovations, which is impossible with the
effects of innovation on the economic system, previous classifications.

14
 Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

zw=Function of the impact τi = Magnitude of If i and j are two

of technological technological change of innovations, θ is the degree
innovation: the innovation i of the innovation intensity
zw=f(a) ξ
and if
where a=adopters τ i = MATECH i := Log10 ∫ f (a)da
α τ i < τ j⇒θ i <θ j
zw:A⊆ℜ→ℜ

Fig. 3: Steps to measure the intensity of technological change according to the seismic approach

Tab. 1: Scale of innovation intensity

CLASSIFICATION OF TECHNICAL CHANGE

Innovation Innovation
Economic impact Some definitions of innovations used in economic literature
Degree Intensity
Elementary or micro-incremental (Coccia, 2005)
I=1st Lightest
Unrecorded (Freeman, 1994)

Continuos (Freeman et al., 1982)

Improvements (Mensch, 1979)
Incremental (Freeman et al., 1982; Priest and Hill, 1980)
II=2nd Mild Market Pull (Dosi, 1988)
I SET Minor (Archibugi and Santarelli, 1989)
Low Impact Normal science (Khun, 1962)
Regular (Abernathy and Clark, 1985)

Major (Archibugi and Santarelli, 1989; Rycroft and Kash, 2002)

Market breakthrough (Chandy and Tellis, 2000)
III=3rd Moderate Modular (Henderson and Clark, 1990)
Non drastic (Arrow, 1962); Gilbert and Newbery, 1982)
Really new (Garcia and Calantone, 2002)

Evolutionary Technical (Moriarty and Kosnik, 1990)

Micro-radical (Durand, 1992)
IV=4th Intermediate Niche creation (Abernathy and Clark, 1985)
Non drastic (Arrow, 1962; Gilbert and Newbery, 1982)
Technological breakthrough (Chandy and Tellis, 2000)

II SET Architectural (Abernathy and Clark, 1985)

Medium Impact Basic innovation (Mensch, 1979)
Breakthrough (Tidd, 1995)
Discontinuous (Archibugi and Santarelli, 1989)
V=5th Strong Discrete (Priest and Hill, 1980)
Drastic (Arrow, 1962; Gilbert and Newbery, 1982)
Fundamental (Mensch, 1979)
Radical (Freeman et al., 1982)
Technology push (Dosi, 1988)

Clusters of innovations (Freeman et al., 1982)

Constellations of innovations (Keirstead, 1948)
VI=6th Very strong
Innovation systems (Sahal, 1981)
New technological Systems (Freeman et al., 1982)
III SET
High Impact Change of Techno-economic paradigms (Freeman et al., 1982)
Change of technological paradigms (Dosi, 1982)
Cluster of New technological systems (Coccia, 2005)
VII=7th Revolutionary
Revolutionary (Abernathy and Clark, 1985)
Technological regimes (Nelson and Winter, 1982)
Technological revolutions (Freeman et al., 1982; Freeman, 1984)

15
Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

Coccia (2005) argues that although the causes Durand, Abernathy, Clark and others). This
that originate innovations are different, the diversity is not considered a heterogeny
effects on the geo-economics systems are (different elements that make up the innovation)
always similar. For instance the effects but rather a heterophylly (differing forms of
produced by the VII degree innovations are the innovation with common origin and genes). The
following: latter generates different definitions of
- The means of human communication are innovations, which are substantially similar, but
radically changed and a new means of differ in the form. From this survey I conclude
communication, that heavily affects all the that there is a relatively large number of
economic subjects and objects, has origin, individual and unconnected innovation
forcing all those who use it to change their classifications that tend to be disconnected from
habits. A new Techno-economic paradigm is each other or ignore the different input and
born. The innovation of VII degree produces process issues responsible innovation diversity.
the following effects on Consumer, Firm and For this reason the new directions to classify the
Market. technical change are based on common
denominators, such as the innovation intensity
- Consumer. Changes in lifestyle, in habits
degree that is based on the effects of innovation
tendency to save and invest, etc. The standard
on the geo-economic system (subjects, such as
of living and well being are considerably
consumers and firms; objects such as: means of
improved.
communication, infrastructures, etc). In general
- Firm. Involves all the firms within the the measurement and classifications of
economic system. The organizational technology is carried out after that the
structures and production processes are innovative event has occurred. This logic has
changed. New firms offering new services limits for technological forecasting and foresight
and/or products are founded. Production, but to measure innovation – a posteriori - can be
organizational and management methods useful, in similar way is useful to measures and
change. classifies the intensity of earthquakes (one of the
- Market. This innovation revolutionizes all the most unpredictable events) after they have
existing markets, creating new ones. The occurred. In fact, a country can learn from past
markets become increasingly turbulent. innovations and equip itself with modern
infrastructures, means of communication,
trained human resources, which are its strength
in absorbing and accepting the impact of future
3. CONCLUDING REMARKS technological innovations. This explains why a
country with a large number of computers,
modern telecommunication networks,
Nowadays, technical change and innovation universities, modern means of communication,
play more and more a fundamental role in science parks and trained human resources is
various fields. Technical change can display in advantaged in the absorption of new
several types of innovation which have different technological innovations and has a competitive
intensity. The classifications and measurements advantage in comparison to countries with less
of technical change are important indicators for technological infrastructures and resources.
the economic growth, the consumers’ behavior, Moreover all taxonomies present a level called
the analysis of international trade and the revolution, which indicate a high impact of
evaluation of monetary and fiscal policies. The innovation. For instance, within the scale of
measurement of technology is the key to the technological intensity the intensity (Coccia,
forecasting and management of product and 2005) of the 7th degree innovation is strictly
process innovations. limited to those innovations that change human
The economic literature on technical change communication and have mass diffusion.
uses different names to indicate the same type of Seventh degree is similar to the technological
technical change (Archibugi, Freeman, Pavitt, revolution of Freeman and Soete (1987) and

16
 Ceris-Cnr, W.P. N° 2/2006

revolution – innovation of Abernathy and Clark success in R&D projects and new product
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challenge still to be tacked. Società Sismologica Italia, vol. IX, pp. 91-97.
Chandy R.K., Tellis G.J. (2000) “The incumbents
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innovation”, in Journal of Marketing, n. 64 pp.
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19
 WORKING PAPER SERIES (2006-1993)
2006
1/06 Analisi della crescita economica regionale e convergenza: un nuovo approccio teorico ed evidenza empirica
sull’Italia, by Mario Coccia
2/06 Classifications of innovations: Survey and future directions, by Mario Coccia
3/06 Analisi economica dell’impatto tecnologico, by Mario Coccia
4/06 La burocrazia nella ricerca pubblica. PARTE I Una rassegna dei principali studi, by Mario Coccia and
Alessandro Gobbino
5/06 La burocrazia nella ricerca pubblica. PARTE II Analisi della burocrazia negli Enti Pubblici di Ricerca, by Mario
Coccia and Alessandro Gobbino
6/06 La burocrazia nella ricerca pubblica. PARTE III Organizzazione e Project Management negli Enti Pubblici di
Ricerca: l’analisi del CNR, by Mario Coccia, Secondo Rolfo and Alessandro Gobbino
7/06 Economic and social studies of scientific research: nature and origins, by Mario Coccia
8/06 Shareholder Protection and the Cost of Capital: Empirical Evidence from German and Italian Firms, by Julie
Ann Elston and Laura Rondi
9/06 Réflexions en thème de district, clusters, réseaux: le problème de la gouvernance, by Secondo Rolfo
10/06 Models for Default Risk Analysis: Focus on Artificial Neural Networks, Model Comparisons, Hybrid
Frameworks, by Greta Falavigna
11/06 Le politiche del governo federale statunitense nell’edilizia residenziale. Suggerimenti per il modello italiano, by
Davide Michelis
12/06 Il finanziamento delle imprese Spin-off: un confronto fra Italia e Regno Unito, by Elisa Salvador
13/06 SERIE SPECIALE IN COLLABORAZIONE CON HERMES: Regulatory and Environmental Effects on Public Transit
Efficiency: a Mixed DEA-SFA Approach, by Beniamina Buzzo Margari, Fabrizio Erbetta, Carmelo Petraglia,
Massimiliano Piacenza
14/06 La mission manageriale: risorsa delle aziende, by Gian Franco Corio
15/06 Peer review for the evaluation of the academic research: the Italian experience, by Emanuela Reale, Anna
Barbara, Antonio Costantini
2005
1/05 Gli approcci biologici nell’economia dell’innovazione, by Mario Coccia
2/05 Sistema informativo sulle strutture operanti nel settore delle biotecnologie in Italia, by Edoardo Lorenzetti,
Francesco Lutman, Mauro Mallone
3/05 Analysis of the Resource Concentration on Size and Research Performance. The Case of Italian National
Research Council over the Period 2000-2004, by Mario Coccia and Secondo Rolfo
4/05 Le risorse pubbliche per la ricerca scientifica e lo sviluppo sperimentale nel 2002, by Anna Maria Scarda
5/05 La customer satisfaction dell’URP del Cnr. I casi Lazio, Piemonte e Sicilia, by Gian Franco Corio
6/05 La comunicazione integrata tra uffici per le relazioni con il pubblico della Pubblica Amministrazione, by Gian
Franco Corio
7/05 Un’analisi teorica sul marketing territoriale. Presentazione di un caso studio. Il “consorzio per la tutela
dell’Asti”, by Maria Marenna
8/05 Una proposta di marketing territoriale: una possibile griglia di analisi delle risorse, by Gian Franco Corio
9/05 Analisi e valutazione delle performance economico-tecnologiche di diversi paesi e situazione italiana, by Mario
Coccia and Mario Taretto
10/05 The patenting regime in the Italian public research system: what motivates public inventors to patent, by Bianca
Potì and Emanuela Reale
11/05 Changing patterns in the steering of the University in Italy: funding rules and doctoral programmes, by Bianca
Potì and Emanuela Reale
12/05 Una “discussione in rete” con Stanley Wilder, by Carla Basili
13/05 New Tools for the Governance of the Academic Research in Italy: the Role of Research Evaluation, by Bianca
Potì and Emanuela Reale
14/05 Product Differentiation, Industry Concentration and Market Share Turbulence, by Catherine Matraves, Laura
Rondi
15/05 Riforme del Servizio Sanitario Nazionale e dinamica dell’efficienza ospedaliera in Piemonte, by Chiara Canta,
Massimiliano Piacenza, Gilberto Turati
16/05 SERIE SPECIALE IN COLLABORAZIONE CON HERMES: Struttura di costo e rendimenti di scala nelle imprese di
trasporto pubblico locale di medie-grandi dimensioni, by Carlo Cambini, Ivana Paniccia, Massimiliano
Piacenza, Davide Vannoni

I
17/05 [email protected] - Sistema informativo su istituzioni, enti e strutture di ricerca in Italia, by Edoardo Lorenzetti,
Alberto Paparello
2004
1/04 Le origini dell’economia dell’innovazione: il contributo di Rae, by Mario Coccia
2/04 Liberalizzazione e integrazione verticale delle utility elettriche: evidenza empirica da un campione italiano di
imprese pubbliche locali, by Massimiliano Piacenza and Elena Beccio
3/04 Uno studio sull’innovazione nell’industria chimica, by Anna Ceci, Mario De Marchi, Maurizio Rocchi
4/04 Labour market rigidity and firms’ R&D strategies, by Mario De Marchi and Maurizio Rocchi
5/04 Analisi della tecnologia e approcci alla sua misurazione, by Mario Coccia
6/04 Analisi delle strutture pubbliche di ricerca scientifica: tassonomia e comportamento strategico, by Mario Coccia
7/04 Ricerca teorica vs. ricerca applicata. Un’analisi relativa al Cnr, by Mario Coccia and Secondo Rolfo
8/04 Considerazioni teoriche sulla diffusione delle innovazioni nei distretti industriali: il caso delle ICT, by Arianna
Miglietta
9/04 Le politiche industriali regionali nel Regno Unito, by Elisa Salvador
10/04 Going public to grow? Evidence from a panel of Italian firms, by Robert E. Carpenter and L. Rondi
11/04 What Drives Market Prices in the Wine Industry? Estimation of a Hedonic Model for Italian Premium Wine, by
Luigi Benfratello, Massimiliano Piacenza and Stefano Sacchetto
12/04 Brief notes on the policies for science-based firms, by Mario De Marchi, Maurizio Rocchi
13/04 Countrymetrics e valutazione della performance economica dei paesi: un approccio sistemico, by Mario Coccia
14/04 Analisi del rischio paese e sistemazione tassonomica, by Mario Coccia
15/04 Organizing the Offices for Technology Transfer, by Chiara Franzoni
16/04 Le relazioni tra ricerca pubblica e industria in Italia, by Secondo Rolfo
17/04 Modelli di analisi e previsione del rischio di insolvenza: una prospettiva delle metodologie applicate, by Nadia
D’Annunzio e Greta Falavigna
18/04 SERIE SPECIALE: Lo stato di salute del sistema industriale piemontese: analisi economico-finanziaria delle
imprese piemontesi, Terzo Rapporto 1999-2002, by Giuseppe Calabrese, Fabrizio Erbetta, Federico Bruno Rolle
19/04 SERIE SPECIALE: Osservatorio sulla dinamica economico-finanziaria delle imprese della filiera del tessile e
dell’abbigliamento in Piemonte, Primo rapporto 1999-2002, by Giuseppe Calabrese, Fabrizio Erbetta, Federico
Bruno Rolle
20/04 SERIE SPECIALE: Osservatorio sulla dinamica economico-finanziaria delle imprese della filiera dell’auto in
Piemonte, Secondo Rapporto 1999-2002, by Giuseppe Calabrese, Fabrizio Erbetta, Federico Bruno Rolle
2003
1/03 Models for Measuring the Research Performance and Management of the Public Labs, by Mario Coccia, March
2/03 An Approach to the Measurement of Technological Change Based on the Intensity of Innovation, by Mario
Coccia, April
3/03 Verso una patente europea dell’informazione: il progetto EnIL, by Carla Basili, June
4/03 Scala della magnitudo innovativa per misurare l’attrazione spaziale del trasferimento tecnologico, by Mario
Coccia, June
5/03 Mappe cognitive per analizzare i processi di creazione e diffusione della conoscenza negli Istituti di ricerca, by
Emanuele Cadario, July
6/03 Il servizio postale: caratteristiche di mercato e possibilità di liberalizzazione, by Daniela Boetti, July
7/03 Donne-scienza-tecnologia: analisi di un caso di studio, by Anita Calcatelli, Mario Coccia, Katia Ferraris and
Ivana Tagliafico, July
8/03 SERIE SPECIALE. OSSERVATORIO SULLE PICCOLE IMPRESE INNOVATIVE TRIESTE. Imprese innovative in Friuli
Venezia Giulia: un esperimento di analisi congiunta, by Lucia Rotaris, July
9/03 Regional Industrial Policies in Germany, by Helmut Karl, Antje Möller and Rüdiger Wink, July
10/03 SERIE SPECIALE. OSSERVATORIO SULLE PICCOLE IMPRESE INNOVATIVE TRIESTE. L’innovazione nelle new
technology-based firms in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, by Paola Guerra, October
11/03 SERIE SPECIALE. Lo stato di salute del sistema industriale piemontese: analisi economico-finanziaria delle
imprese piemontesi, Secondo Rapporto 1998-2001, December
12/03 SERIE SPECIALE. Osservatorio sulla dinamica economico-finanziaria delle imprese della meccanica specializzata
in Piemonte, Primo Rapporto 1998-2001, December
13/03 SERIE SPECIALE. Osservatorio sulla dinamica economico-finanziaria delle imprese delle bevande in Piemonte,
Primo Rapporto 1998-2001, December
2002
1/02 La valutazione dell’intensità del cambiamento tecnologico: la scala Mercalli per le innovazioni, by Mario
Coccia, January

II
2/02 SERIE SPECIALE IN COLLABORAZIONE CON HERMES. Regulatory constraints and cost efficiency of the Italian
public transit systems: an exploratory stochastic frontier model, by Massimiliano Piacenza, March
3/02 Aspetti gestionali e analisi dell’efficienza nel settore della distribuzione del gas, by Giovanni Fraquelli and
Fabrizio Erbetta, March
4/02 Dinamica e comportamento spaziale del trasferimento tecnologico, by Mario Coccia, April
5/02 Dimensione organizzativa e performance della ricerca: l’analisi del Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, by
Mario Coccia and Secondo Rolfo, April
6/02 Analisi di un sistema innovativo regionale e implicazioni di policy nel processo di trasferimento tecnologico, by
Monica Cariola and Mario Coccia, April
7/02 Analisi psico-economica di un’organizzazione scientifica e implicazioni di management: l’Istituto Elettrotecnico
Nazionale “G. Ferraris”, by Mario Coccia and Alessandra Monticone, April
8/02 Firm Diversification in the European Union. New Insights on Return to Core Business and Relatedness, by
Laura Rondi and Davide Vannoni, May
9/02 Le nuove tecnologie di informazione e comunicazione nelle PMI: un’analisi sulla diffusione dei siti internet nel
distretto di Biella, by Simona Salinari, June
10/02 La valutazione della soddisfazione di operatori di aziende sanitarie, by Gian Franco Corio, November
11/02 Analisi del processo innovativo nelle PMI italiane, by Giuseppe Calabrese, Mario Coccia and Secondo Rolfo,
November
12/02 Metrics della Performance dei laboratori pubblici di ricerca e comportamento strategico, by Mario Coccia,
September
13/02 Technometrics basata sull’impatto economico del cambiamento tecnologico, by Mario Coccia, November
2001
1/01 Competitività e divari di efficienza nell'industria italiana, by Giovanni Fraquelli, Piercarlo Frigero and Fulvio
Sugliano, January
2/01 Waste water purification in Italy: costs and structure of the technology, by Giovanni Fraquelli and Roberto
Giandrone, January
3/01 SERIE SPECIALE IN COLLABORAZIONE CON HERMES. Il trasporto pubblico locale in Italia: variabili esplicative
dei divari di costo tra le imprese, by Giovanni Fraquelli, Massimiliano Piacenza and Graziano Abrate, February
4/01 Relatedness, Coherence, and Coherence Dynamics: Empirical Evidence from Italian Manufacturing, by Stefano
Valvano and Davide Vannoni, February
5/01 Il nuovo panel Ceris su dati di impresa 1977-1997, by Luigi Benfratello, Diego Margon, Laura Rondi,
Alessandro Sembenelli, Davide Vannoni, Silvana Zelli, Maria Zittino, October
6/01 SMEs and innovation: the role of the industrial policy in Italy, by Giuseppe Calabrese and Secondo Rolfo, May
7/01 Le martingale: aspetti teorici ed applicativi, by Fabrizio Erbetta and Luca Agnello, September
8/01 Prime valutazioni qualitative sulle politiche per la R&S in alcune regioni italiane, by Elisa Salvador, October
9/01 Accords technology transfer-based: théorie et méthodologie d’analyse du processus, by Mario Coccia, October
10/01 Trasferimento tecnologico: indicatori spaziali, by Mario Coccia, November
11/01 Does the run-up of privatisation work as an effective incentive mechanism? Preliminary findings from a sample
of Italian firms, by Fabrizio Erbetta, October
12/01 SERIE SPECIALE IN COLLABORAZIONE CON HERMES. Costs and Technology of Public Transit Systems in Italy:
Some Insights to Face Inefficiency, by Giovanni Fraquelli, Massimiliano Piacenza and Graziano Abrate,
October
13/01 Le NTBFs a Sophia Antipolis, analisi di un campione di imprese, by Alessandra Ressico, December
2000
1/00 Trasferimento tecnologico: analisi spaziale, by Mario Coccia, March
2/00 Poli produttivi e sviluppo locale: una indagine sulle tecnologie alimentari nel mezzogiorno, by Francesco G.
Leone, March
3/00 La mission del top management di aziende sanitarie, by Gian Franco Corio, March
4/00 La percezione dei fattori di qualità in Istituti di ricerca: una prima elaborazione del caso Piemonte, by Gian
Franco Corio, March
5/00 Una metodologia per misurare la performance endogena nelle strutture di R&S, by Mario Coccia, April
6/00 Soddisfazione, coinvolgimento lavorativo e performance della ricerca, by Mario Coccia, May
7/00 Foreign Direct Investment and Trade in the EU: Are They Complementary or Substitute in Business Cycles
Fluctuations?, by Giovanna Segre, April
8/00 L’attesa della privatizzazione: una minaccia credibile per il manager?, by Giovanni Fraquelli, May
9/00 Gli effetti occupazionali dell’innovazione. Verifica su un campione di imprese manifatturiere italiane, by
Marina Di Giacomo, May

III
10/00 Investment, Cash Flow and Managerial Discretion in State-owned Firms. Evidence Across Soft and Hard
Budget Constraints, by Elisabetta Bertero and Laura Rondi, June
11/00 Effetti delle fusioni e acquisizioni: una rassegna critica dell’evidenza empirica, by Luigi Benfratello, June
12/00 Identità e immagine organizzativa negli Istituti CNR del Piemonte, by Paolo Enria, August
13/00 Multinational Firms in Italy: Trends in the Manufacturing Sector, by Giovanna Segre, September
14/00 Italian Corporate Governance, Investment, and Finance, by Robert E. Carpenter and Laura Rondi, October
15/00 Multinational Strategies and Outward-Processing Trade between Italy and the CEECs: The Case of Textile-
Clothing, by Giovanni Balcet and Giampaolo Vitali, December
16/00 The Public Transit Systems in Italy: A Critical Analysis of the Regulatory Framework, by Massimiliano
Piacenza, December
1999
1/99 La valutazione delle politiche locali per l’innovazione: il caso dei Centri Servizi in Italia, by Monica Cariola and
Secondo Rolfo, January
2/99 Trasferimento tecnologico ed autofinanziamento: il caso degli Istituti Cnr in Piemonte, by Mario Coccia, March
3/99 Empirical studies of vertical integration: the transaction cost orthodoxy, by Davide Vannoni, March
4/99 Developing innovation in small-medium suppliers: evidence from the Italian car industry, by Giuseppe
Calabrese, April
5/99 Privatization in Italy: an analysis of factors productivity and technical efficiency, by Giovanni Fraquelli and
Fabrizio Erbetta, March
6/99 New Technology Based-Firms in Italia: analisi di un campione di imprese triestine, by Anna Maria Gimigliano,
April
7/99 Trasferimento tacito della conoscenza: gli Istituti CNR dell’Area di Ricerca di Torino, by Mario Coccia, May
8/99 Struttura ed evoluzione di un distretto industriale piemontese: la produzione di casalinghi nel Cusio, by
Alessandra Ressico, June
9/99 Analisi sistemica della performance nelle strutture di ricerca, by Mario Coccia, September
10/99 The entry mode choice of EU leading companies (1987-1997), by Giampaolo Vitali, November
11/99 Esperimenti di trasferimento tecnologico alle piccole e medie imprese nella Regione Piemonte, by Mario Coccia,
November
12/99 A mathematical model for performance evaluation in the R&D laboratories: theory and application in Italy, by
Mario Coccia, November
13/99 Trasferimento tecnologico: analisi dei fruitori, by Mario Coccia, December
14/99 Beyond profitability: effects of acquisitions on technical efficiency and productivity in the Italian pasta industry,
by Luigi Benfratello, December
15/99 Determinanti ed effetti delle fusioni e acquisizioni: un’analisi sulla base delle notifiche alle autorità antitrust, by
Luigi Benfratello, December
1998
1/98 Alcune riflessioni preliminari sul mercato degli strumenti multimediali, by Paolo Vaglio, January
2/98 Before and after privatization: a comparison between competitive firms, by Giovanni Fraquelli and Paola Fabbri,
January
3/98 Not available
4/98 Le importazioni come incentivo alla concorrenza: l'evidenza empirica internazionale e il caso del mercato unico
europeo, by Anna Bottasso, May
5/98 SEM and the changing structure of EU Manufacturing, 1987-1993, by Stephen Davies, Laura Rondi and
Alessandro Sembenelli, November
6/98 The diversified firm: non formal theories versus formal models, by Davide Vannoni, December
7/98 Managerial discretion and investment decisions of state-owned firms: evidence from a panel of Italian
companies, by Elisabetta Bertero and Laura Rondi, December
8/98 La valutazione della R&S in Italia: rassegna delle esperienze del C.N.R. e proposta di un approccio alternativo,
by Domiziano Boschi, December
9/98 Multidimensional Performance in Telecommunications, Regulation and Competition: Analysing the European
Major Players, by Giovanni Fraquelli and Davide Vannoni, December
1997
1/97 Multinationality, diversification and firm size. An empirical analysis of Europe's leading firms, by Stephen
Davies, Laura Rondi and Alessandro Sembenelli, January
2/97 Qualità totale e organizzazione del lavoro nelle aziende sanitarie, by Gian Franco Corio, January
3/97 Reorganising the product and process development in Fiat Auto, by Giuseppe Calabrese, February
4/97 Buyer-supplier best practices in product development: evidence from car industry, by Giuseppe Calabrese, April

IV
5/97 L’innovazione nei distretti industriali. Una rassegna ragionata della letteratura, by Elena Ragazzi, April
6/97 The impact of financing constraints on markups: theory and evidence from Italian firm level data, by Anna
Bottasso, Marzio Galeotti and Alessandro Sembenelli, April
7/97 Capacità competitiva e evoluzione strutturale dei settori di specializzazione: il caso delle macchine per
confezionamento e imballaggio, by Secondo Rolfo, Paolo Vaglio, April
8/97 Tecnologia e produttività delle aziende elettriche municipalizzate, by Giovanni Fraquelli and Piercarlo Frigero,
April
9/97 La normativa nazionale e regionale per l’innovazione e la qualità nelle piccole e medie imprese: leggi, risorse,
risultati e nuovi strumenti, by Giuseppe Calabrese, June
10/97 European integration and leading firms’ entry and exit strategies, by Steve Davies, Laura Rondi and Alessandro
Sembenelli, April
11/97 Does debt discipline state-owned firms? Evidence from a panel of Italian firms, by Elisabetta Bertero and Laura
Rondi, July
12/97 Distretti industriali e innovazione: i limiti dei sistemi tecnologici locali, by Secondo Rolfo and Giampaolo
Vitali, July
13/97 Costs, technology and ownership form of natural gas distribution in Italy, by Giovanni Fraquelli and Roberto
Giandrone, July
14/97 Costs and structure of technology in the Italian water industry, by Paola Fabbri and Giovanni Fraquelli, July
15/97 Aspetti e misure della customer satisfaction/dissatisfaction, by Maria Teresa Morana, July
16/97 La qualità nei servizi pubblici: limiti della normativa UNI EN 29000 nel settore sanitario, by Efisio Ibba, July
17/97 Investimenti, fattori finanziari e ciclo economico, by Laura Rondi and Alessandro Sembenelli, rivisto sett. 1998
18/97 Strategie di crescita esterna delle imprese leader in Europa: risultati preliminari dell'utilizzo del data-base
Ceris "100 top EU firms' acquisition/divestment database 1987-1993", by Giampaolo Vitali and Marco
Orecchia, December
19/97 Struttura e attività dei Centri Servizi all'innovazione: vantaggi e limiti dell'esperienza italiana, by Monica
Cariola, December
20/97 Il comportamento ciclico dei margini di profitto in presenza di mercati del capitale meno che perfetti: un'analisi
empirica su dati di impresa in Italia, by Anna Bottasso, December
1996
1/96 Aspetti e misure della produttività. Un'analisi statistica su tre aziende elettriche europee, by Donatella
Cangialosi, February
2/96 L'analisi e la valutazione della soddisfazione degli utenti interni: un'applicazione nell'ambito dei servizi sanitari,
by Maria Teresa Morana, February
3/96 La funzione di costo nel servizio idrico. Un contributo al dibattito sul metodo normalizzato per la
determinazione della tariffa del servizio idrico integrato, by Giovanni Fraquelli and Paola Fabbri, February
4/96 Coerenza d'impresa e diversificazione settoriale: un'applicazione alle società leaders nell'industria
manifatturiera europea, by Marco Orecchia, February
5/96 Privatizzazioni: meccanismi di collocamento e assetti proprietari. Il caso STET, by Paola Fabbri, February
6/96 I nuovi scenari competitivi nell'industria delle telecomunicazioni: le principali esperienze internazionali, by
Paola Fabbri, February
7/96 Accordi, joint-venture e investimenti diretti dell'industria italiana nella CSI: Un'analisi qualitativa, by Chiara
Monti and Giampaolo Vitali, February
8/96 Verso la riconversione di settori utilizzatori di amianto. Risultati di un'indagine sul campo, by Marisa Gerbi
Sethi, Salvatore Marino and Maria Zittino, February
9/96 Innovazione tecnologica e competitività internazionale: quale futuro per i distretti e le economie locali, by
Secondo Rolfo, March
10/96 Dati disaggregati e analisi della struttura industriale: la matrice europea delle quote di mercato, by Laura
Rondi, March
11/96 Le decisioni di entrata e di uscita: evidenze empiriche sui maggiori gruppi italiani, by Alessandro Sembenelli
and Davide Vannoni, April
12/96 Le direttrici della diversificazione nella grande industria italiana, by Davide Vannoni, April
13/96 R&S cooperativa e non-cooperativa in un duopolio misto con spillovers, by Marco Orecchia, May
14/96 Unità di studio sulle strategie di crescita esterna delle imprese italiane, by Giampaolo Vitali and Maria Zittino,
July. Not available
15/96 Uno strumento di politica per l'innovazione: la prospezione tecnologica, by Secondo Rolfo, September
16/96 L'introduzione della Qualità Totale in aziende ospedaliere: aspettative ed opinioni del middle management, by
Gian Franco Corio, September

V
17/96 Shareholders’ voting power and block transaction premia: an empirical analysis of Italian listed companies, by
Giovanna Nicodano and Alessandro Sembenelli, November
18/96 La valutazione dell'impatto delle politiche tecnologiche: un'analisi classificatoria e una rassegna di alcune
esperienze europee, by Domiziano Boschi, November
19/96 L'industria orafa italiana: lo sviluppo del settore punta sulle esportazioni, by Anna Maria Gaibisso and Elena
Ragazzi, November
20/96 La centralità dell'innovazione nell'intervento pubblico nazionale e regionale in Germania, by Secondo Rolfo,
December
21/96 Ricerca, innovazione e mercato: la nuova politica del Regno Unito, by Secondo Rolfo, December
22/96 Politiche per l'innovazione in Francia, by Elena Ragazzi, December
23/96 La relazione tra struttura finanziaria e decisioni reali delle imprese: una rassegna critica dell'evidenza
empirica, by Anna Bottasso, December
1995
1/95 Form of ownership and financial constraints: panel data evidence on leverage and investment choices by Italian
firms, by Fabio Schiantarelli and Alessandro Sembenelli, March
2/95 Regulation of the electric supply industry in Italy, by Giovanni Fraquelli and Elena Ragazzi, March
3/95 Restructuring product development and production networks: Fiat Auto, by Giuseppe Calabrese, September
4/95 Explaining corporate structure: the MD matrix, product differentiation and size of market, by Stephen Davies,
Laura Rondi and Alessandro Sembenelli, November
5/95 Regulation and total productivity performance in electricity: a comparison between Italy, Germany and France,
by Giovanni Fraquelli and Davide Vannoni, December
6/95 Strategie di crescita esterna nel sistema bancario italiano: un'analisi empirica 1987-1994, by Stefano Olivero
and Giampaolo Vitali, December
7/95 Panel Ceris su dati di impresa: aspetti metodologici e istruzioni per l'uso, by Diego Margon, Alessandro
Sembenelli and Davide Vannoni, December
1994
1/94 Una politica industriale per gli investimenti esteri in Italia: alcune riflessioni, by Giampaolo Vitali, May
2/94 Scelte cooperative in attività di ricerca e sviluppo, by Marco Orecchia, May
3/94 Perché le matrici intersettoriali per misurare l'integrazione verticale?, by Davide Vannoni, July
4/94 Fiat Auto: A simultaneous engineering experience, by Giuseppe Calabrese, August
1993
1/93 Spanish machine tool industry, by Giuseppe Calabrese, November
2/93 The machine tool industry in Japan, by Giampaolo Vitali, November
3/93 The UK machine tool industry, by Alessandro Sembenelli and Paul Simpson, November
4/93 The Italian machine tool industry, by Secondo Rolfo, November
5/93 Firms' financial and real responses to business cycle shocks and monetary tightening: evidence for large and
small Italian companies, by Laura Rondi, Brian Sack, Fabio Schiantarelli and Alessandro Sembenelli,
December

VI