REVIEWS

Training:Research and Practice, by John Patrick. (1992). London: Academic

Press. 585 pp., $64.00.

As promised by its ambitious title, this book endeavors to present a compre-

hensive picture of the training field. It does not purport to be a prescriptive
guide to training design and development. Rather, Patrick summarizes the the-
ory and research that substantiate the prescriptions available in other books,
identifying and synthesizing the psychological bases for training practice. A
major theme is that training is an important area of applied psychology that
demands the integration of the cognitive, occupational-industrial, human-fac-
tors, and ergonomic branches of psychology. Decades-old theories and re-
search evidence are included along with newer approaches. The author’s stated
criterion for inclusion is applicability to training development.
The book intends to serve a wide audience: researchers, practitioners, and
undergraduate and graduate students in psychology, education, and business
management. This reader, an HRD and instructional-design professor, found
the coverage of some topics stimulating and thorough and the treatment of
others somewhat cursory. The psychology-based chapters would challenge
and enlighten most instructional-design or HRD graduate students, while the
instructional systems development (ISD) and evaluation chapters are too basic
and brief for the same audience.
Part One begns with an introductory chapter that emphasizes the impor-
tance of training today, realized now even by politicians! Training is defined and
distinguished from education, though no crucial difference is recognized. What
the National Society for Performance and Instruction calls human performance
technology (Stolovitch Q Keeps, 19929 is advocated. That is, training is only
one means of improving performance. Patrick lists personnel selection and er-
gonomics (including job aids and job-task design) as the two other means of
improving performance. While this list leaves out other important strateges,
such as incentive systems and organizational design, it at least puts training in
perspective as one performance improvement.strategy among others.
Chapter One also states two points of view that are obvious to most train-
ers, but evidently not to psychologsts. One is that all training should be de-
veloped using systematic procedures, regardless of the particular content or
context of the instruction. The other is that training is an important applica-
tion of psychology.
Chapter Two reviews the history of the research on learning and skill ac-
quisition. Behavioral theory, which sees the learner as passively responding to
stimuli and learning through reinforcement, has been largely pushed aside by
cognitive information-processing theory, which tries to describe the psycho-
logcal processes that occur between the stimulus and response. This shift from

HUMAN!+SOURCE DEVELOPMENT vol. 5 , no. 1, Spnng 1994 8 Josscy-BassFubllshers

QUARTERLY. 99
100

behavioral to cognitive approaches can partly be explained by the changing

nature of the tasks under study. Manual tasks and motor skills once predomi-
nated in our society. Today many of these tasks have been automated, and in-
tellectual or thinking tasks have gained importance. Patrick is careful to point
out, however, that behavioral theory is not defunct. Extrinsic feedback and
knowledge of results, for example, are still powerful ways to change perfor-
mance, although cognitive tasks are more difficult to analyze behaviorally.
Chapter Two and the other psychology-based chapters cover some very
technical and detailed material. Patricks discussion of the power law of prac-
tice serves as an example. (The power law is a logarithmic function found by
research to describe the relationship between number of practice trials and
shll acquisition. Learning slows over time.) First he traces the history of re-
search on learning curves. Next, three explanations for the power law are re-
viewed: mixed components, selection, and exhaustion models. The mixed-
component model holds that some components of a task will be learned more
quickly than others. In training design, then, it is important to analyze which
will be the more slowly learned components and focus more resources on
them. The selection model states that over extended practice trials, more ef-
fective cognitive or manual methods are selected by the performer. The train-
er's role implied by this explanation is to demonstrate more effective methods
and enable the trainee to differentiate them from less effective methods. The
exhaustion model proposes that the rate of learning decreases with practice be-
cause there is less room for further improvement. The three explanations are
not mutually exclusive and all may have validity.
This discussion of the power law illustrates the nature of this books
psychology-based chapters: theoretical issues are covered in some depth, and
implications for training design are mentioned. Tic' al trainers can learn the
"why" behind common training principles and practices.
The succeeding discussion of skill-acquisition theories by Fitts, Adam,
Schmidt, MacKay, and Anderson is less helpful to trainers, because these the-
ories do not have direct application to training design. However, it provides
good background information for trainers who want an overview of current
work in cognitive learning psychology. Details of research studies and their re-
sults data are presented.
Chapter Three states that while transfer and retention of skill are topics of
great importance to trainers, there is no strong theory or body of knowledge
on which to base training practices. Historical approaches to the study of trans-
fer are reviewed. The idea of identical elements has strong support. For exam-
ple, Andersons work shows that positive transfer will occur when two skills
involve the same productions (if-then rules). However, identical elements
seem to be necessary but not sufficient to ensure skill transfer. Guidelines for
training design are provided by Patrick: ensure that trainees learn underlylng
principles and generalizations, not just skull performance; use many and var-
ied examples and practice exercises; ensure that trainees are aware of the range
Reviews 101

of use of the skills being learned; and use training methods such as guided dis-
covery that encourage trainees to take responsibility for their own learning.
On the subject of retention, Patrick says that research reviews are consis-
tent on instructional-design principles, but that the principles are almost
blindingly obvious. The better a skill is learned, the better it will be retained.
Forgetting is greater with a longer retention interval. Rehearsal of a skill re-
duces forgetting. Perhaps these principles are obvious, but they are not always
remembered and used by trainers!
Chapter Four is a cursory treatment of the systems approach or ISD. Four
ISD models are reviewed, those of Patrick (1980), Branson (1975, 1977),
Brigs and Wager (19811, and Patrick (1986). Advantages and disadvantages
of ISD are discussed, but no alternative approaches are offered. Evidence of the
effectivenessof ISD is not presented, and readers are not informed of where
ISD has been used or is currently in use. However, the remainder of the book
is organized according to the ISD model: analysis, design, and evaluation.
Part Two deals with analytic techniques. A potentially important distinc-
tion between psychological (person-oriented) and nonpsycholopal (task-ori-
ented) analysis is made but seems insufficiently clarified. Task-oriented analy-
ses are explained and evaluated in Chapter Six: hierarchical-task analysis,
critical-incident technique, task inventories, trainability analyses, and work
samples. Examples are given. Chapter Seven extensively reviews and critiques
psychological approaches to analysis: information-processing analysis (from
cognitive psychology) and ability requirements (from the study of individual
differences). A section on knowledge representation (analysis of expertise car-
ried out more recently by cognitive psychologuts) may be helpful to trainers
or performance technologists who develop expert systems and automated per-
formance support systems.
Part Three, on training design, begns with two questions:how important
is training design, and how difficult is it? These questions seem too basic for an
instmctional-designaudience. The meat of ths chapter, however, is substantial
enough even for experienced instructional designers. Reigeluth (1983) covers
eight important instructional-design theories and models. In Instructional The-
ories in Action (Reigeluth, 1987), he provides an overview of these same eight
theories, plus a lesson designed according to each theory. The lessons are on a
common topic-optics and microscopes-to facilitatecomparison and contrast
of the models. Six of these theories are described by Patrick in Chapter Eight:

1. The Gagne-Briggs model distinguishes five domains of learning and pre-

scribes conditions for optimum learning of each type, using standard
events of instruction.
2. Landa’s Algoheuristic theory advocates the use of algorithms to analyze
learning tasks and to promote algorithmic thinking in learners.
3. Collins and Stevens’s inquiry method is a Socraticapproach that fosters dis-
covery and independent thinking.
4. Merrill's component-display theory provides great prescriptive detail to les-
son design by type of content, learner performance, and presentation
forms.
5. Reigeluths elaboration theory uses a zoom-lens metaphor at the macro
level to design a series of lessons or courses.
6. Keller's ARCS model (Attention Relevance Confidence Satisfaction) im-
proves motivation in lessons by facilitating the attention, relevance, confi-
dence, and satisfaction of learners.

Insightful critiques of each theory are gven and other reviews are cited by
Patrick.
Chapter Nine, on training methods, actually deals with strategies or com-
ponents that might occur within a lesson, citing research or lack of it on the ef-
fectiveness of each. The strategies covered are: pretests, behavioral objectives,
overviews, advance organizers, knowledge of results, extrinsic and intrinsic
feedback,guidance, partial- and whole-task training, adaptive training, learner
control, spacing and duration of training, overtraining, and the design of text.
The latter seems misplaced, since it is a materials development issue rather than
an instructional-strategyissue like the others in this chapter. Design guidelines
for visual media are not covered in the book and perhaps should be.
Chapter Ten reviews the disappointing history of research on individual
differences and aptitude-treatment interaction. An appropriate and timely fea-
ture is a summary of suggestions for training the older worker. Next Patrick
traces the history of research on learning strategies (teaching how to learn).
The SQR3 method, Rothkopf's mathemagenic behaviors, Wittrocks generative
activities, student-generated questions, analoges, and mnemonics are cov-
ered. A useful categorization of types of mnemonics is included with exam-
ples. Finally, reciprocal teaching (questioning, clarifying, summarizing, and
predicting) is discussed.
Chapter Eleven, on computers in training, is more historical than current.
Patrick reviews the history of programmed instruction, teaching machines, lin-
ear and branching programs, and closed-loop training systems. The computer-
based training systems PLAT0 and TICCIT are described, and a short section
on choosing CBT as a delivery system emphasizes cost-effectiveness. Very lit-
tle information about microcomputer applications, authoring languages and
systems, and disk technologies is included and only a little on automated ISD.
Intelligent tutoring systems are mentioned, with rather detailed accounts of
sample systems: SCHOLAR, BUGGY, SOPHIE, and GUIDON.
Chapter Twelve broadly defines simulation, including equipment simulators
and behavior simulations,such as those used for interpersonal-skdk training. Cri-
teria for using simulation and design considerations are covered. Tradeoffs are
considered between degree of fidelity, cost, and transfer to job performance.
The final obligatory chapter on evaluation constitutes Part Four. A general
framework is presented, and readers are referred elsewhere for more practical
Reviews 103

information. Several models are reviewed, primarily CIRO (Context Input

Reachor Outcome), Kirkpatricks four levels, and Hamblin’s five levels. The re-
search approach to evaluation is mentioned, with some information about ex-
perimental design and threats to validity.
The best chapters in this book are those that deal with the psychologcal
bases of training design. They synthesize information that is not readily avail-
able in any other single book and with which many instructional designers are
not familiar. Other topics, especially ISD, computers, simulation, and evalua-
tion, are better dealt with elsewhere. For training practitioners, the book will
serve best as a reference for looking up specific issues, not for reading straight
through. Researchers may find it useful as a summary of research findings and
a source of researchable problems on training-related issues. Students can gain
historical perspective, clear descriptions of important issues, and references to
key source material.
For training professionals,the book provides a condensed but rigorous re-
view of the theories and research evidence behind many of the principles and
techniques we use. It also brings out some psychologcal viewpoints and re-
search studies that practitioners may not be aware of but will find interesting.
Each chapter is impressively referenced to theoretical and experimental work,
with no apparent oversights.
A comparable book is Instructional Technology: Foundations by Gagne
(1987).It is like the Patrick book in that neither is a how-to book and both re-
view the theoretical, empirical, and historical foundations of the field. The
Patrick book provides more material on learning psychology and analytic
methods, while the G a p e book gwes more background on the systems ap-
proach and technology-based delivery systems.

REVIEWED BY
KAREN L. MEDSKER
MARYMOUNT UNIVERSITY
ARLINGTON, VIRGINIA

References
Branson, R. K., Raper, G. T.. Cox, L., Furman, J. F!, King, E J., & Hannum, W H. (1975). In-
terservice proceduresfor instructional systems development: Executive summary and model. Talla-
hassee, FL:Center for Educational Technoloa, Florida State University
Branson, R. K., Wagner, B. M.,&Raper, G. T. (1977). Interservice proceduresfor instructionalsys-
tems development: Task Vfinul rcport. Tallahassee, FL: Center for Educational Technology,
Florida State University
Briggs, L. J., & Wagner, W W (1981). Handbook ofprocedurcsfor the design of instruction (2nd
Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Testing Publications.
Gagne, R M.(Ed.). (1987). InstructionaI technology: Foundations. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Patrick,J. (1980).Job analysis, training, and transferability:Some theoretical and practical issues.
In K. D. Duncan, M. M. Gruneberg, & D. Wallis (Eds.), Changes in working life. Chichester:
Wiley.
1 04

Patrick, J.. Michael, I.. & Moore, A. (1986). Designingfor learning: Some guidelines. Birmingham:
Occupational Services Ltd.
Reigeluth, C. M. (1983). Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Reigeluth, C. M. (Ed.). (1987). Instructional theories in action: Lessons illustrating selected theories
and models. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Stolovitch,H. D., & Keeps, E.J. (Eds.). (1992). Handbook ofhuman performancetechnology:Acom-
prehensive guidefor analyzing and solvlng performance probfems in organizations. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

The New Leaders: Guidelines on Leadership Diversity in America, by Ann

M. Morrison. (1992). San Francisco:Jossey-Bass. 317 pp., $25.95.

The New Leaders addresses the international issue of growing diversity in the
workforce and the type of leadership to be exercised to improve employees’
contributions and performance. Although the contents focus upon the situa-
tion in the United States, the findings and observations have implication for
global organizations anywhere. Here, diversity in the work environment is
viewed in terms of gender, age, and minority backgrounds, particularly those
of nonwhites. The eleven chapters stem from the results of the Gold Research
Project led by the author on behalf of the Center for Creative Leadershp (CCL)
and described in detail in the appendix. Instead of concentrating on cultural
awareness or barriers faced by particular groups, this study was concerned
with organizational success models in coping with workforce diversity. The re-
searchers interviewed nearly 200 managers within sixteen U.S.-based private
and public organizations to determine practices that encourage or obstruct
white women and people of color within management, especially from gain-
ing access into the executive ranks.
Author Ann Morrison, now president of the New Leaders Institute (PO.
Box 1110, Del Mar, California 92014), was particularly well qualified for this
undertaking, having participated in two previous CCL research studies result-
ing in books that she coauthored. Her Breaking the Glass Ceiling (1987) became
a best-seller in its analysis of upward movement of women within the largest
U.S. corporations, whle The Lessons ofExperience (1988), coauthored with her
CCL colleagues, provided guidelines for developing executive talent of both
sexes. This scholar in achievinghuman potential recognizes the global demo-
graphic realities of increasing personnel diversity, offering in her latest book
the “best”designs and practices for developing all managers, especially those
traditionally excluded from advancement.
The New Leaders is divided into three units of pragmatic, data-based in-
sights that are easy to read. The opening three chapters in Part One emrnine
the evolution of diversity and the cumulative benefits of exercising leadership
in meeting ths challenge by incorporating diversity into business strategies.
Treatment of people at work according to their sex and ethnicity is discussed,