GLOBAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

JAIPUR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING-I

LAB MANUAL

COMPILED BY
Mr. Suresh Sharma
Mr. Sohan Singh
 INDEX
6ME8A: INDUSTRIAL ENGG LAB 1
MM 75
S NO. NAME OF EXPERIMENT P. NO. REMARK
1 Case study on X bar charts
2 Case study on process capability analysis
3 Verify the Binomial Distribution of the number of
defective balls by treating the balls with a red colour to be
defective.
4 p-Chart- Plot a P-chart by taking a sample of n=20 and
establish control limits
5 To plot C-chart using given experimental setup
6 Operating Characteristics Curve:
(a) Plot the operating characteristics curve for single
sampling attribute plan for n = 20 ; c = 1 , 2 , 3 Designate
the red ball to defective.
(b) Compare the actual O.C. curve with theoretical O.C.
curve using approximation for the nature of distribution
7 Distribution Verification:
(a) Verification of Normal Distribution.
(b) To find the distribution of numbered cardboard chips
by random drawing one at a time with replacement. Make
25 subgroups in size 5 and 10 find the type of distribution
of sample average in each case. Comment on your
observations
8 Verification of Poisson distribution
9 Central Limit Theorem:
(a) To show that a sample means for a normal universe
follow a normal distribution
(b) To show that the sample means for a non-normal
universe also follow a normal Distribution.
10 Solve problems using available Statistical Process Control
software in lab
11 Study of Statistical process control techniques
12 Study of Quality function deployment
 LAB ASSESMENT CRITERIA:
6ME8A: INDUSTRIAL ENGG LAB 1

TOTAL LAB MARKS: 75 Marks

INTERNAL: 45 Marks

EXTERNAL: 30 Marks

For assessment of work done during mid semester the Internal marks (60% component) is to be
distributed under the following heads:

1. Lab Attendance – 10%

2. Performance of Practical and timely submission of records – 30%
3. Midterm exam through Quiz/Viva/Performance – 20%

For assessment of external marks (40% component) is to be distributed as:

1. Comprehensive Examination through Quiz/Viva/Performance – 40%

 6ME8A: INDUSTRIAL ENGG LAB 1

Lab Objective

 To understand different manufacturing techniques by studying different processes in

Production Technology.

 To understand the difference between cold working and hot working processes.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1(X-BAR CHART)

OBJECT:

A Case study on X bar charts

INTRODUCTION:
Control charts are used to analyze variation within processes. There are many different
flavours of control charts, categorized depending upon whether you are tracking variables
directly (e.g. height, weight, cost, temperature, density) or attributes of the entire process (e.g.
number of defective parts produced, proportion of defectives). The X-Bar control chart is one of
these flavours. It's used for variable data when the data is readily available. This is one of the
most commonly encountered control chart variants. The X-Bar chart shows how much variation
exists in the process over time.

A process that is in statistical control is predictable, and characterized by points that fall between
the lower and upper control limits. When an X-Bar chart is in statistical control, the average
value for each subgroup is consistent over time, and the variation within a subgroup is also
consistent. Control limits are not the same as specification limits, but both are important when
we are performing process analysis:

Control limits are characteristics of the process. They reflect the actual amount of variation
that is observed. We assume that the variation can be described by the normal distribution, which
means that 99.73% of all of our observations will fall somewhere between three standard
deviations below the mean (-3) and three standard deviations above the mean (+3). We use
this principle to set our control limits.

Specification limits give us a sense of the voice of the customer. They reflect the variation that
the customer is willing to accept from the process. We use the target value for our variable,
and the customer-specified tolerance around that variable to determine the specification
limits. (There is no connection between the tolerance that the customer specifies, and the
observed standard deviation of the process.
There are two type of variation exist in the process (a) variation due to chance causes and (b)
variation due to assignable causes. The process is out of control due to the assignable cause of
variations.

BASICS OF SUBGROUPING (SAMPLE SIZE)

The information given by the control chart depends n the basis used for selection of subgroups,
therefore the careful determination of subgroup is very important in the setting up of a control
chart. The following factors should be considered while selecting a subgroup:
 1. Each sample should be a homogeneous as possible
2. There should be maximum opportunity for variation from one sample to another.
3. Samples should not be taken at exactly equal intervals of time.

FREQUENCY OF SAMPLING

1. To take larger samples at less frequent intervals

2. Smaller samples at more frequent intervals

CONTROL LIMITS OF X-BAR CHART

X-bar control limits are based on either range or sigma, depending on

which chart it is paired with. When the X-bar chart is paired with a range chart, the most
common (and recommended) method of computing control limits based on 3 standard
deviations. Each sample has its own mean, The center line of the chart is then computed as the
mean of all sample means, where is the number of samples:

σ = R-BAR/d2

Control limits can also compute the by another method as follows:

X-bar

n is the number of observations

 k is the number of subgroups

Upper control limit: Lower control limit:

Range

k is the number of subgroups.

Tabular values for X-bar

Subgroup Size A2 d2 D3 D4

2 1.880 1.128 ----- 3.268

3 1.023 1.693 ----- 2.574

4 0.729 2.059 ----- 2.282

5 0.577 2.326 ----- 2.114

6 0.483 2.534 ----- 2.004

7 0.419 2.704 0.076 1.924

8 0.373 2.847 0.136 1.864

9 0.337 2.970 0.184 1.816

10 0.308 3.078 0.223 1.777

EXAMPLE:

Constructing a Mean (x-Bar) Chart

A quality control inspector at the Cocoa Fizz soft drink company has taken twenty-five samples
with four observations each of the volume of bottles filled. The data and the computed means are
shown in the table. If the standard deviation of the bottling operation is 0.14 ounces, use this
information

to develop control limits of three standard deviations for the bottling operation.
QUESTIONS:

1. Which chart is used for keeping a control on the ‘Central tendency’?

2. The standard deviation and range will give an indication of which phenomena?
3. Which situation indicates that a process is out of control?
4. What are the common causes and assignable cause of variation?
5. What is the basis of choosing sample size for x-bar chart?
6. What is the difference between control limits and specification limits?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2 (Process capability)

OBJECT:

A Case study on process capability analysis

INTRODUCTION:
Process capability compares the output of an in-control process to the specification limits by
using capability indices. The comparison is made by forming the ratio of the spread between
the process specifications (the specification "width") to the spread of the process values, as
measured by 6 process standard deviation units (the process "width").
Process Capability Indices
A process capability indices uses both the process variability and the process specifications to
determine whether the process is "capable".
We are often required to compare the output of a stable process with the process specifications
and make a statement about how well the process meets specification. To do this we compare
the natural variability of a stable process with the process specification limits.

A process where almost all the measurements fall inside the specification limits is a capable
process. This can be represented pictorially by the plot below:

There are several statistics that can be used to measure the capability of a process: Cp, Cpk.

Most capability indices estimates are valid only if the sample size used is "large enough". Large
enough is generally thought to be about 50 independent data values.
The Cp, Cpk statistics assume that the population of data values is normally distributed.
Assuming a two-sided specification, if μ and σ are the mean and standard deviation, respectively,
of the normal data and USL, LSL, and T are the upper and lower specification limits and the
target value, respectively, then the population capability indices are defined as follows.

𝑈𝐶𝐿 − 𝐿𝐶𝐿
𝐶𝑝 =
6𝜎

UCL−μ μ−LCL
Cpk = [ , ]
3σ 3σ

Natural Variability versus Specifications for Process Capability:

As seen from the earlier discussions, there are three components of process capability:

1. Design specification or customer expectation (Upper Specification Limit, Lower

Specification Limit)

2. The centering of the natural process variation (X-Bar)

3. Spread of the process variation (σ)

A minimum of four possible outcomes can arise when the natural process variability is

compared with the design specifications or customer expectations:

Steps:

1. Sketch the distribution

2. Calculate the estimated standard deviation
3. Determine the location of the tails for the distribution
4. Draw the specification limits on the distribution
5. Calculate how much data is outside the specifications
6. Calculate and interpret the capability indices
7. Analyze the results

Case 1: Cpk > 1.33 (A Highly Capable Process)

This process should produce less than 64 non-conforming ppm.

A Highly Capable Process: Voice of the Process < Specification ( or Customer Expectations

This process will produce conforming products as long as it remains in statistical control. The
process owner can claim that the customer should experience least difficulty and greater
reliability with this product. This should translate into higher profits.

Case 2: Cpk = 1 to 1.33 (A Barely Capable Process)

This process will produce greater than 64 ppm but less than 2700
non-conforming ppm. This process has a spread just about equal to specification width. It should
be noted that if the process mean moves to the left or the right, a significant portion of product
will start falling outside one of the specification limits. This process must be closely monitored.

A Barely Capable Process: Voice of the Process = Customer Expectations

Case 3: Cpk < 1 (The Process is not Capable)

This process will produce more than 2700 non-conforming ppm.

A Non-Capable Process: Voice of the Process > Customer Expectations.

It is impossible for the current process to meet specifications even when it is in statistical control.
If the specifications are realistic, an effort must be immediately made to improve the process (i.e.
reduce variation) to the point where it is capable of producing consistently within specifications.

Case 4: Cpk < 1 ( The Process is not Capable )

This process will also produce more than 2700 non-conforming ppm.
The variability (s) and specification width is assumed to be the same as in case 2, but the process
average is off-center. In such cases, adjustment is required to move the process mean back to
target. If no action is taken, a substantial portion of the output will fall outside the specification
limit even though the process might be in statistical control.

CONCLUSION

In the real world, very few processes completely satisfy all the conditions and assumptions
required for estimating Cpk. Also, statistical debates in research communities are still raging on
the strengths and weaknesses of various capability and performance indices. Many new
complicated capability indices have also been invented and cited in literature. However, the key
to effectual use of process capability measures continues to be the level of user understanding of
what these measures really represent. Finally, in order to achieve continuous improvement, one
must always attempt to refine the "Voice of the Process" to match and then to surpass the
"Expectations of the Customer".

QUESTIONS:

1. How the process capability is calculated?

2. What are the meaning of Cp and Cpk?
3. What is process capability?
4. When the process is not capable to meet customer requirement?
5. You are a quality engineer and you are inspecting a process of LCL=2 and UCL= 14 and
standard deviation of process is 0.2 then this process is capable or not?
6. What is meaning of Cp=Cpk?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3 (BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION)
OBJECT:

To Verify the Binomial Distribution of the number of defective balls bytreating the balls with a
red color to be defective.

INTRODUCTION:

A probability distribution is a function or rule that assigns probabilities of occurrence

to each possible outcome of a random event. Probability distributions give us a visual
representation of all possible outcomes of some event and the likelihood of obtaining one
outcome relative to the other possible outcomes.

A binomial distribution is a specific probability distribution. It is used to model the probability

of obtaining one of two outcomes, a certain number of times (k), out of fixed number of trials (N)
of a discrete random event. A binomial distribution has only two outcomes: the expected
outcome is called a success and any other outcome is a failure. The probability of a successful
outcome is p and the probability of a failure is 1 - p.

A successful outcome doesn't mean that it's a favorable outcome, but just the outcome being
counted. Let's say a discrete random event was the number of persons shot by firearms last year.
We'd be looking for the probability of obtaining some number of victims out of the pool of
shootings. Being shot is neither a favorable nor a successful outcome for the victim, yet it is the
outcome we are counting for this discrete variable.

CRITERIA FOR USING BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTIONS

The binomial distribution is used to model the probabilities of occurrences when specific rules
are met.

 Rule 1: There are only two mutually exclusive outcomes for a discrete random variable
(i.e., success or failure).
 Rule 2: There is a fixed number of repeated trials (i.e., successive tests with no outcome
excluded).
 Rule 3: Each trial is an independent event (meaning the result of one trial doesn't affect
the results of subsequent trials).
 Rule 4: The probability of success for each trial is fixed (i.e., the probability of obtaining
a successful outcome is the same for all trials).

FORMULA OF BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

The probability that a random variable X with binomial distribution B(n,p) is equal to the value k,
where k = 0, 1,....,n , is given by
 , where

MEAN AND VARIANCE OF THE BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

The binomial distribution for a random variable X with parameters n and p represents the sum of
n independent variables Z which may assume the values 0 or 1. If the probability that each Z
variable assumes the value 1 is equal to p, then the mean of each variable is equal to 1*p + 0*(1-
p) = p, and the variance is equal to p(1-p). By the addition properties for independent random
variables, the mean and variance of the binomial distribution are equal to the sum of the means
and variances of the n independent Z variables, so

This exercise set contains some solved exercises on the Binomial distribution. The theory needed
to solve these exercises is introduced in the lecture entitled Binomial distribution.

Exercise 1:

Suppose you independently flip a coin times and the outcome of each toss can be either head
(with probability ) or tails (also with probability ). What is the probability of obtaining exactly
tails?

Solution

Denote by the number of times the outcome is tails (out of the tosses). has a binomial

distribution with parameters and . The probability of obtaining exactly tails can be

computed from the probability mass function of as follows:

QUESTIONS:

1. In binomial distribution, formula of calculating standard deviation is ?

2. Probability of failure in binomial distribution is denoted by which formula?
3. What is the assumption of the Binomial distribution?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4 (P-CHART)

OBJECT:

To Plot a P-chart by taking a sample of n=20 and establish control limits

INTRODUCTION:

The day’s production of any manufactured article or part can be thought of as a sample
from a larger quantity with some unknown fraction defective. This unknown universe fraction
defective depends upon a complete set of causes influencing the production and inspection
operations.

P-charts are used to measure the proportion that is defective in a sample. This chart is called
control chart for attribute. The computation of the center line as well as the upper and lower
control limits is similar to the computation for the other kinds of control charts. The center line is
computed as the average proportion defective in the population. This is obtained by taking a
number of samples of observations at random and computing the average value of p across all
samples. This chart is based on binomial distribution.

PURPOSE OF THE P-CHART

Because of lower inspection and maintenance costs of p-charts, they

usually have a greater area of economical applications than do the control charts for variables.

1) To discover the average proportion of defective articles submitted for inspection, over a
period of time.
2) To bring to attention of the management, any changes in average quality level.
3) To discover, identify and correct causes of bad quality.
4) To discover, identify and correct the erratic causes of quality improvement.

SAMPLE SIZE FOR P-CHART

In case of p-chart, the sample size must be fairly large, so that the
normal distribution will approximate to a sufficient degree. If p is small then n should be large
enough. Mostly sample size should not be less than 100.

STEPS TO CONSTRUCT THE CONTROL CHART

1) Record the data for each subgroup (sample) on number inspected and number of
defectives.
2) Compute p (fraction defective) for each subgroup sample).
 p= Number of defective in sample / number inspected in subgroup (=np/p)

3) Compute p-bar, the average fraction defective,

p-bar= Total number of defectives during a period / total number inspected
during period
4) Compute control limits by formula as given above:
5) Plot each point as obtained, plot each control limits. If Points are falling outside control
limits chart is called statistically out of control

CONTROL LIMITS OF P-CHART

To construct the upper and lower control limits for a p-chart, we use the following formulas.

Example :Constructing a p-Chart

QUESTIONS:

1. Which control chart is use for fraction defective calculation?

2. If in a particular inspection you inspected 100 units in 20 samples and you find 50 units
defective then what will be the average fraction defective?
3. What is the basis of p-chart?
4. What are the advantages of p-chart?
5. How p-chart is different from X-bar chart?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5 (C-CHART)
OBJECTIVE:

To plot C-chart using given experimental setup

INTRODUCTION

A nonconforming item is a unit of product that does not satisfy one or more of the specifications
for that product. Each specific point at which a specification is not satisfied results in a defect or
non-conformity. A nonconforming item will contain at least one nonconformity. It is quite
possible for a unit to contain several nonconformities. It is possible to develop control charts for
either the total number of nonconformities in a unit or the average number of
nonconformities per unit. These control charts usually assume that the occurrence of
nonconformities in samples of constant size is well modeled by the Poisson distribution.

EX: include the number of defective welds in 100 m of oil pipeline, the number of broken rivets
in an aircraft wing, the number of functional defects in an electronic logic device, the number of
errors on a document

BASIS FOR CONTROL LIMITS ON C CHART

There are two conditions must be satisfied for C chart

1. The first condition specifies that the areas of opportunity for occurrence of defects
should be fairly constant from period to period.
2. Second condition specifies that opportunities for defects are large, while the chances of
defects occurring in anyone spot are small.

CONTROL LIMITS OF C CHART

Consider the occurrence of nonconformities in an inspection unit of product.

defects or nonconformities occur in this inspection unit according to the Poisson distribution;

that is,

where x is the number of nonconformities and c > 0 is the parameter of the Poisson distribution.
a control chart for nonconformities, or c chart with three sigma limits would be defined as
follows,

WHERE = the observed average number of

nonconformities in a preliminary sample of
inspection units.
IF these calculations yield a negative value for
the LCL, set LCL = 0

AREA OF APPLICATION

1. Number of surface defects.

2. Number of defective rivets in an aircraft wing.
3. Number of small air holes in glass bottles.
4. Total number of defects of all types in complex assemblies such as tractor sub-assemblies,
radio receiving sets, sewing machines etc.
Table presents the number of nonconformities observed in 26 successive samples of 100 printed
circuit boards. Note that for reasons of convenience, the inspection unit is defined as 100 boards.
Set up a c chart for these data.

Example:
Answer:

The control chart is shown in Fig. The number of observed nonconformities from the preliminary
samples is plotted on this chart. Two points plot outside the control limits, samples 6 and 20.
Investigation of sample 6 revealed that a new inspector had examined the boards in this sample
and that he did not recognize several of the types of nonconformities that could have been
present. Furthermore, the unusually large number of nonconformities in sample20 resulted from
a temperature control problem in the wave soldering machine, which was subsequently repaired.
Therefore, it seems reasonable to exclude these two samples and revise the trial control limits.
The estimate now computed as

QUESTIONS

1. Which chart is used for number of imperfections observed in a cloth per unit area?
2. What is difference between p-chart and c-chart?
3. What is difference between chart for defective and chart for defects?
4. What are the areas of applications of c-chart?
5. State the conditions for use C-chart.
6. What type of sample size should be considered for use of C-chart?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6 (OC Curve)

OBJECT:

Operating Characteristics Curve:

(a) Plot the operating characteristics curve for single sampling attribute plan for n = 20 ; c = 1 , 2
, 3 Designate the red ball to defective.

(b) Compare the actual O.C. curve with theoretical O.C. curve using approximation for the
nature of distribution.

INTRODUCTION:

OC Curves or Operating Characteristic Curves refer to a graph of attributes of a sampling plan

considered during management of a project which depicts the percent of lots or batches which
are expected to be acceptable under the specified sampling plan and for a specified process
quality.

The specified sampling plan may be singular, sequential or iterative and may be using a
particular size of a sample depending upon the demands of the project and could yield the results
of acceptance or rejection based on a specified criteria. The α and β risks referred to earlier are
shown on the OC curve as below.
Let’s A lot of size N has been submitted for inspection

Sample size n

Acceptance number of defective c

Lot sentencing is based on one sample of size n

Operating characteristic (OC) curve plots the probability of accepting the lot (Pa) versus the
lot fraction defective (p)

Calculations:
The probability of acceptance for different values of p, fraction defective are shown in the
following table.

n = 100 and c=2

The ideal OC curve which has perfect discriminatory power is as shown below.
.

The OC curve shows discriminatory power of the sampling plan.In the plan n=100, c=2, if the
lots are 2% defective, Pa is approximately 0.74. This means in 100 lots 74 are expected to be
accepted and 26 to be rejected.

Comparison of two different OC curves with regard to their discriminatory power is done in the
following.
The following figure shows the effect of sample size on the OC curves. It is noted that the
discriminatory power of the sampling plan increases with sample size.
Effect of c on the OC curve: This is shown in the following figure

(B) The OC Curve of Attribute Acceptance Plans

The Operating Characteristic (OC) curve describes the probability of accepting a lot as a function

of the lot’s quality. Figure 1 shows a typical OC Curve.

The Shape of the OC Curve

The first thing to notice about the OC curve in Figure 1 is the shape; the curve is not a straight
line. Notice the roughly “S” shape. As the lot per cent nonconforming increases, the probability
of acceptance decreases, just as you would expect. Historically, acceptance sampling is part of
the process between a part’s producer and consumer.

To help determine the quality of a process (or lot) the producer or consumer can take a sample
instead of inspecting the full lot. Sampling reduces costs, because one needs to inspect or test
fewer items than looking at the whole lot. Sampling is based on the idea that the lots come from
a process that has a certain non-conformance rate (but there is another view described below).
The concept is that the consumer will accept all the producer’s lots as long as the process percent
nonconforming is below a prescribed level. This produces the, so called, ideal OC curve shown
in Figure 2. When the process per-cent nonconforming is below the prescribed level, 4.0% in this
example, the probability of acceptance is 100%. For quality worse than this level, higher than
4%, the probability of acceptance immediately drops to 0%. The dividing line between 100% and
0% acceptance is called the Acceptable Quality Level (AQL).

The original idea for sampling takes a simple random sample, of n units, from the lot. If the
number of nonconforming items is below a prescribed number, called the acceptance number and
denoted c, we accept the lot. If the sample contains more nonconforming items, we reject the lot.
The only way to realize the ideal OC curve is 100% inspection. With sampling, we can come
close. In general, as the sample size increases, keeping the acceptance number proportional, the
OC curve approaches the ideal.

CONCLUSIONS:

The following important observations can be made from the above.

1. The ideal OC curve cannot be obtained in practice

2. The ideal OC curve can be approached by increasing the sample size.
3. This is seen from the previous slide in which acceptance number c is kept proportional to
n.
4. The greater the slope of the OC curve, the better is its discriminatory power
5. Changing c does not dramatically change the slope of the OC curve as c is decreased the
OC curve shifts to the left. Plans with lower values of c provide discrimination at lower
levels of fraction defective.

QUESTIONS:

1. What are the elements of an acceptance sampling plan?

2. What are the producer risk and consumer risk?
3. What is the effect of c on OC curve?
4. What is the AQL and RQL?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7 (Normal Distribution)
OBJECT:

(a) Verification of Normal Distribution.

(b) To find the distribution of numbered cardboard chips by random drawing one at a time with
replacement. Make 25 subgroups in size 5 and 10 find the type of distribution of sample average
in each case. Comment on your observations

INTRODUCTION:
The normal distribution is the most important and most widely used distribution in statistics.
It is sometimes called the "bell curve," although the tonal qualities of such a bell would be
less than pleasing. It is also called the "Gaussian curve" after the mathematician Karl
Friedrich Gauss

Normal Distribution Curve

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

 Symmetric, bell shaped

 Continuous for all values ofX between -∞and ∞ so that each conceivable interval of real
numbers has a probability other than zero.
 -∞≤X ≤∞
 Two parameters, μ and σ. Note that the normal distribution is actually a family of
distributions, since μ and σ determine the shape of the distribution.
 The notation N(μ,σ2) means normally distributed with mean μ and variance σ2. If we say
X ∼N(μ, σ2) we mean that X is distributed N(μ,σ2).
  About 2/3 of all cases fall within one standard deviation of the mean, that is P(μ - σ≤X ≤μ
+σ) = .6826.
 About 95% of cases lie within 2 standard deviations of the mean, that is P(μ - 2σ≤X ≤μ+
2σ ) = .9544
PROBABILITY DENSITY FUNCTION (PDF)

A random variable X is said to be normally distributed with mean µ and variance σ 2 if its
probability density function (pdf) is

F(x:µ,σ2)= -∞<x<+∞

STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

"standard normal distribution" is given by taking and in a general normal

distribution. An arbitrary normal distribution can be converted to a standard normal
distribution by changing variables to , so , yielding

EFFECT OF µ AND σ ON NORMAL CURVE

FIND THE AREA UNDER THE CURVE IN NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Example: We are given the following information: µ = 450, σ = 25 Find the following: P(X >
475) and P(460 < X < 470) by using normal distribution.

Answer:

(a) Find P(X > 475)

The formula to compute the Z value appears above. We apply that formula to the given data as

follows:

A Z value of 1 means that X is located exactly one standard deviation to the right of the mean.
We need to the find the area of the normal curve that corresponds to this Z value. Consult the
Normal Distribution Table to find an area of 0.84134 that corresponds to Z = 1. We want to find
P(X > 475) so this means we need the area to the right of X,

which is: 1 - 0.84134 = 0.15866

Thus, P(X > 475) = 0.16.

(b) Find P(460 < X < 470)

This is a 2-step procedure where we find P(X < 470) and P(X < 460) and then compute the
difference.

For reference, the formula to compute the Z value appears to the right. First, we apply that
formula to find the Z value for X = 470 as follows:

We consult the Normal Distribution Table to find the area of 0.78814 that corresponds to Z =
0.8.

Second, we apply that formula to find the Z value for X = 460 as follows:
We consult the Normal Distribution Table to find the area of 0.65542 that corresponds to Z =
0.4.

Finally, we compute the difference between the 2 areas as follows: P(460 < X < 470) = P(X <
460 < X) - P(X < 470) = 0.78814 - 0.65542 = 0.13272.

Thus, P(460 < X < 470) = 0.13.

QUESTIONS:

1. What are the characteristics of a normal distribution?

2. Why is the standard normal distribution important in statistical analysis?
3. What is the total area under the standard normal distribution curve?
4. What percentage of the area falls below the mean? Above the mean?
5. About what percentage of the area under the normal distribution curve falls within 1
standard deviation above and below the mean?
6. About what percentage of the area under the normal distribution curve falls within 2
standard deviations above and below the mean?
7. About what percentage of the area under the normal distribution curve falls within 3
standard deviations above and below the mean?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8 (Poisson Distribution)

OBJECT:

To study lathe machine construction and various parts including attachments, lathe tools
cutting speed, feed and depth of cut.

INTRODUCTION:
The Poisson distribution can be used to calculate the probabilities of various numbers of
"successes" based on the mean number of successes. In order to apply the Poisson
distribution, the various events must be independent. Keep in mind that the term "success"
does not really mean success in the traditional positive sense. It just means that the outcome in
question occurs.

ASSUMPTIONS IN THE POISSON DISTRIBUTION

The Poisson distribution is an appropriate model if the following assumptions are true.

 X is the number of times an event occurs in an interval and X can take values 0, 1, 2, …
 The occurrence of one event does not affect the probability that a second event will
occur. That is, events occur independently.
 The rate at which events occur is constant. The rate cannot be higher in some intervals
and lower in other intervals.
 Two events cannot occur at exactly the same instant.
 The probability of an event in an interval is proportional to the length of the interval.

If these conditions are true, then X is a Poisson random variable, and the distribution of X is a
Poisson distribution.

MEAN AND VARIANCE OF POISSON DISTRIBUTION

The probability distribution of a Poisson random variable X representing the number of
successes occurring in a given time interval or a specified region of space is given by the
formula:
e = the base of natural logarithms (2.7183)
μ = the mean number of "successes"
x = the number of "successes" in question

If μ is the average number of successes occurring in a given time interval or region in the
Poisson distribution, then the mean and the variance of the Poisson distribution are both equal to
μ.

E(X) = μ

and

V(X) = σ2 = μ

APPLICATIONS

 the number of deaths by horse kicking in the Prussian army (first application)
 birth defects and genetic mutations
 rare diseases (like Leukemia, but not AIDS because it is infectious and so not
independent) - especially in legal cases
 car accidents
 traffic flow and ideal gap distance
 number of typing errors on a page
 hairs found in McDonald's hamburgers
 spread of an endangered animal in Africa
 failure of a machine in one month

EXAMPLE:

A life insurance salesman sells on the average 3 life insurance policies per week. Use Poisson's
law to calculate the probability that in a given week he will sell

a. Some policies
b. 2 or more policies but less than 5 policies.
c. Assuming that there are 5 working days per week, what is the probability that in a given
day he will sell one policy?

ANSWER:

(a) "Some policies" means "1 or more policies". We can work this out by finding 1 minus the
"zero policies" probability:
QUESTIONS:

1. Under what conditions do the binomial and Poisson distributions give approximately the
same results?
2. Which probability distribution in which outcome is very small with a very small period of
time?
3. If the outcomes of a discrete random variable follow a Poisson distribution, then what is
the relation between mean and variance?
4. Poisson distribution is uesd for what type of data?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9 (CLT)
OBJECT:

Central Limit Theorem:

(a) To show that a sample means for a normal universe follow a normal distribution

(b) To show that the sample means for a non-normal universe also follow a normal Distribution.

INTRODUCTION:
The central limit theorem (CLT) is a statistical theory that states that given a sufficiently
large sample size from a population with a finite level of variance, the mean of all samples from
the same population will be approximately equal to the mean of the population. Furthermore, all
of the samples will follow an approximate normal distribution pattern, with all variances being
approximately equal to the variance of the population divided by each Sample’s size.

The Central Limit Theorem tells us that with a large enough sample (50 or more), most of the
sample means will be close to the population mean. You also know that the sampling distribution
of the mean is approximately normally distributed and you know a lot about the characteristics of
normal curves.

(a) SAMPLING FROM A NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED POPULATION

Sample mean

The sample mean from a group of observations is an estimate of the population mean .
Given a sample of size n, consider n independent random variables X1, X2, ..., Xn, each
corresponding to one randomly selected observation. Each of these variables has the distribution
of the population, with mean and standard deviation . The sample mean is defined to be .

By the properties of means and variances of random variables, the mean and variance of the
sample mean are the following:

𝑛
If ≤ 0.05
𝑁
If this condition is not satisfied, we use the following formula to calculate

where the factor

is called the finite population correction factor.

Distribution of the Sample Mean

When the distribution of the population is normal, then the distribution of the sample mean is
also normal. For a normal population distribution with mean and standard deviation , the

distribution of the sample mean is normal, with mean and standard deviation .

A formal statement of the Central Limit Theorem is the following:

If is the mean of a random sample X1, X2, ... , Xn of size n from a distribution with a finite
mean and a finite positive variance 2 then the distribution of

W=

is N(0,1) in the limit as n approaches infinity. This means that the variable is distributed

N( , ).

Example:

In a recent SAT test, the mean score for all examinees was 1020. Assume that the distribution

of SAT scores of all examinees is normal with a mean of 1020 and a standard deviation of 153.
Let be the mean SAT score of a random sample of certain examinees. Calculate the mean and
standard deviation of x-bar and describe the shape of its sampling distribution when the sample
size is

(a) 16 (b) 50

Answer:

Let µ and σ be the mean and standard deviation of SAT scores of all examinees

Because the SAT scores of all examinees are assumed to be normally distributed, the sampling
distribution of x-bar for samples of 16 examinees is also normal. Figure 1 shows the population
distribution and the sampling distribution of x-bar. Note that because σ is greater than σ x-bar the
population distribution has a wider spread and less height than the sampling distribution of x-bar
in Figure 1.

Figure 1

(b) The mean and standard deviation of x-bar are:

Again, because the SAT scores of all examinees are assumed to be normally distributed, the
sampling distribution of x-bar for samples of 50 examinees is also normal. The population
distribution and the sampling distribution of x are shown in Figure 2
(b) SAMPLING FROM A POPULATION THAT IS NOT NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED

Most of the time the population from which the samples are selected is not normally distributed.
In such cases, the shape of the sampling distribution of x-bar is inferred from a very important
theorem called the central limit theorem.

Note that when the population does not have a normal distribution, the shape of the sampling
distribution is not exactly normal but is approximately normal for a large sample size. The
approximation becomes more accurate as the sample size increases. Another point to remember
is that the central limit theorem applies to large samples only. Usually, if the sample size is 30 or
more, it is considered sufficiently large to apply the central limit theorem to the sampling
distribution of x-bar Thus, according to the central limit theorem,

1. When n ≥30, the shape of the sampling distribution of x-bar is approximately normal
irrespective of the shape of the population distribution.
2. The mean of x-bar, µx-bar is equal to the mean of the population, µ.
3. The standard deviation of x-bar, σx-bar is equal to
Again, remember that for to apply, n/N must be less than or equal to .05.

Figure 3a shows the probability distribution curve for a population. The distribution curves in
Figure 3b through Figure 3e show the sampling distributions of x-bar for different sample sizes
taken from the population of Figure 3a. As we can observe, the population is not normally
distributed. The sampling distributions of x-bar shown in parts b and c, when n < 30, are not
normal. However, the sampling distributions of x-bar shown in parts d and e, when n ≥30, are
(approximately) normal. Also notice that the spread of the sampling distribution of decreases as
the sample size increases.
Example:

The mean rent paid by all tenants in a large city is $1550 with a standard deviation of $225.
However, the population distribution of rents for all tenants in this city is skewed to the right.
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of x-bar and describe the shape of its sampling
distribution when the sample size is

(a) 30 (b) 100

Answer:

Although the population distribution of rents paid by all tenants is not normal, in each case the
sample size is large (n ≥30). Hence, the central limit theorem can be applied to infer the shape of
the sampling distribution of x-bar.

(a) Let x-bar be the mean rent paid by a sample of 30 tenants. Then, the sampling
distribution of x-bar is approximately normal with the values of the mean and standard
deviation as

Figure 4 shows the population distribution and the sampling distribution of x-bar.
 (b) Let x-bar be the mean rent paid by a sample of 100 tenants. Then, the sampling
distribution
of is approximately normal with the values of the mean and standard deviation as

Figure 5 shows the population distribution and the sampling distribution of x-bar.

QUESTIONS:

1. What condition or conditions must hold true for the sampling distribution of the sample
mean to be normal when the sample size is less than 30?
2. Explain the central limit theorem.
3. What is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of x equal to? Assume n/N
≤05.
4. How does the value of σx-bar change as the sample size increases?
5. How central limit theorem is important in statistic?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10 (Software)
OBJECT:

Solve problems using available Statistical Process Control software in lab

INTRODUCTION:
Statistical Process Control (SPC) is an industry-standard methodology for
measuring and controlling quality during the manufacturing process. Quality data in the form of
Product or Process measurements are obtained in real-time during manufacturing. This data is
then plotted on a graph with pre-determined control limits. Control limits are determined by the
capability of the process, where as specification limits are determined by the client's needs.

Data that falls within the control limits indicates that everything is operating as expected. Any
variation within the control limits is likely due to a common cause—the natural variation that is
expected as part of the process. If data falls outside of the control limits, this indicates that an
assignable cause is likely the source of the product variation, and something within the process
should be changed to fix the issue before defects occur.
With real-time SPC you can:
 Dramatically reduce variability and scrap
 Scientifically improve productivity
 Reduce costs
 Uncover hidden process personalities
 Instantly react to process changes
 Make real-time decisions on the shop floor

Important software for statistical process control.

1. SQCpack:
SQCpack is the proven statistical process control solution that helps
organizations utilizes the power of data analysis to drive strategic quality outcomes. Combining
powerful SPC techniques with flexibility, SQCpack is an easy and scalable application that
includes all the tools needed to optimize process performance, comply with critical quality
standards, reduce variability, and improve profitability.

2. Minitab 17:
Analyze your data and improve your products and services with the leading
statistical software used for quality improvement worldwide. The car you drive. The medicine
you take. The bank you use. The device or computer you're looking at right now. Chances are
that all of them have been developed or improved using Minitab. Minitab is the leading statistical
software used for quality improvement and statistics education worldwide.

3. SPC for Excel:

Our SPC software is designed for Lean Six Sigma and other quality
professionals of all levels. SPC for Excel is the most cost-effective way to get all the tools
needed for analysis, problem solving and statistical analysis. Includes Pareto diagrams,
histogram, control charts, process capability, distribution fitting, data transformation, regression,
DOE, hypothesis testing etc.

4. SPSS (Statistical package for social science) :

SPSS is the acronym of Statistical Package
for the Social Science. SPSS is one of the most popular statistical packages which can perform
highly complex data manipulation and analysis with simple instructions. It is designed for both
interactive and non-interactive (batch) uses.

SPSS has scores of statistical and mathematical functions, scores statistical procedures, and a
very flexible data handling capability. It can read data in almost any format (e.g., numeric,
alphanumeric, binary, dollar, date, time formats), and version 6 onwards can read files created
using spread sheet/data base software. It also has excellent data manipulation utilities. The
following is a brief overview of some of the functionalities of SPSS:

 Data transformations
 Data Examination
 Descriptive Statistics
 Contingency tables
 Reliability tests
 Correlation
 T-tests
 ANOVA
In SPSS we can use np (number of non-conforming units from all produced) and c
(number of non-conformities) chart – if each sample used has an equal size, and p (proportion
of non-conforming units from all produced) and u (number of non-conformities per unit)
for the unequal size samples.
Example of making control chart in Excel

Click on Insert tab, click on Line Chart and then Click on Line.

You have created your chart. Resize it. Remove the small black lines by double clicking on them
and pressing Delete. That’s it, you're done.
QUESTIONS:

1. What is statistical process control?

2. What are the benefits of SPC?
3. What is SPSS?
4. What type of data can be interpreted in SPSS?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11(SPC Techniques)

OBJECT:

Study of Statistical process control techniques.

INTRODUCTION:
Statistical process control (SPC) is a method of quality control which uses statistical
methods. SPC is applied in order to monitor and control a process. Monitoring and controlling
the process ensures that it operates at its full potential.
Important SPC tolls

 Check Sheet
 Cause-and-Effect Sheet
 Pareto Chart
 Scatter Diagram
 Probability Plot
 Histogram
 Control Charts

1. Check Sheet:
The check sheet is a form (document) used to collect data in real time at the location where the
data is generated. The data it captures can be quantitative or qualitative. When the information is
quantitative, the check sheet is sometimes called a tally sheet. Check sheets are simply charts for
gathering data. When check sheets are designed clearly and cleanly, they assist in gathering
accurate and pertinent data, and allow the data to be easily read and used.
The design should make use of input from those who will actually be using the check sheets.
This input can help make sure accurate data is collected and invites positive involvement from
those who will be recording the data. Check sheets can be kept electronically, simplifying the
eventual input of the data into SQC.
SQC can use data from all major spreadsheets, including Excel and Lotus 123, all major database
programs and some other SPC software programs. Since most people have a spreadsheet
program on their desktop PC, it might be easiest to design a check sheet in a spreadsheet format.
Check sheets should be easy to understand. The requirements for getting the data into an
electronic format from paper should be clear and easy to implement.

2. Cause and effect diagrams

One analysis tool is the Cause-and-Effect or Fishbone diagram. These are also called Ishikawa
diagrams because Kaoru Ishikawa developed them in 1943. They are called fishbone diagrams
since they resemble one with the long spine and various connecting branches. The fishbone chart
organizes and displays the relationships between different causes for the effect that is being
examined. This chart helps organize the brainstorming process.
The major categories of causes are put on major branches connecting to the backbone, and
various sub-causes are attached to the branches. A tree-like structure results, showing the many
facets of the problem. The method for using this chart is to put the problem to be solved at the
head, then fill in the major branches. People, procedures, equipment and materials are commonly
identified causes. This is another tool that can be used in focused brainstorming sessions to
determine possible reasons for the target problem. The brainstorming team should be diverse and
have experience in the problem area. A lot of good information can be discovered and displayed
using this tool.
3. Pareto Chart
The Pareto chart can be used to display categories of problems graphically so they can be
properly prioritized. The Pareto chart is named for a 19th century Italian economist who
postulated that a small minority (20%) of the people owned a great proportion (80%) of the
wealth in the land. There are often many different aspects of a process or system that can be
improved, such as the number of defective products, time allocation or cost savings.
Each aspect usually contains many smaller problems, making it difficult to determine how to
approach the issue. A Pareto chart or diagram indicates which problem to tackle first by showing
the proportion of the total problem that each of the smaller problems comprise. This is based on
the Pareto principle: 20% of the sources cause 80% of the problem. SQC Count Pareto chart is a
vertical bar graph displaying rank in descending order of importance for the categories of
problems, defects or opportunities. Generally, you gain more by working on the problem
identified by the tallest bar than trying to deal with the smaller bars. However, you should ask
yourself what item on the chart has the greatest impact on the goals of your business, because
sometimes the most frequent problem as shown by the Pareto chart is not always the most
important. SPC is a tool to be used by people with experience and common sense as their guide.

4. Scatter Diagram
The Scatter plot is another problem analysis tool. Scatter plots are also called correlation charts.
A Scatter plot is used to uncover possible cause-and-effect relationships. It is constructed by
plotting two variables against one another on a pair of axes. A Scatter plot cannot prove that one
variable causes another, but it does show how a pair of variables is related and the strength of
that relationship. Statistical tests quantify the degree of correlation between the variables.
 5. Probability Plot
In order to use Control Charts, the data needs to approximate a normal distribution, to generally
form the familiar bell-shaped curve. The probability plot is a graph of the cumulative relative
frequencies of the data, plotted on a normal probability scale. If the data is normal it forms a line
that is fairly straight. The purpose of this plot is to show whether the data approximates a normal
distribution. Although a probability plot is useful in analyzing data for normality, it is
particularly useful for determining how capable a process is when the data is not normally
distributed. That is, we are interested in finding the limits within which most of the data fall.
Since the probability plot shows the percent of the data that falls below a given value, we can
sketch the curve that best fits the data. We can then read the value that corresponds to 0.001
(0.1%) of the data. This is generally considered the lower natural limit. The value corresponding
to 0.999 (99.9%) is generally considered the upper natural limit.

6. Histogram
A histogram is a snapshot of the variation of a product or the results of a process. It often forms
the bell shaped curve which is characteristic of a normal process. The histogram helps you
analyze what is going on in the process and helps show the capability of a process, whether the
data is falling inside the bell-shaped curve and within specifications.
A histogram displays a frequency distribution of the occurrence of the various measurements.
The variable being measured is along the horizontal x-axis, and is grouped into a range of
measurements. The frequency of occurrence of each measurement is charted along the vertical y-
axis. Histograms depict the central tendency or mean of the data, and its variation or spread. A
histogram also shows the range of measurements, which defines the process capability.

A histogram can show characteristics of the process being measured, such as:
 Do the results show a normal distribution, a bell curve? If not, why not?
 Does the range of the data indicate that the process is capable of producing what is
required by the customer or the specifications?
 How much improvement is necessary to meet specifications? Is this level of improvement
possible in the current process?

7. Control Charts
Control charts are used to routinely monitor quality. Depending on the number of process
characteristics to be monitored, there are two basic types of control charts. The first, referred to
as a uni-variate control chart, is a graphical display (chart) of one quality characteristic. The
second, referred to as a multivariate control chart, is a graphical display of a statistic that
summarizes or represents more than one quality characteristic.
Characteristics of control charts
If a single quality characteristic has been measured or computed from a sample, the control chart
shows the value of the quality characteristic versus the sample number or versus time. In general,
the chart contains a center line that represents the mean value for the in-control process. Two
other horizontal lines, called the upper control limit (UCL) and the lower control limit (LCL), are
also shown on the chart. These control limits are chosen so that almost all of the data points will
fall within these limits as long as the process remains in-control. The figure below illustrates this.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is SPC?
2. What is use of SPC techniques?
3. What meaning of control limits in control chart?
4. How the histogram shows the variation in process?
5. How cause and effect diagram shows causes and effect in SPC?
 EXPERIMENT NO. 12 (QFD)
OBJECT:

Study of Quality function deployment (QFD)

INTRODUCTION:
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) uses a matrix format to capture a number of issues
that are vital to the planning process. The House of Quality Matrix is the most recognized and
widely used form of this method. It translates customer requirements, based on marketing
research and benchmarking data, into an appropriate number of engineering targets to be met by
a new product design. Basically, it is the nerve center and the engine that drives the entire QFD
process. According to Hauser and Clausing, it is “a kind of conceptual map that provides the
means for inter functional planning and communication.”

There are many different forms of the House of Quality, but its ability to be adapted to the
requirements of a particular problem make it a very strong and reliable system to use. Its general
format is made up of six major components. These include customer requirements, technical
requirements, a planning matrix, an interrelationship matrix, a technical correlation matrix, and a
technical priorities/benchmarks and targets section.

1. THE VOICE OF THE CUSTOMERS

The initial steps in forming the House of Quality include determining, clarifying, and specifying
the customers’ needs. These steps lay the foundation for a clearly defined venture and will ensure
a project or process is well thought out prior to any further development.

Clarifying Customer Needs

Customers buy benefits and producers offer features. This seems like a relatively simple notion,
however, unless customers and producers are perfectly in tune with one another, it may be very
difficult to anticipate these features, or each underlying benefit from each producer.

 Parts  Costs  Functions

Quality Character& Reliability Processes Tasks
Figuure 1: Examples of Customer Needs
It is of utter importance to translate the wishes of each and every customer into some tangible
values that can be turned into engineering specifications.

Specifying the Customer Needs

After determining what items are most important to the customer, organizations must translate
them into particulate specifications. Nothing can be produced, serviced or maintained without
detailed specifications or some set of given standards. Each aspect of the desired item must be
clearly defined: Measurements must be defined, heights specified , torques stated, and weights
targeted.

These values can be derived from several locations. Organizations can use known data from
market research, or conduct new studies to gather necessary information. In any event, the needs,
which were clarified and then explicitly stated, should be satisfied to the best of that
organization’s ability.

2. TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS
The next step of the QFD process is identifying what the customer wants and what must be
achieved to satisfy these wants. In addition, regulatory standards and requirements dictated by
management must be identified. Once all requirements are identified it is important to answer
what must be done to the product design to fulfill the necessary requirements.

Requirements What
A list of requirements from customers, An expanded list of what needs to be done to
management and regulatory standards the product to fulfill the requirements
Figure 2 explains how to use a requirement chart to help the design process.

3. INTERRELATIONSHIP MATRIX
The main function of the interrelationship matrix is to establish a connection between the
customer’s product requirements and the performance measures designed to improve the
product. The first step in constructing this matrix involves obtaining the opinions of the
consumers as far as what they need and require from a specific product. These views are drawn
from the planning matrix and placed on the left side of the interrelationship matrix.
With this customer overview, the company can begin to formulate a strategy to improve their
product. In doing this, the strengths and weaknesses of the company are weighted against the
customer priorities to determine what aspects need to be changed to surpass the competition,
what aspects need to change to equal the competition, and what aspects will be left unchanged.
The optimal combination is desired.

Knowing what improvements need to be made allows the list of performance measures to be
generated and displayed across the top of the interrelationship matrix. By definition, a
performance measure is a technical measure evaluating the product’s performance of a
demanded quality (Terninco). In other words, the company must take the voice of the customer
and translate it into engineering terms. The matrix will have at least one performance measure
for each demanded quality.

After setting up the basic matrix, it is necessary to assign relationships between the customer
requirements and the performance measures. These relationships are portrayed by symbols
indicating a strong relationship, a medium relationship, or a weak relationship. The symbols in
turn are assigned respective indexes such as 9-3-1, 4-2-1, or 5-3-1. When no relationship is
evident between a pair a zero value is always assigned. The interrelationship matrix should
follow the Pareto Principle keeping in mind that designing to the critical 20% will satisfy 80% of
the customer desires (Terninco). Therefore, there should not be a significant number of strong
relationships between pairs.

4. TECHNICAL CORRELATION MATRIX

Performance measures in existing designs often conflict with each other. The technical
correlation matrix, which is more often referred to as the Roof, is used to aid in developing
relationships between customer requirements and product requirements and identifies where
these units must work together otherwise they will be in a design conflict. The following
symbols are used to represent what type of impact each requirement has on the other.

ž - Strong positive
™ - Positive
x - Negative
 xx - Strong negative

These symbols are then entered into the cells where a correlation has been identified. The
objective is to highlight any requirements that might be in conflict with each other.

Any cell identified with a high correlation is a strong signal to the team, and especially to the
engineers, that significant communication and coordination are a must if any changes are going
to be made. If there is a negative or strongly negative impact between requirements, the design
must be compromised unless the negative impact can be designed out. Some conflicts can’t be
resolved because they are an issue of physics. Others can be design-related, which leaves it up to
the team to decide how to resolve them. Negative impacts can also represent constraints, which
may be bi-directional. As a result, improving one of them may actually cause a negative impact
to the other. Sometimes an identified change impairs so many others that it is just simply better
to leave it alone. According to Step-By-Step QFD by John Terninko, asking the following
question when working with this part of the House of Quality helps to clarify the relationships
among requirements: “If technical requirement X is improved, will it help or hinder technical
requirement Z?”

Many technical requirements are related to each other so working to improve one may help a
related requirement and a positive or beneficial effect can result. On the other hand, working to
improve one requirement may negatively affect a related requirement as mentioned above. One
of the principal benefits of the Roof is that it flags these negative relationships so they can be
resolved. If these issues aren’t settled satisfactorily, some aspects of the final product will
dissatisfy the customer.

5. TECHNICAL PROPERTIES & TARGETS

The technical properties matrix uses specific items to record the priorities assigned to technical
requirements. It also provides a technical performance achieved by competitive products and the
degree of difficulty in developing each requirement. The final output of the matrix is a set of
target values for each technical requirement to be met by the new design. In some cases,
organizations are not able to create the most optimum design because of constraints related to
cost, technology, or other related items.
Setting Design Targets & Benchmarks

The customer requirements are distributed across the relationships to the quality characteristics.
This gives an organization prioritized quality characteristics. High priority quality characteristics
usually indicate that working on this technical issue will deliver great value to the customer. A
high quality characteristic weight indicates strong relationships with high priority demanded
quality items.

An organization’s current products can be benchmarked technically with competitors' products

on the high priority quality characteristics. In many cases, organizations should not be surprised
to learn that competitors are better at a given task or characteristic. QFD assists organizations to
identify technical areas and to develop areas where they can achieve the most cost effective
customer satisfaction. Organizations can then examine the Customer Context for usage concerns
that must be accounted for, and set design target specifications for our quality characteristics. At
a minimum, current performance standards should be maintained.
Example:

QUESTIONS:

1. What is QFD?
2. Draw the QFD?
3. Make customer requirement for a pen.
4. What is use of interrelationship matrix?