UNDERGRADUATE PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

PHY102
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS FOR PHY-102

1. AIR TRACK

2. FRICTION AND MOTION ON AN INCLINED PLAIN

3. PROJECTILE MOTION

4. TORSIONAL PENDULUM

5. RIGID BODY MITION

6. (i). ELECTROSTATIC FORCES

(ii). MAPPING OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND FIELD

7. CURRENT INDUCED MAGNETIC FIELD AND e/m MEASUREMENT

8. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

9. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT USING ULTRASONIC WAVE AS A GRATING

INTRODUCTION
Physics is a knowledge based on experiments and in physics education experiments play an important
role to start knowledge formation and conceptualization. The verificatory role of experiments is the
preferred physicists’ stance, as expressed by Feynmann et. al. (1963) “The test of all knowledge is
experiment. Experiment is the sole judge of scientific truth”. Recent reforms of physics education also
emphasize on developing effective methods in which experiments are conducted in the physics
curriculum and utilizing experiments complimentarily in class room teachings.

The aim of this laboratory is to give the students an opportunity to learn and verify the physical laws
using experimental apparatus/tools in the real world and expose students to the scientific methods and
instruments of physical investigations.

In PHY102 course there are three components- lecture, tutorial and laboratory. In PHY102 laboratory
each experiment offers learning of an important law of physics which will be discussed in lectures and
tutorials. Since different lab sections meet on different days of the week and each group of students do
different experiment on their turn, few students may deal with the concepts before it discussed in
lecture. In this case, the lab will serve as an introduction to the lecture. In other cases the lecture will be
an introduction to the lab.

Few instructions for the students are as follows:

1. The students should know well in advance which experiment is to be done during assigned lab
turn and come prepared for the same.
2. At the beginning of each lab turn students should check the experimental apparatus and ensure
 that all the items required to execute the experiment is available there and it is in good
condition. If any component of the apparatus is missing or not functioning properly, please
immediately report to the instructor.
3. Data sheets must be verified and signed by the instructor. Unsigned data sheets would not be
considered in the lab report so students should ensure that data sheets are verified and signed.
4. Each student is required to submit a lab report which must have objective of the experiment,
data recorded by student, data analysis, uncertainty/error analysis, results and conclusions.
5. The lab report must be submitted within a week from the date of experiment.
6. All the lab reports will be graded and discussed with the students.
7. Points for each lab report are distributed as follows:
A. Preparedness/viva: 3 points.
B. On experiment: 3 points.
C. Lab report: 4 points.
The points scored during regular lab classes will constitute 50% of your final laboratory
grade. Other 50% laboratory grade will be awarded based on your performance in a
laboratory examination scheduled at the end of the semester.

8. Attendance and grades: Students are expected to attend all lab sessions without any failure. If
you are not able to attend any regular class scheduled for your batch, please immediately
contact your lab instructor. The instructor will arrange alternative lab sessions for you. There
are no make-up labs in this course.
Satisfactory completion of this lab is required as a part of your course grade. Students failing
in the lab examination will receive ‘F’ grade in PHY102 course. The laboratory grade
makes up 25% of your final course grade.

LABORATORY ETIQUETTES:
1. Each lab section will be distributed in group of TWO students. More than two students would not
be allowed to work in a group.
2. Students should ensure their involvement in executing experiments and demonstrate learning.
3. Students must report on time for each lab sessions. Entry after 5 minutes from the scheduled time
of the lab is strictly not allowed.
4. Students should not bring drink or food items in the lab.
5. Usages of mobile phones are not allowed during the lab classes.
6. All the instruments must be handled carefully. Damage/malfunctioning of any instrument/
component must be reported immediately to the lab instructors. In case of any doubt on operating
the instruments please consult your lab instructor/assistant.
7. Copying and manipulation of experimental data/lab reports are strictly prohibited.

SAFETY PROCEDURES IN THE LABORATORY:

1. Be aware of power supplies to experimental set-ups. Before connecting/detaching power cord of
instruments, please ensure power point is switched OFF.
2. Be aware of sharp/pointed edges of blades/instrument.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. MEASUREMENTS AND UNCERTAINITIES

2. AIR TRACK
3. FRICTION AND MOTION ON AN INCLINED PLAIN
4. PROJECTILE MOTION
5. TORSIONAL PENDULUM
6. RIGID BODY MITION
7. (i). ELECTROSTATIC FORCES
(ii). MAPPING OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND FIELD
8. CURRENT INDUCED MAGNETIC FIELD AND e/m MEASUREMENT
9. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
10. DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT USING ULTRASONIC WAVE AS A GRATING
11. POLARIZATION OF LIGHT
 1. MEASUREMENTS AND ERROR ANALYSIS

1. Introduction:
"A measurement result is complete only when accompanied by a quantitative statement of its
uncertainty. The uncertainty is required in order to decide if the result is adequate for its intended
purpose and to ascertain if it is consistent with other similar results."
National Institute of Standards and Technology

All measurements have some degree of uncertainty that may come from a variety of sources. The
process of evaluating this uncertainty associated with a measurement result is often called uncertainty
analysis or error analysis.
The complete statement of a measured value should include an estimate of the level of confidence
associated with the value. Properly reporting an experimental result along with its uncertainty allows
other people to make judgments about the quality of the experiment, and it facilitates meaningful
comparisons with other similar values or a theoretical prediction. Without an uncertainty estimate, it is
impossible to answer the basic scientific question: “Does my result agree with a theoretical prediction
or results from other experiments?” This question is fundamental for deciding if a scientific hypothesis
is confirmed or refuted.
When we make a measurement, we generally assume that some exact or true value exists based on how
we define what is being measured. While we may never know this true value exactly, we attempt to
find this ideal quantity to the best of our ability with the time and resources available. As we make
measurements by different methods, or even when making multiple measurements using the same
method, we may obtain slightly different results. So how do we report our findings for our best
estimate of this elusive true value? The most common way to show the range of values that we believe
includes the true value is:
Measurement = Best estimate Uncertainty (units)
Finally we will be trying to compare our calculated values with a value from the text in order to verify
that the physical principles we are studying are correct. Such comparisons come down to the question
"Is the difference between our value and that in the text consistent with the uncertainty in our
measurements?".
The topic of measurement involves many ideas. We shall introduce some of them by means of
definitions of the corresponding terms and examples.
Sensitivity - The smallest difference that can be read or estimated on a measuring instrument.
Generally a fraction of the smallest division appearing on a scale. About 0.5 mm on our
rulers. This results in readings being uncertain by at least this much.
Variability - Differences in the value of a measured quantity between repeated measurements.
Generally due to uncontrollable changes in conditions such as temperature or initial
conditions.
Range - The difference between largest and smallest repeated measurements. Range is a rough
measure of variability provided the number of repetitions is large enough. Six repetitions are
reasonable. Since range increases with repetitions, we must note the number used.
Uncertainty - How far from the correct value our result might be. Probability theory is needed to make
this definition precise, so we use a simplified approach. We will take the larger of range
and sensitivity as our measure of uncertainty.
Example: In measuring the width of a piece of paper torn from a book, we might use a
cm ruler with a sensitivity of 0.5 mm (0.05 cm), but find upon 6 repetitions that our
measurements range from 15.5 cm to 15.9 cm. Our uncertainty would therefore be 0.4
cm.
Precision - How tightly repeated measurements cluster around their average value. The uncertainty
described above is really a measure of our precision.
Accuracy - How far the average value might be from the "true" value. A precise value might not be
accurate. For example: a stopped clock gives a precise reading, but is rarely accurate.
Factors that affect accuracy include how well our instruments are calibrated (the
correctness of the marked values) and how well the constants in our calculations are
known. Accuracy is affected by systematic errors, that is, mistakes that are repeated with
 each measurement. Example: Measuring from the end of a ruler where the zero position is
1 mm in from the end.
Blunders - These are actual mistakes, such as reading an instrument pointer on the wrong scale. They
often show up when measurements are repeated and differences are larger than the known
uncertainty. Example: recording an 8 for a 3, or reading the wrong scale on a meter.
Comparison - In order to confirm the physical principles we are learning, we calculate the value of a
constant whose value appears in our text. Since our calculated result has an uncertainty,
we will also calculate a Uncertainty Ratio (UR) which is defined as

A value less than 1 indicates very good agreement, while values greater than 3 indicate disagreement.
Intermediate values need more examination. The uncertainty is not a limit, but a measure of when the
measured value begins to be less likely. There is always some chance that the many effects that cause
the variability will all affect the measurement in the same way.
Example: Do the values 900 and 980 agree?
If the uncertainty is 100, then UR = 80=100 = 0:8 and they agree,
but if the uncertainty is 20 then UR = 80=20 = 4 and they do not agree.

2. Combining Measurements:
Consider the simple function R = a.b when a and b have uncertainties of a and b. Then
R = (a + a)(b + b) - a b = ab + ba + (b)(a)
Since uncertainties are generally a few percent of the value of the variables, the last product is much
less than the other two terms and can be dropped. Finally, we note that dividing by the original value of
R separates the terms by the variables.

The RULE for combining uncertainties is given in terms of fractional uncertainties, x/x. It is simply
that each factor contributes equally to the fractional uncertainty of the result. Example: To calculate the
acceleration of an object travelling the distance d in time t, we use the relationship: a = 2 d t -2. Suppose
d and t have uncertainties d and t, what is the resulting uncertainty in a, a?
Note that t is raised to the second power, so that t = t counts twice. Note also that the numerical factor
is the absolute value of the exponent. Being in the denominator counts the same as in the numerator.
The result is that

Examination of the individual terms often indicates which measurements contribute the most to the
uncertainty of the result. This shows us where more care or a more sensitive measuring instrument
is needed.
If d = 100 cm, d = 1 cm, t = 2:4 s and t = 0:2 s, then d/d = (1cm) / (100cm) = 0.01 = 1% and 2t/t
= 2(0.2s)/(2.4s) = 0:17 = 17%. Clearly the second term controls the uncertainty of the result. Finally,
a/a = 18%. (As you see, fractional uncertainties are most compactly expressed as percentages, and
since they are estimates, we round them to one or two meaningful digits.)
Calculating the value of a itself (2x100/2.42), the calculator will display 34.7222222. However, it is
clear that with a/a = 18% meaning a  6 cm s-2, most of those digits are meaningless. Our result
should be rounded to 35 cm s-2 with an uncertainty of 6 cm s-2.
In recording data and calculations we should have a sense of the uncertainty in our values and not write
figures that are not significant. Writing an excessive number of digits is incorrect as it indicates an
uncertainty only in the last decimal place written.

3. A General Rule for Significant Figures :

In multiplication and division we need to count significant figures. These are just the number of digits,
starting with the first non-zero digit on the left. For instance: 0.023070 has five significant figures,
since we start with the 2 and count the zero in the middle and at the right.
The rule is: Round to the factor or divisor with the fewest significant figures. This can be done either
before the multiplication or division, or after.
Example: 7.434 x 0.26 = 1.93284 = 1.9 (2 significant figures in 0.26).
4. Reporting Uncertainties:
There are two methods for reporting a value V, and its uncertainty V.
A. The technical form is (V V) units.
Example: A measurement of 7.35 cm with an uncertainty of 0.02 cm would be written as (7.35  0.02)
cm. Note the use of parentheses to apply the unit to both parts.
B. Commonly, only the significant figures are reported, without an explicit uncertainty. This implies
that the uncertainty is 1 in the last decimal place. Example: Reporting a result of 7.35 cm implies 0.01
cm. Note that writing 7.352786 cm when the uncertainty is really 0.01 cm is wrong.
C. A special case arises when we have a situation like 1500100. Scientific notation allows use of a
simplified form, reporting the result as 1.5x103. In the case of a much smaller uncertainty, 15001, we
report the result as 1:500x103, showing that the zeros on the right are meaningful.
5. Additional Remarks :
A. In the technical literature, the uncertainty also called the error.
B. When measured values are in disagreement with standard values, physicists generally look for
mistakes (blunders), re-examining their equipment and procedures. Sometimes a single measurement is
clearly very different from the others in a set, such as reading the wrong scale on a clock for a single
timing. Those values can be ignored, but NOT erased. A note should be written next to any value that is
ignored. Given the limited time we will have, it will not always be possible to find a specific cause for
disagreement. However, it is useful to calculate at least a preliminary result while still in the laboratory,
so that you have some chance to find mistakes.
C. In adding the absolute values of the fractional uncertainties, we overestimate the total uncertainty
since the uncertainties can be either positive or negative. The correct statistical rule is to add the
fractional uncertainties in quadrature, i.e.

D. The professional method of measuring variation is to use the Standard-Deviation of many repeated
measurements. This is the square root of the total squared deviations from the mean, divided by the
square root of the number of repetitions. It is also called the Root- Mean-Square error.
E. Measurements and the quantities calculated from them usually have units. Where values are
tabulated, the units may be written once as part of the label for that column The units used must appear
in order to avoid confusion. There is a big difference between 15 mm, 15 cm and 15 m.
6. Graphical Representation of Data:
Graphs are an important technique for presenting scientific data. Graphs can be used to suggest
physical relationships, compare relationships with data, and determine parameters such as the slope of a
straight line.
There is a specific sequence of steps to follow in preparing a graph. (See Figure 1)
1. Arrange the data to be plotted in a table.
2. Decide which quantity is to be plotted on the x-axis (the abscissa), usually the independent variable,
and which on the y-axis (the ordinate), usually the dependent variable.
3. Decide whether or not the origin is to appear on the graph. Some uses of graphs require the origin to
appear, even though it is not actually part of the data, for example, if an intercept is to be determined.
4. Choose a scale for each axis, that is, how many units on each axis represent a convenient number of
the units of the variable represented on that axis. (Example: 5 divisions = 25 cm). Scales should be
chosen so that the data span almost all of the graph paper, and also make it easy to locate arbitrary
quantities on the graph. (Example: 5 divisions = 23 cm is a poor choice.) Label the major divisions on
each axis.
5. Write a label in the margin next to each axis which indicates the quantity being represented and its
units. Write a label in the margin at the top of the graph that indicates the nature of the graph, and
the date the data were collected. (Example: "Air track: Acceleration vs. Number of blocks, 12/13/05")
6. Plot each point. The recommended style is a dot surrounded by a small circle. A small cross or plus
sign may also be used.
7. Draw a smooth curve that comes reasonably close to all of the points. Whenever possible we plot the
data or simple functions of the data so that a straight line is expected. A transparent ruler or the edge of
a clear plastic sheet can be used to "eyeball" a reasonable fitting straight line, with equal numbers of
points on each side of the line. Draw a single line all the way across the page. Do not simply connect
the dots.
 Figure 1: Example graph.
Using Figure 1 as an example, the slope of the straight line shown may be calculated from the values at
the left and right edges, (-1.8 cm/s2 at 0 g and 21.8 cm/s2 at 80 g) to give the value:

Suppose that the uncertainty is about 1.0 cm/s2 at the 70 g value. The uncertainty in the slope would
then be (1.0 cm/s2 )/(70 - 20) g = 0.02 cm/(s2 g). We should then report the slope as (0.300:02) cm/(s2-
g). (Note the rounding to 2 significant figures.)
If the value of g (the acceleration of free fall) in this experiment is supposed to equal the slope times
3200 g, then our experimental result is
3200 g x (0:30  0:02) cm/(s2 g) = (9:60 0:64) m/s2
To compare with the standard value of 9.81 m/s2, we calculate the uncertainty ratio (UR).
UR = (9:81 - 9:60)/0:64 = 0.21/0.64 = 0.33.
so the agreement is very good.
[Note: Making the uncertainty too large (lower precision) can make the result appear in better
agreement (seem more accurate), but makes the measurement less meaningful.]

"Log" PAPERS and SCALES: Semi-log and log-log papers and scales are used quantitatively to
show relations between quantities when theory predicts exponential or power law behavior. They are
also used qualitatively to display data that extends over a very large range of the variables. When a
number is plotted on a log scale its position represents the log of that number and the bother of looking
up many logs is avoided. Therefore, when plotting on a "log" scale you must use the printed
numbers, multiplying successive "decades" by powers of 10. For example, you cannot arbitrarily
change " 1 2 3 4 56..." into "3 4 5 6 78...". Care in plotting is necessary, as the value of intermediate
intervals keeps changing. For ease of reading the graph you should supply the decimal point or powers
of 10, so that a typical "x" scale would read: " .1 .2 .3 .4 .6 .8 1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 .. ". Note that
there is no "0" on a log scale (because this would correspond to a position of – ∞ ). Semi-log paper is
useful if the theoretical relation is H = H0 ebt. Since ln H = ln H0 + bt, a straight line with slope "b" will
be obtained when (ln H) is plotted against t.
Evaluating logs graphically: The logs (to the base 10) have already been taken by the paper scale
itself. That is, the ratio of a distance on the log paper to the length of a "decade", the 1-to-1 distance, is
the log10 of the value of the ratio of the endpoints. This process will be made clear in an example
below.
Thus for the semi-log slope:
b = (ln H2 - ln H1)/Δt
= 2.3{log H2 - log H1)/Δt
= 2.3 log (H2 /H1)/Δt = 2.3 (DH /D)/(t2 - t1)
where DH is the distance (in cm.) between points H2 and H1 on the line and D is the decade length (also
in cm.) "b" must have units so that the total exponent is unit-less, typically sec-1.
Log-log paper is used to demonstrate the relation: I = I0 rP. Since (log I) = (log I0) + P (log r), the log-
log plot of I vs. r is a straight line with slope P and intercept (log I0) {read the value of I0 directly on
the printed scale at r = 1, (i.e.log r = 0)}. Evaluation of the slope for log-log paper to get the power P
is: P = (ln I2 – ln I1) / (ln r2 – ln r1) = [2.3 (DY/D)/(2.3 DX/D)] which is just = DY/DX {both measured in
cm.) i.e. the loglog slope is measured with a ruler, NOT by reading the scale values. This assumes you
are using good quality log-log paper with the same “decade” size (in cm) both directions. [Note that
the power P carries no units.]
 ASSIGNMENTS

1. Error analysis:
1. To determine the diameter of a metal wire.
2. To determine the diameter of a coin.
3. To determine density of mica sheet.

2. Graph plotting:
1. “The leaky water bucket”: In an experiment, a student has recorded the times at
which the level in a cylindrical water “bucket” passed each centimeter mark on
the side of the cylinder. Analyze the data shown here.

Height Time
(cm.) (Sec.)
18 0
17 5
16 10
15 14
14 19
13 25
12 31
11 37
10 43
9 51
8 60
7 110
6 121
5 134
4 150
3 211
2 246
 1 345

2. “Light intensity vs distance from a small source”: The measurements of the

light intensity (brightness) at a detector that is moved farther and farther from the
light source are performed. Analyze the data and evaluate a power law using log-
log paper.

Distance (cm.) cm. 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 80

Intensity (ft-cndls.) ±5% 60 16 7.4 4.3 2.1 1.3 0.74 0.55
References: (for measurements and error analysis)
1. Laboratory manual, Introductory Physics, The city college of New York, USA.
2. Introduction to measurements and error analysis, Laboratory manual, Department of Physics and astronomy,
University of North Carolina, USA.
3. Estimating errors, using graphs and taking good data, Dr. R. H. Carr, Professor of Physics, California State
University, Los Angeles, USA.
 Experiment 2
Air track experiment

OBJECTIVE:
(1). Measurement of velocity, average velocity and instantaneous velocity
(2). Measurement of acceleration and acceleration due to gravity.
(3). Momentum and energy in ‘inelastic’ and ‘elastic’ collisions.

INTRODUCTION:
The air track is a long hollow aluminum casting with many tiny holes in the surface. Air blown
out of these holes provides an almost frictionless cushion of air on which the glider can move.
The air track and gliders operate best if they are clean and smooth. If their surfaces are dirty or
show bumps or nicks, inform your instructor before proceeding. Dirt, bumps, and nicks can result
in scratching the surfaces of the track and glider. To avoid scratching, use care in handling the
apparatus. The most important rule is this: at no time should the glider be placed on the air track
if the blower is not in operation.

Fig.1: Air-track system (Image: Teaching Advanced Physics (TAP), Institute of Physics, London, UK).

EXPERIMENTS:
1-A: Measurement of velocity:
The air track should be adjusted to be level and a glider should not try to move either direction.
METHOD:
Tape a 100mm long piece of black card to the side of a short glider so that the card breaks the light
beam of the Photo Gate mounted across the track. Turn on the air and slide the glider through the Photo
Gate. See the time displayed. As a small experiment, see if you can repeat the same speed exactly. Try
to slide it again through the Gate at exactly the same speed to get exactly the same time. Try a few
times to see if you can read exactly the same speed.
Because of slight errors in cutting the card and the sensitivity of the photogate, it is important to check
the exact distance travelled by the glider between the switching on and off of the photo gate. The flag
might be 100mm long, but the actual distance travelled by the glider to switch on and off the gate might
be slightly different from this dimension.
Very slowly slide the glider into the photogate and, at the instant when the gate switches (see the
monitor light on the gate), use a sharp pencil to mark the track with a fine line exactly level with the
end of the glider. Then continue passing the glider through the gate and mark the track again at the
instant the gate switches again. The exact distance between these lines is the “effective” length of the
flag. It should be close to the cut length of the flag, but write this exact dimension on the flag for future
reference when using this flag.

ANALYSIS:
Velocity (v)=Distance travelled (d) / Time (t) meter/second.
Distance travelled is 100mm (or the “effective” length of your cardboard flag). The time is the reading
shown on the timer in seconds for each time the glider passed through the Gate. Divide the effective
length of the flag in millimetres by the time in seconds and you have Velocity of the glider’s movement
in mm per second. Divide the effective length of the flag by the average time in seconds (press the
Average button on the timer until 2 beeps are heard to see the average of all the times) that you noted
from the timer and you have the average velocity of all the tries. Try the experiment again using a long
glider and using a 200mm long flag.

1-B: Average velocity and instantaneous velocity:

Instantaneous velocity is the velocity taken over an infinitely short distance. Average velocity is
calculated from the time taken over a long distance.
If the glider velocity is changing, the measurement taken in experiment 1 using the 100mm wide flag
will be the average velocity over the 100mm distance. The 10mm wide flag will provide the average
velocity over a much shorter distance. If the flag was 3mm wide, the velocity is almost the instant
velocity because it is the average over a very short distance.

SETUP:
Lift the single track levelling adjustment screw at one end of the air track and place one of the track
inclination blocks provided under the adjustable foot. Use the 20mm thick block. The blocks in the kit
are marked with their thickness. The track has inclination and gravity will cause the gliders to slide
down the track.

METHOD:
This time, use a 200 mm long glider and a 200 mm long flag. Repeat experiment 1-A by holding the
glider to one end of the track and gently releasing it so it glides by itself down the track. Before
releasing the glider, be very careful not to compress the spring buffers or provide ANY other initial
force to the glider. To be sure of this, it is often best to remove the buffers from the track end and the
glider at the starting point.

ANALYSIS:
Measure average velocity of the glider through the photogate using the 200 mm wide flag (check the
“effective” length of the flag). Repeat the motion 2 more times and, using the timer’s averaging button,
note the average of the 3 readings. Remove the 200 mm wide flag and replace it with the 10mm wide
flag taped at the MID POINT of the glider. Release the glider in exactly the same way and note the
average of 3 readings. Reposition the 10 mm flag to be level with the front end of the glider and repeat
to get an average of 3 readings. Reposition the 10mm flag to be level with the rear end of the glider and
repeat to get an average of 3 readings.

2-A: Measurement of acceleration:

Acceleration is change of Velocity over Time: V/t Deceleration is: -V/t.

SETUP:

Use the same setup as the experiment 2 with the Air Track on a slope. Leave the two photogates fixed
to the track at say 800 mm apart.

METHOD:
Tape a 10 mm wide flag and tape it to the side of a glider. Be sure the glider is placed on the track so
that the flag is furthest away from the light source and closer to the sensor side of the gate. If necessary,
check the “effective” length of the flag.
Initially, use the timer Function button to select Start/Stop mode and connect the first gate to the Start
sockets and the second gate to the Stop sockets. Press Stop then Reset buttons to zero the display and to
set the mode. Clear the timer memory by pressing the Clear button until 2 beeps are heard. Carefully
release the glider so that the total time taken for the glider to pass from one gate to the other will be
measured. Repeat the motion 3 times and press the timer average button until 2 beeps are heard to see
and note the average of the readings. After this time is determined, the timer connection must be
changed. Connect the two gate signals together to the same Start sockets on the timer. Plug the 4 mm
banana plugs from the second Gate into the tops of the other 4mm plugs. Use the function button on the
timer to select photogate mode. In this setting, the first gate will start and stop the timer as the flag
covers the light beam and the second gate will also start and stop the timer. Both readings are stored in
memory and the second reading is displayed.
Note the reading on the timer and, using the memory recall (arrow down) button, the note the
previously stored reading. If the glider is moving slowly enough, it is usually possible to take note of
the first time as it is measured and to take note of the second time at the finish. This avoids needing to
use the memory recall button. Repeat the experiment two or three more times and average the readings
from the first gate and from the second gate.

ANALYSIS:
Calculate the two velocities and subtract them to get the change in velocity. Take the average time
taken for the glider to pass between the two gates. Divide the change in velocity by the time taken
between the gates to have average acceleration in mm/sec2.
2-B: Measurement of acceleration due to gravity:

SETUP:
The setup is exactly the same as in the previous experiment. Set the air flow so that heavier gliders will
float on the track without dragging. The angle of the track will be altered and the glider will be changed
in weight and the average accelerations measured. The force due to gravity acting on the glider will
be calculated by using vectors.

METHOD:
The acceleration down the Air Track should follow Newton’s laws of motion and gravity. Preset several
long and short gliders with extra weights. Say 100g, 150g, 200g and 300g. Check each glider’s exact
mass on a balance. With the track set to the existing angle, place one glider behind the other and see if
one races the other down the track. Try say 100g against 200g and 150g against 300g. Repeat
experiment 3 to measure average acceleration of different mass gliders. Change the angle of the Air
Track to maybe half or double the present angle. Check average acceleration again for the various mass
gliders.
Measure the exact height (h) of the inclination blocks (the thickness is marked on them) and the
distance (d) between the feet along the Air Track to determine the exact angle of inclination. Sine angle
= h/d (opposite side over hypotenuse)

ANALYSIS:
Calculate the slope angle by using sine angle = h/d. Then using vectors and the value of the various
slope angles to determine what proportion of the forces due to gravity are acting down the slope. Then
you can determine how much of the weight of the glider is pushing it down the slope.
From the diagram above, the force of the air lifting Fa equals and cancels the force at the normal to the
track Ft. The remaining forces are the action of gravity vertically Fg and also parallel with the track
down the slope Fp.
Knowing the Force of gravity acting down the slope and knowing the mass of the glider, use the
formula F=ma to determine the expected acceleration down the slope due to gravity.

3-A: Momentum and energy in ‘inelastic’ collisions:

SETUP:
Set the air track as level as possible where the glider will not float in either direction. Take a long
glider, remove the buffer spring from one end and fit a “Velcro” pad to replace the normal buffer
spring. Load this glider with an extra 100g. Take a short glider and fit the mating “velcro” pad to one
end while leaving a buffer spring fitted to the other end. Do not load it with extra weight. Weigh both
gliders.
Set up 2x Photo Gates across the track about 500 mm apart and join them together to the same Start
sockets of the timer. Using the function button, set the timer to photogate mode. Press Stop then Reset
to zero the display and to set the operation mode of the timer. Clear the memory of the timer.
Tape a 100 mm long flag to the 200 mm long glider. If not already done, check the “effective” length of
this flag. Place the 200 mm glider at one end of the track and place the lighter glider between the two
gates with the “Velcro” pads facing.
METHOD:
By hand, start the motion of the heavy glider to make it pass through the first gate to measure the
average velocity. After it strikes and sticks to the second glider, we then measure the new average
velocity as the pair of gliders pass through the second gate. As the heavy glider sticks to the second
glider, the total mass will increase and the velocity will decrease.

ANALYSIS:
Momentum:
Let ‘M’ be the mass of the heavy glider. Let ‘m’ be the mass of the lighter glider.
Let ‘V’ be the velocity of the heavy glider through the first gate.
Let ‘v’ be the velocity of the combined mass of both gliders passing through the second gate.
Initial momentum = MxV (initial mass x initial velocity)
Final momentum = (M+m) x ‘v’ (total mass x final velocity)

Energy:
We can calculate:
The kinetic energy of the first glider before the collision: ½ (MV1)2
The kinetic energy of the first glider after the collision: ½ (MVB)2
The kinetic energy of the second glider before the collision: ½ (mV2)2
The kinetic energy of the second glider after the collision: ½ (mVb)2
The loss of kinetic energy from the first glider after the collision: ½ M [(V1)2-(VB)2]
The gain in kinetic energy in the second glider after the collision: ½ m [(V2)2-(Vb)2]
(Since glider was stationary, so ‘V2’ was zero)

3-B. Momentum and energy in ‘elastic’ collisions:

SETUP:
Repeat the same setup as experiment 5, BUT this time remove the ‘Velcro’ pads from the ends of the
gliders and replace them with the spring buffers. Also, this time, fit a 100mm long flag to the lighter
glider.
Because the gliders will bounce quickly away from each other, it is useful to practise a few times to be
sure the gliders pass through the gates AFTER they have separated from each other. Also, after the
collision, it will be necessary to quickly stop a glider or to remove it from the track to avoid rebounding
back through a gate.

METHOD:
The method is the same as in experiment 5 and the results can be tabulated in the same way. The time
through the second gate will be separate times made by the smaller glider and the larger glider
separately. The calculations are the same as it was in the earlier experiment but the two separate mass
and times through the second gate must be added to get the total momentum of both gliders.
This experiment is initially done with the second glider stationary, but it can be repeated with the
second glider moving towards the first glider or away from it before the collision occurs. When both
gliders are moving, you must be very careful with your timing of the collision so that all initial and
final velocities are measured for both gliders.

ANALYSIS:
The analysis is the same as in experiment 5.

REFERENCES:
1. Vernier’s manual.
2. Web sources.
 Experiment-3
Motion on an inclined plane
OBJECTIVE:
(1). A. Analyse displacement (Δx) vs. time (t) and velocity (v) vs. time (t) curve.
B. Study average and instantaneous velocity.
(2). Determine coefficient of static and kinetic friction of a wooden block moving on a track.

APPARATUS:
Motion Detector, force sensor, horizontal/inclined plane, cart/block, string and different masses.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Mount the motion detector at a position near one end of the track.
2. Set the switch of motion detector to ‘Track’.
3. Elevate the end of the track opposite the motion detector if you are using a horizontal
track.
4. Practice launching the cart with your finger so that it slows to a stop at least 50 cm from
its initial position before it returns to the initial position.
5. Hold the cart steady with your finger at least 20 cm from the motion detector1, then zero
the motion detector.
6. Begin collecting data, then launch the cart up the ramp. Be sure to catch it once it has
returned to its starting position.
7. Repeat, if necessary, until you get a trial with a smooth position-time graph.
DATA ANALYSIS:
Part 1
1. Either print or sketch the position vs. time (x-t) graph for your experiment. On this graph identify:
• Where the cart was rolling freely up the ramp
• Where the cart was farthest from its initial position
• Where the cart was rolling freely down the ramp
2. In your investigation of an object moving at constant velocity, you have learnt that the slope of the
x-t graph was the average velocity of the object. In this case, however, the slope for any interval on
the graph is not constant; instead, it is constantly changing. Based on your observations, sketch a
graph of velocity vs. time corresponding to that portion of the x-t graph where the cart was moving freely.
3. Now, view both the position vs. time and velocity vs. time graphs. Compare the v-t graph to the
one you sketched in Step 2.
4. Take a moment to think about and discuss how you could determine the cart’s velocity at any given
instant.
5. If you are using Logger Pro, group the two graphs (x-axis), and turn on the Tangent tool for the x-t
graph and the Examine tool for the v-t graph. Using program, compare the slope of the tangent to
any point on the x-t graph to the value of the velocity on the v-t graph. Write a statement describing
the relationship between these quantities.
Part 2:
1. Perform a linear fit to that portion of the v-t graph where the cart was moving freely. Print or
sketch this v-t graph. Write the equation that represents the relationship between the velocity and
time; be sure to record the value and units of the slope and the vertical intercept.
On this v-t graph identify:
• Where the cart was being pushed by your hand
• Where the cart was rolling freely up the ramp
• The velocity of the cart when it was farthest from its initial position
• Where the cart was rolling freely down the ramp
2. The slope of a graph represents the rate of change of the variables that were plotted. What can
you say about the rate of change of the velocity as a function of time while the cart was rolling
freely? In your discussion, you will give a name to this quantity. What is the significance of the
algebraic sign of the slope?
3. Compare the value of your slope to those of others in the class. What relationship appears to exist
between the value of the slope and the extent to which you elevate the track?
4. The vertical intercept of the equation of the line you fit to the v-t graph represents what the
velocity of the cart would have been at time t = 0 had it been accelerating from the moment you
began collecting data. Suggest a reasonable name for this quantity. Now write a general equation
relating the velocity and time for an object moving with constant acceleration
5. The position-time graph of an object that is constantly accelerating should appear parabolic. Use
the Curve Fit function of your data analysis program to fit a quadratic equation to that portion of
the x-t graph where the cart was moving freely. Note the values of the A and B parameters in the
quadratic equation. You will have to provide the units.
6. Compare these parameters (values and units) to the slope and intercept of the line used to fit the
v-t graph. Now write a general equation relating the position and time for an object undergoing
constant acceleration.
(2). Coefficient of static and kinetic friction of a wooden block moving on a track.
THEORY:
Friction is the resistive force that impedes the motion of a body when one tries to slide the
object along a surface. The friction force acts parallel to the surfaces in contact, opposes the
relative velocity of the body with respect to the surface, and its magnitude depends on the
nature of the particular materials that are rubbing together, but not on other variables, such as
the area of contact. This will be veri_ed experimentally, and is true only in the macroscopic
sense, since on the molecular level things are much more complicated. For the case where the
surfaces are in motion relative to each other, the force is called the force of kinetic friction, and
is found to be proportional to the normal force acting at the region of contact, and always in
opposition to the velocity of the body relative to the surface of contact;

Thus the magnitude of the friction force can be written as

where the constant of proportionality, µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

If the two bodies in contact have no relative velocity, an even larger static frictional force must
be overcome in order to initiate slipping. This is of the same form

only now Fe is the externally applied force that is attempting to cause to bodies to slip. This
static friction only acts to cancel out the external forces to prevent relative motion, and has a
maximum magnitude

where µs is called the coefficient of static friction. As indicated above, for most surfaces we find

that
To study static friction, we can use an inclined plane. As the angle of inclination is increased
from zero, the component of the block's weight pointing down the plane increases. Because of
the variable nature of static friction, the magnitude of the friction force keeps increasing as the
ramp is raised. At a certain critical angle, however, the friction force reaches its maximum
value, and any further increase in the angle will cause the block to begin sliding down the ramp.
At that critical angle (θC), the forces on the block are described by
 from which we find,
Thus, by measuring the angle of inclination at which the block just begins to slide, we can
determine the coefficient of static friction.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Determination of static friction:

Use the board as an inclined plane to measure the coefficient of static friction. Place the block on
the plane with its largest area in contact, and gradually raise the plane until the block just breaks
loose and begins to slide down the ramp. Measure the angle at which this occurs. Static friction is
overcome at angle ‘θc’ satisfying [As shown in the figure below.].
Repeat this process 5 times, lowering the board to its horizontal position at the beginning of each
trial. If block faces with different materials are available, carry out this procedure for two
samples. Identify the sample in the top line of the data table. Repeat this phase of the experiment
with the block placed on its side to reduce the area of contact. Finally use the following equation
to calculate the coefficient of static friction.

2. Determination of kinetic friction:

Measure and record mass M1 of the block. Place the board in an inclined position () so that its
pulley extends beyond the edge of the lab table. If necessary, wipe the block and the board so
that they are free of dirt and grime. Place the block with its largest surface in contact with the
board. Pass a string from the block over the pulley and place a weight hanger on the free end of
the string (As shown in the figure below). Mount the motion detector at the bottom of the
inclined plane. Set the switch of motion detector to ‘Track’. Now, increase the mass on the
hanger (M2 = mass of hanger + mass added). It will be necessary to give the block a slight tap
for each increase in mass on the hanger, in order to overcome the static friction and initiate
motion. The slightest tap will be required when the total mass (M2) is just enough to overcome
the static friction. In a situation, M2 will be sufficiently large to pull the block (M1) up the plane
with acceleration (a). Click to start data collection and collect velocity vs. time data. Repeat
this activity 2-3 times and collect data. Draw a graph between velocity and time. Determine
acceleration of the block using this velocity vs. time graph. Slope of the linear section of
velocity vs. time graph will provide acceleration. Place different masses on the block, and hence
different masses on the hanger to repeat this experiment.

According to the figure above, f is the frictional force, T the tension of the string and N the
normal force. Taking care of the different components of the forces on M1 and M2, we have the
following equations,

Now, using f = kN in the above equation, we can find the expression for k as,

μ
From this equation determine k
 Experiment No-4
Projectile Motion

OBJECT:
The purpose of this experiment is to predict and verify the range of a ball launched at an angle. The
initial velocity of the ball is determined by shooting it horizontally and measuring the range and the
height of the Launcher.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED:
Projectile Launcher and plastic ball, Plumb bob, Meter stick
-Carbon paper
-White paper

THEORY:
To predict where a ball will land on the floor when it is shot off a table at some angle above the
horizontal, it is necessary to first determine the initial speed (muzzle velocity) of the ball. This can be
determined by shooting the ball horizontally off the table and measuring the vertical and horizontal
distances through which the ball travels. Then the initial velocity can be used to calculate where the
ball will land when the ball is shot at an angle.

PART A. HORIZONTAL SHOT:

For a ball shot horizontally off a table with an initial speed, vo, the horizontal distance travelled by the
ball is given by x = vot, where t is the time the ball is in the air. Air friction is assumed to be negligible.
The vertical distance the ball drops in time t is given by,

1 2
y gt
2

The initial velocity of the ball can be determined by measuring x and y. The time off light of the ball
can be found using:
2y
t
g

And then the initial velocity can be found using v0 = x/t

SHOT AT AN ANGLE:
To predict the range of a ball shot off with an initial velocity (vo) at an angle, , above the horizontal,
first we need to predict the time of flight. As is shown in figure below, after a time t the vertical
position of the particle (y) would be,
y = y0 + (v0 sinθ)t – 1/2gt2

At point B in the figure, y - yo = 0. Hence, the time taken to reach point B,

t1 = (2vo sin)/g.

Now, the particle further goes down to reach the ground. If it takes another t2 seconds to reach the
ground then,
 yo = (vo sint2 + (1/2)gt22.

Using values of v0 and y0 from Part A, we can find out t1 and t2. Total time of flight (T) = (t1 + t2)
seconds. Then, total horizontal distance travelled (total range),

R = R1 + R2 = (v0cos)t1 + (v0cos)t2 = (v0cos)T

SET-UP:

1. Clamp the Projectile Launcher to a sturdy table near one end of the table.

2. Adjust the angle of the Projectile Launcher to zero degrees so the ball will be shot off horizontally.

Part A: Determining the Initial Velocity of the Ball

1. Put the plastic ball into the Projectile Launcher and cock it to the long range position. Fire one shot
to locate where the ball hits the floor. At this position, tape a piece of white paper to the floor. Place a
piece of carbon paper (carbon side down) on top of this paper and tape it down. When the ball hits the
floor, it will leave a mark on the white paper.

2. Fire about ten shots.

3. Measure the vertical distance from the bottom of the ball as it leaves the barrel (this position is
marked on the side of the barrel) to the floor. Record this distance in Table 1.1.

4. Use a plumb bob to find the point on the floor that is directly beneath the release point on the barrel.
Measure the horizontal distance along the floor from the release point to the leading edge of the paper.
Record is in Table 1.1.

5. Measure from the leading edge of the paper to each of the ten dots and record these distances in
Table 1.1.
6. Find the average of the ten distances and record in Table 1.1.

7. Using the vertical distance and the average horizontal distance, calculate the time of flight and the
initial velocity of the ball. Record is in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Determining the Initial Velocity

Vertical Distance = ____________
Calculate time of flight =___________
Horizontal distance to paper edge = ________

Trial Number Distance

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Average
Total Distance

Calculate initial Velocity = ______________

Part B: Predicting the Range of the Ball Shot at an Angle

1. Adjust the angle of the Projectile Launcher to an angle between 30 and 60 degrees and record this
angle in Table 1.2.

2. Using the initial velocity and vertical distance found in Part A of this experiment, assume the ball is
shot off at the same velocity at the new angle you have just selected, calculate the new time of flight
and the new horizontal distance. This calculated distance is the predicted range. Record in Table 1.2

3. Draw a line across the middle of a white piece of paper and tape the paper on the floor so the line is
at the predicted horizontal distance from the Projectile Launcher .Cover the paper with carbon paper.

4. Shoot the ball ten times.

6. Measure the ten distances and take the average. Record is in Table 1.2.
 Table 1.2 Confirming the Predicted Range

Vertical Distance = ____________

Calculated time of flight =___________
Predicted (calculated) Range = ______________
Horizontal distance to paper edge = ________

Trial Number Distance

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Average
Total Distance

1. Calculate the percent difference between the predicted value and the resulting average distance
when shot at an angle.

2. Estimate the precision of the predicted range. How many of the final 10 shots landed within this
range?
 Experiment 5
Rigid body motion
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the moment of inertia of a bicycle wheel about its centre .

APPARATUS:
Bicyle wheel, string, mass, timer etc.

THEORY:
For linear motion, Newton’s second law describes the relationship between the applied force, the
mass of an object, and its acceleration. Force is the cause of the acceleration, and mass is a measure
of the tendency of an object to resist a change in its linear translational motion. Essentially all of the
relations between physical quantities associated with linear motion (mass ’m’, displacement ‘x’,
velocity ‘v’, acceleration ‘a’ and force ‘F’ ) have analogous counterparts in the realm of rotational
motion (moment of inertia ’I’, angular displacement ‘’, angular velocity ‘’, angular acceleration
‘α’ and torque ‘τ’ ) [Eq.n 1-4].

Figure 1: Circular motion.

2
 3

For rotational motion of some object about a fixed axis, an equivalent description for the
relationship between the applied torque , the moment of inertia , and the angular acceleration of
the object is given by eqn. 4.

Torque is the cause of the angular acceleration, and the moment of inertia is a measure of the
tendency of a body to resist a change in its rotational motion. The moment of inertia of a rigid
body depends upon the mass of the body and the way in which the mass is distributed relative to
the axis of rotation.
If the mass of the rotating system is made up of discrete particles (Fig. 2), the total moment of
inertia is

Figure 2: Element of mass contributing to moment of inertia.

If the mass of the rotating system is made up of a continuous shape instead of discrete particles,
the total moment of inertia becomes

6
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. Setup is shown in Fig. 3. Measure the radius of the bike wheel and record it on the table 3.
2. Measure the distance between the mass and the floor that the body travels. Record it on the table 3.

Figure 3: Set-up of the moment of inertia measurement.

3. Release the mass and using a counter measure the time required for ‘h’ for five times. Repeat
each measurement for four-five different masses. Record the measurements on table 1.
Calculate the average of the time using arithmetic mean and record it.

Table-1
r = ----------------- unit.
h=--------------------unit.
Mass-1 (M1) unit. Mass-2 (M2) unit. Mass-3 (M3) unit.
Time (T) unit. Time (T) unit. Time (T) unit.
Trial-1
Trial-2
Trial-3
Trial-4
Trial-5
T1avg.= --------------- unit. T1avg.= --------------- unit. T1avg.= --------------- unit.
4. Calculate the acceleration of mass for each mass using the following kinematic equation:

(for vo=0) 7

5. Using Newton’s second law of motion for the falling mass we write,

8
substituting Eqn. 4 in Eqn. 8 we get the moment of inertia of inertia of the bi-cycle wheel,

Calculate the average of the moment of inertia of the bike wheel using arithmetic mean and
report it.

6. Calculate and report the angular acceleration, torque, and force using Eq. (3) and (4). Compare the
‘F’ value and corresponding weight ‘W=m.g’.

REFERENCES:
[1] Physics 250 Laboratory manual, http://class.phys.psu.edu/250labs/Virlab/Rotation.pdf.
[2] University Physics with Modern Physics with MasteringPhysics™, 12/E, Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman,
2008.
[3] Physics 2A Lab Manuals, http://lpc1.clpccd.cc.ca.us/lpc/physics/pdf/phys2/ P2A_L16_rot_mot.pdf.
[4] General & University Physics I Labs, uwf.edu/physics/labs/one/documents/ Experiment_8.pdf.
 EXPERIMENT 6
TORSION PENDULUM

AIM:

To determine (i) Moment of Inertia of the disc & (ii) Rigidity Modulus of the material of the given wire
by torsion oscillations.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Torsion Pendulum (uniform circular disc suspended by a wire)

2. Two equal cylindrical masses
3. Stop watch
4. Screw Gauge
5. Metre scale, etc.

THEORY:
Moment of inertia is a property of a body that defines its resistance to a change in angular
velocity about an axis of rotation. When a body is rotating around an axis, a torque must be applied to
change its angular momentum. The amount of torque needed for any given change in angular
momentum is proportional to the size of that change. The constant of proportionality is a property of
the body that combines its mass and its shape, known as the moment of inertia. In classical
mechanics, moment of inertia may also be called mass moment of inertia, rotational inertia, polar
moment of inertia, or the angular mass (SI units kg·m2).

What is Torsional Oscillation?

A body suspended by a thread or wire which twists first in one direction and then in the reverse
direction, in the horizontal plane is called a torsional pendulum. The first torsion pendulum was
developed by Robert Leslie in 1793.
The period of oscillation of torsion pendulum is given as,

Where I=moment of inertia of the suspended body; C=couple/unit twist

But we have an expression for couple per unit twist C as,

Where l = length of the suspension wire; r = radius of the wire; n = rigidity modulus of the suspension
Wire
Substituting (2) in (1) and squaring, we get an expression for rigidity modulus for the suspension wire
as,

We can use the above formula directly if we calculate the moment of inertia of the disc,I as (1/2)MR2.

Now, let I0 be the moment of inertia of the disc alone and I1 & I2 be the moment of inertia of the disc
with identical masses at distances d1&d2 respectively. If I1 is the moment of inertia of each identical
mass about the vertical axis passing through its centre of gravity, then
But from equation (1),

Where T0, T1, T2 are the periods of torsional oscillation without identical mass,with identical pass at
position d1,d2 respectively
Dividing equation (6) by (9) and using (5),

Therefore, the moment of inertia of the disc,

Formula:

S.No Description By Experiment By Theory

2
1. Moment of Inertia of 2
m (d 2
d 2
1) 2 MR 2

Iexp = T Ith  kg m2
2
2 2 0
the disc T T
1 2
kg m2

2. Rigidity Modulus of 8Iexp

 8I 
exp 2 4 N/m2 th  2 th
4 N/m2
the material of the T0r
T0r

wire
 Symb
o Description Unit
l

m Mass (mass of one of the cylinders) placed on the disc kg

d1 Minimum distance between axis of rotation and the centre of one m

of the symmetrical masses

d2 Maximum distance between axis of rotation and centre of one of m

the symmetrical masses

T0 Time period without any mass placed on the disc s

T1 Time period with equal masses placed at d1 s

T2 Time period with equal masses placed at d2 s

 Length of the suspension wire m

`r’ Radius of the wire m

M Mass of the Inertia disc kg

R Radius of the Inertia disc m

PROCEDURE:
One end of a long, uniform wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined is clamped by a
vertical chuck. To the lower end, a heavy uniform circular disc (Inertia disc) is attached by another
chuck. The length of the suspension wire ‘  ’ is fixed at a particular value (say, 70 cm or 80 cm). The
suspended disc is slightly twisted so that it executes torsional oscillations. Care is taken to see that the
disc oscillates without wobbling.

The first few oscillations are omitted. By using a pointer, a mark is made in the disc and the
 Chuck

Cylindrical and
equal masses

d1
d2
Inertia Disc (circular Disc)

Fig.1 – Torsional pendulum

time taken for 10 complete oscillations is noted. Two trials are taken. Then the mean time period (Time
for one oscillation), T0 is found.

The two cylindrical masses (equal masses) are placed on the disc symmetrically and
diametrically opposite to each other close to the suspension wire (at minimum distance). The closest
distance ‘d1’ from the centre of the cylindrical mass and the axis of rotation is found. The disc with
masses at distance ‘d1’ is made to execute torsional oscillations by twisting the disc. The time taken for
10 oscillations is noted. Two trials are taken. The mean time period ‘T1’ is determined.

The two equal masses are now moved from the current position to the extreme ends so that the
edges of the masses coincide with the edge of the disc and the centres of masses are equidistant. The
distance ‘d2’ from the centre of the cylindrical mass to the centre of the suspension wire is noted. The
disc with masses at distance ‘d2’ is allowed to execute torsional oscillations by twisting the disc. The
time taken for 10 oscillations is noted for two trials and the mean time period ‘T2’ is calculated.

The mass of one of the cylindrical masses placed on the disc is noted. The diameter of the wire
is accurately measured at various places along its length using screw gauge. From this the radius of the
wire is calculated. The mass of the Inertia disc and the diameter of the same are measured. The moment
of inertia of the disc and the rigidity modulus of the suspension wire are calculated using the given
formulae.

Observations:
(i) To find the time period at different stages:

Length of the suspension wire  = m

Time for 10 oscillations

Position of the Time Period
Trial I Trial II Mean
equal masses
s S s S
Without masses
T0 =

With masses at
T1 =
d1 = m
With masses at
T2 =
d2 = m

(ii) Measurement of diameter (d) of the suspension wire using screw gauge: Least count of screw
gauge:

Distance moved by the head scale on the pitch scale

Pitch =
Number of rotations given to the head scale

= mm

Number of head scale divisions =

Least Count (L.C) = Pitch/Total no. of head scale divisions (div.)

= mm

Zero error (Z.E) = div.

Zero Correction (Z.C) = div. = mm

 Pitch Scale Head Scale Observed Reading Corrected
Reading Coincidence (O.R) =P.S.R + Reading (C.R)
Trial
(P.S.R) (H.S.C) [H.S.C x L.C] = (O.R. ± Z.C)
No.
mm div. mm Mm

1.

2.

3.

Mean diameter of the wire, d = x 10-3 m

d
Mean radius of the wire, r =  x 10-3 m
2

Data for Calculations:

Time period of oscillation without masses, T0 =

Time period when cylindrical masses are at distance `d1’, T1 =

Time period when cylindrical masses are at distance `d2’, T2 =

Minimum distance between the axis of rotation and

the centre of the cylindrical mass, d1 = (measured using scale)

Maximum distance between the axis of rotation and

the centre of the cylindrical mass, d2 = (measured using scale)

Mass of one of the cylindrical mass, m=

Length of the suspension wire, = (measured using thread)

Mean diameter of the wire, d=

Mean radius of the wire, r = d/2 =

Mass of the Inertia disc, M=

Diameter of the Inertia disc, D= (measured using

scale)

Radius of the inertia disc, R = D/2 =

CALCULATIONS:-

Moment of Inertia of the disc:

(i) Experimental value


2
2md2 d12 T
0
2

Iexp = =
2
2 2
T T1

Iexp =

1. Theoretical value

MR 2
Ith = 
2

Ith =

Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire:

1. Experimental value

8Iexp

exp 2 4 =
T0r

exp =

(ii) Theoretical value

8I 
th  2th4 =
T0 r
 th =

Results:

1. The Moment of inertia of the disc,

(i) by experiment =

(ii) by theory =

2. The Rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire,

(i) by experiment =

(ii) by theory =

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The plane of the circular disc must be horizontal

1. The suspension wire should be well clamped, thin, long and free from kinks.

2. The motion of the circular disc should be purely torsional rotation in horizontal plane.
Up and down and lateral oscillations must be completely removed.

3. The radius of the wire and the period of oscillations should be measured accurately since
they occur in fourth and second power in the formula respectively.

VIVA-VOCE:

1. What is a torsion pendulum? Why is it called so?

2. What type of rigid bodies can you use for a torsion pendulum?
3. Is torsional oscillation simple harmonic?
4. On what factors does the time period depend?
5. How does the pendulum oscillate?
6. What type of wire do you prefer for this experiment?
7. How will you determine the rigidity of fluids?
 EXPERIMENT- 7(A)
ELECTROSTATIC FORCES

OBJECTIVE:
To study of electostatic forces and quantitative analysis of charge generated.
APPARATUS:
Van de Graaff Generator, Dull Aluminum Sphere, Pith Ball, Protractor, Ruler.

THEORY:
Charles Augustin Coulomb, a French scientist, first quantitatively measured the electrical attraction and
repulsion between charged objects and established that the force was proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. In mks units, the
electrostatic force F that two charges ‘q1’ and ‘q2’ a distance ‘r’ apart exert on each other is

(1)
The force acts in a direction along the straight line connecting the two charges, and the force is
repulsive when q1 and q2 are both positive or both negative, corresponding to a positive value of q1.q2.
The force is attractive when the charges have opposite sign so that q1q2 is negative. The quantity o,
called the permittivity constant, is equal to 8.854 x 102 coulomb2/(newton-meter2), and assures that the
force will be in newtons when the charge is expressed in coulombs.
The gravitational force similarly exhibits an inverse square dependence on distance between two point
masses. Gravitational forces differ however by being always attractive, never repulsive, and by being
inherently weaker, with the electrostatic repulsion between two protons being 1036 times greater than
their gravitational attraction.
Practical applications of Coulomb’s law involve unbalanced (net) charge distributed over an extended
region, such as an approximately spherical conductor in the present experiment, and not actually charge
concentrated at a point. The net charge on each object arises from individual discrete electrons and
protons, but the small size of the electrons and protons and their large number make the distribution on
each object appear smooth and continuous. Coulomb’s law, Eq. (1), then applies by regarding each
charged object to be divided into small sub-regions, and by using Eq. (1) to calculate the force that each
such sub-region of the first object exerts on each small sub-region of the second object. We could then
evaluate an appropriate vector sum to find the net force and torque of one object on the other. In terms
of calculus, this means regarding Eq. (1) to involve an integral rather than an ordinary sum.
Applying a mathematical procedure equivalent to that described in the previous paragraph shows that
excess charge distributed uniformly over the surface of a sphere exerts a force on a small test charge a
distance away as if all the charge on the sphere were concentrated at its center. For this special case Eq.
(1) ends up applying in the form given provided that the distance r to the excess charge on the metal
sphere is taken as the distance to the center of the sphere.
Amber rubbed with fur acquires a net negative charge because some of the negatively charged
electrons are pulled from the fur onto the amber, leaving the fur positively charged. Since electrifying
objects by friction involves merely moving the charges from one place to another, the total charge stays
the same.
This principle is far more fundamental and general however. New particles can be produced in high-
energy reactions such as those at the Fermi National Accelerator. Charged particles are not merely
moved from one place to another. Yet in each reaction the number of newly created positively-charged
particles always equals the number of new particles that are negatively charged. Since the net charge in
all known physical processes stays the same, charge is said to be conserved.
Figure 1 shows the vector diagram for the three forces acting on each ball in equilibrium. They are: the
tension T in the nylon line, the weight Fw and the Coulomb force Fc. The mass m is written on each
ball in units of milligrams and the length of the nylon line must be measured.

Figure 1: Two charged pith balls.

a) Show that if each pith ball has mass m and the two hang from strings of length L
separated by a distance r because of their charge, the charge q on each is
 (2)
b) Calculate the charge q (in coulombs) on the pith ball.
c) Calculate the number of electrons that make up this charge. In your conclusions,
discuss the magnitude of this number.

By resolving the forces perpendicular to the thread supporting the ball, it can be shown that the
electrical force F acting on the ball is given in terms of the observed,

(3)
We can compare the observed dependence of F on R with that in Coulomb’s law:

(4)

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
The entire experiment involves three basic steps:
a) Aligning the pith ball with respect to the electrostatic generator's conducting dome.
b) Placing a charge q on the ball and determining its value.

Figure 2: Apparatus for Coulomb’s law experiment.

 c) Measuring the displacement between the charge ‘Q’ on the generator and ‘q’ on the ball.

Step-1: Alignment of the Equipment:

As shown in Fig. 3, the electrostatic generator is arranged so it can be displaced along the ruler fastened
to your laboratory bench. In addition, each set-up includes a dull aluminium sphere grounded to a water
pipe and mounted on an insulating rod of Lucite; the aluminium sphere is for use in grounding the
conducting generator dome or the pith ball when necessary to remove the excess charge.

Figure 3: Alignment of the equipment.

First you need to determine the position of the voltage generator so that the pith ball, hanging
vertically, is at its centre. To do this, ground the generator sphere by touching it with the dull
aluminium sphere. Remove the top half of the dome, place the small plastic ruler across a diameter for
guidance in locating the centre, and shift the generator until the midpoint between the two pith balls lies
directly above the centre of the sphere. If necessary, adjust the height of the horizontal bar supporting
the pith balls so their midpoint coincides with the centre of the generator sphere (Fig. 3). Record the
position of the right side of the generator along the table. This measured location along the ruler is
called X0 in the equations we will be using later.

Now move the generator along the ruler, in the direction away from the vertical pole, until the pith ball
clears the dome, and replace the top of the dome. If the experiment were done with the Van de Graaff
generator too close to the vertical pole, the charge induced in the conducting pole would in turn exert
Coulomb forces to redistribute the charge in the dome, making it further from spherically symmetric.
Step-2: Charging the Pith Ball:

The measurements described next must be done quickly because the charge on the pith balls dissipates
in time. The rate of loss depends on the humidity in the air. Therefore, be sure you know exactly what
to do, and once you start, continue taking measurements until you finish, saving the calculations for
later.
First, ground both pith balls by touching them with the dull aluminium sphere. Then wrap the fur
around the pointed end of the rubber rod and briskly rub the rod with the fur to produce a net negative
charge on the end of the rod. Then bring the charged pointed end close to the pith balls. A positive
charge will first be induced on the sides of the pith balls closest to the rod, as shown in Fig. 4, causing
them to be attracted to the rod. After the rod and pith balls make contact, a negative charge (consisting
of electrons) will pass from the rod to the balls. When enough negative charge has been transferred, the
balls will fly away from the rod and will repel each other. If the balls do not fly away from the rod
within 10 seconds, they are too dry and must be moistened by breathing gently on them. The separation
between the two charged balls should be between 2 and 6 cm. Do not touch the pith balls or they may
be partially discharged. Place the rod on the table and measure the distance r between the centres of the
balls by holding the plastic callipers just below them. The measured value of r is needed in order to
calculate the charge q on the pith balls.
Lift one of the charged balls by its line and drape it over the insulated plastic peg mounted on the meter
stick without touching or discharging the other ball. Now slide the electrostatic generator along the

Figure 4: Charging the pith balls.

table until the charged ball is about 5 cm from the generator sphere. Use the power cord switch to run
the generator for several short bursts until the ball is deflected between 10° to 15° as measured by the
protractor at the line support point. Record the deflection angle θ and the horizontal position X of the
generator. Now the shift the generator sideways so as to decrease the deflection angle and again record
X and θ. Make six separate measurements to obtain values of θ for ΔX=X-X0 between 10 cm and 60
cm (see Fig. 5). The data obtained will be used to determine the total charge Q on the generator sphere
and to verify the inverse square dependence on distance in Coulomb’s law.

Immediately after the last measurement, return the generator to the position of the first measurement
and record the value of . How closely these two values of  agree provides information about how
much the dissipation of the charge affected your results.

Step-3: Measurement of the displacement between ‘Q’ and ‘q’:

(Verification of the Inverse Square Law)

With the help of Fig. 6 it can be shown by trigonometry, with ΔX=X-X0 being that the distance from
alignment that the generator was moved, that the distance R between the centre of the generator sphere
and the centre of the ball is given by

Figure 5: Geometric distance between ‘Q’ and ‘q’.

(5)
and that the angle ‘α’between the line joining the two centers and the horizontal is
 (6)
By resolving the forces perpendicular to the thread supporting the ball, it can be shown that the
electrical force ‘F’ acting on the ball is given in terms of the observed by

(7)

For small ‘α’, Eqn. (7) reduces to Eq.n (3), F=mg tan .
Eq.n (3) can be used to calculate the force ‘F’ for each measured value of and therefore at each R in
Eq. (5). We seek to compare the observed dependence of ‘F’ on ‘R’ with that in Coulomb’s law,

(4)
A ‘F’ vs. ‘R’ curve can be plotted and then by fitting the data to a power law equation one can obtain
values for the R power and the constant K= (qQ/4πεo).

• Using the value K in your analysis, evaluate the power dependence of the force F to the radius
R. Is it an inverse square relationship?
• Using the value A in your analysis, calculate the charge the Van de Graaff generator dome.
Also indicate the sign of the charge.
• What charge did you determine was on the pith balls?
• How did the first θ value differ when re-measured at the end, and what does this tell you about
any experimental error caused by charge leaking off the pith balls and the generator?
• Do your data satisfy Coulomb's law to within reasonable experimental error? Explain the
possible sources of any disagreement.
• How do the values of the charges you measured compare with your expectations? How hard
would it be to place a coulomb or two of charge on the dome of the sphere?

Using above experimental procedure and analysis attractive forces between pith balls and Van de Graff
generator dome can be studied.

REFERENCES: 1. http://groups.physics.northwestern.edu/lab/DOWNLOAD/electrostatics.pdf.
EXPERIMENT- 7(B)
 Experiment-8
Current induced magnetic field and e/m measurement
Current Induced magnetic field (e/m ratio)
Aim- to measure e/m ratio
Apparatus – e/m setup
Theory and calculations -
 Experiment-9
Diffraction of light by grating .
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the different wavelengths present in the light emitted by a mercury vapour lamp.

APPARATUS:
Mercury vapour lamp, grating, spectrometer, spirit level, magnifying glass, etc.

THEORY:
A grating is a plane sheet of transparent material like glass with a large number of opaque
rulings, about 600 rulings / mm made on it. The transparent spaces between the opaque rulings act as
slits. Thus it behaves like a grating consisting of many slits. The light transmitted through it produces
the diffraction pattern in the field of view.

Formula:

sin 
During normal incidence, the wavelength of light  = m
Nn

Symbol Description Unit

 Angle of diffraction Degrees

N No. of rulings per metre made on the grating lines/m

N Order of diffraction -

 Wavelength of light m

EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE:
Adjust the spectrometer such that its slit is narrow and cross wires are clearly seen. Further
using a spirit level, first the vernier table and then the prism table are adjusted to be perfectly horizontal
and plane. The telescope is first adjusted for distant object view. It is then brought in line with the
collimator and the slit of the collimator is directed towards the mercury vapour lamp. The fixed edge of
the image of the slit is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire of the telescope.

Part I : Adjustment of the spectrometer for normal incidence

The spectrometer is adjusted such that its initial readings on the vernier scale A and B are 0° and
180° respectively. Now the telescope is turned through 90° exactly and fixed. The grating is mounted
vertically on the prism table which is rotated gently so that the reflected image of the slit coincides with
the vertical crosswire of the telescope. It is fixed in that position. Now the grating is at 45° angle of
inclination to the incident rays as shown in Fig.1(a). The prism table with the vernier is now turned
through another 45° so that the grating in the vertical plane is perpendicular to the line of the
collimator. The grating is now said to be adjusted for normal incidence (Fig.1(b)). The prism table is
fixed in this position.

The telescope is now released and turned to the direct position and then moved to the right little
by little. At a particular position, the first order spectrum Violet I to Red II is seen,. The telescope must
be moved on both the sides to see the prominent colours available before taking the readings. The
telescope is first fixed such that the extreme first order (Red II) coincides with the cross wire. The
readings of both the verniers are noted. Slowly the telescope is moved so that it moves towards the
direct reading. As it moves, the prominent colours are made to coincide with the cross wire and
readings are noted in each case. After Violet I on the right hand side, as the telescope is moved further,
the direct ray can be viewed. The telescope is moved further (Now away from the direct reading) so
that the cross wire coincides with Violet I on the left. Again all prominent colours are made to coincide
with the cross wire upto Red II. Note that the readings are taken by moving the telescope only in one
direction either from right to left or left to right to avoid confusion.

From the above readings, the angle of diffraction for different colours are calculated. Then
using the formula, the wavelength of different colours present in the mercury vapour lamp are
calculated assuming the value of N.

C C

45°C G
G
T
C - Collimator
90° G - Grating
T T
T - Telescope
(a) (b)

Fig. 1(a) : Adjustment of the grating for normal incidence

(b) : Measurement of angle of diffraction
 C

R R

Y2 Y2
Y1
Y1
G
B G
V V B

(c) : Order in which the 1st order spectrum of mercury occurs

PRECAUTIONS
1. The telescope should be adjusted for distant object properly and not altered thereafter.

2. The vernier and the prism tables should be horizontal.

3. The grating should be handled with care and mounted properly using a grating stand.

4. The slit width in the collimator should be made as narrow as possible so that the
readings are accurate.

Least count of spectrometer

10 divisions on Main scale = __________________________

Value of 1 M.S.D. = __________________________

= __________________________

Total number of divisions on the vernier scale = __________________________

Value of 1 M.S.D.
Least Count (L.C.) =

Total number of Vernier Scale divisions

L.C. = __________________________
Calculation:-

To find wavelength of different colours:

Sin
1) Red II   
Nn

Sin
2) Red I   
Nn

Sin
3) Orange   
Nn

Sin
4) Yellow II   
Nn

Sin
5) Yellow I   
Nn

Sin
6) Green   
Nn

Sin
7) Bluish Green   
Nn

Sin
8) Blue   
Nn

Sin
9) Violet   
Nn

RESULT :
The value of different wavelengths present in the light from the mercury vapour lamp are
determined and tabulated.
Sl. No. Colour Wavelength x10-10 m

1. Red II

2. Red I

3. Orange

4. Yellow II

5. Yellow I

6. Green

7. Bluish Green

8. Blue

9. Violet
 Experiment-10
Diffraction of light using ultrasonic wave as a grating

OBJECT:

Determination of compressibility of a given liquid by ultrasonic diffraction grating

method.

APPARATUS:

RF Oscillator, Piezo electric crystal, spectrometer, glass cell, light source (sodium lamp) etc.

THEORY:

Diffraction Phenomenon similar to those with ordinary ruled grating is

observed when ultrasonic waves traverse through a liquid.
The Ultrasonic wave passing through a liquid is an elastic wave in which
compressions and rarefactions travel one behind the other spaced regularly apart. The
successive separations between two compressions or rarefaction is equal to the wave
length of ultrasonic wave, λu- in the liquid. Due to reflections at the sides of the
tank or the container, a stationary wave pattern is obtained with nodes and antinodes
at regular intervals. We are thus dealing with a liquid with density changing periodically
and hence having a periodically changing index of refractions which produces diffraction
of light according to the grating rule.
If λu denoes the wavelength of sound in the liquid, A the wavelength of incident
light in air and On is angle of diffraction of nth the order, then we have:

Thus by measuring the angle of diffraction θn, the order of diffraction n, the wavelength of light,
the wavelength of Ultrasonic wave in the liquid can be determined by using equation 1 and t hen
knowing the frequency of sound wave, its velocity C can be obtained from equation 2.
It is known that the velocity of sound wave in a liquid is related to its bulk elasticity E by the
relation

PROCEDURE:

2.Mount the glass cell on the prism iable and fill it by the given liquid upto its 3/4 height.
3. Turn the prism table till the front & back faces of the cell are exactly normal to the incident
light.
4. Immerse the piezo electric crystal in the liquid and rotate it till situation is such that the
ultrasonic waves generated by it travel in direction perpendicular to the direction of light.
5. Switch on the R.F. Oscillator and adjust its frequency to match with the natural frequency of
the crystal. At this instant, diffraction pattern will be observed in the spectrometer telescope.
Usually five lines including the slit are seen in the telescope.
6. 1.Adjust the spectrometer as usual to produce a collimate
7. Measure the angle 20, between the first order spectrum lines, similarly measure 203, 203 etc.
7.Note down the frequency υ of R.F. Oscillator from its frequency meter. This is also the frequency of
vibration of piezo electric crystal.
OBSERVATIONS
Wavelength of light ……..
Frequency of vibrating crystal…….
Density of liquid…………

Left of Left of Right Right

centre centre of of
centre centre
S.N Order of Vernier Vernier Vernier Vernier a- b-b’ Mean θ λu=
diffraction a a’ b b’ a’ 2θ

1 2
2 1
3 0
4 1
5 2

Mean λu=……
C=……
RESULT……
III. APPENDIX:

Appendix 1.

The Vernier Caliper:

A vernier is a device that extends the sensitivity of a scale. It consists of a parallel scale whose
divisions are less than that of the main scale by a small fraction, typically 1/10 of a division. Each
vernier division is then 9/10 of the divisions on the main scale. The lower scale in Figure A1.1 is the
vernier scale, the upper one, extending to 120 mm is the main scale.

Figure A1.1: Vernier caliper.

The left edge of the vernier is called the index, or pointer. The position of the index is what is to be
read. When the index is beyond a line on the main scale by 1/10 then the first vernier line after the
index will line up with the next main scale line. If the index is beyond by 2/10 then the second vernier
line will line up with the second main scale line, and so forth.
If you line up the index with the zero position on the main scale you will see that the ten divisions on
the vernier span only nine divisions on the main scale. (It is always a good idea to check that the
vernier index lines up with zero when the caliper is completely closed. Otherwise this zero reading
might have to be subtracted from all measurements.)
Note how the vernier lines on either side of the matching line are inside those of the main scale. This
pattern can help you locate the matching line. The sensitivity of the vernier caliper is then 1/10 that of
the main scale. Keep in mind that the variability of the object being measured may be much larger than
this. Also be aware that too much pressure on the caliper slide may distort the object being measured.

Appendix 2.

The Micrometer Caliper:

Also called a screw micrometer, this measuring device consists of a screw of pitch 0.5 mm and two
scales, as shown in Figure A1.2 A linear scale along the barrel is divided into half millimeters, and the
other is along the curved edge of the thimble, with 50 divisions.

Figure A2.1: Micrometer caliper.

The pointer for the linear scale is the edge of the thimble, while that for the curved scale is the solid
line on the linear scale. The reading is the sum of the two parts in mm. The divisions on the linear scale
are equal to the pitch, 0.5 mm. Since this corresponds to one revolution of the thimble, with its 50
divisions, then each division on the thimble corresponds to a linear shift of (0.50 mm)/50 = 0.01 mm .
In Figure A2.1, the value on the linear scale can be read as 4.5 mm, and the thimble reading is
44X0.01=0.44mm. The reading of the micrometer is then (4.5+0.44=4.94 mm).
Since a screw of this pitch can exert a considerable force on an object between the spindle and anvil,
we use a ratchet at the end of the spindle to limit the force applied and thereby, the distortion of the
object being measured. The micrometer zero reading should be checked by using the ratchet to close
the spindle directly on the anvil. If it is not zero, then this value will have to be subtracted from all the
readings.

Appendix 3.

Angle Scale Vernier:

This type of vernier appears on spectrometers, where a precise measure of angle is required. Angles arc
measured in degrees (o) and minutes ('), where 1 degree = 60 minutes. Figure A3.1 shows an enlarged view of a
typical spectrometer vernier, against a main scale which is divided in 0.5o = 30'.

Figure A3.1: Angle scale vernier.

The Vernier has 30 divisions, so that the sensitivity of the vernier is one minute. (There are also two
extra divisions, one before 0 and the other after 30, to assist in checking for those values.) Each
division on the vernier is by 1/30 smaller than the division of the main scale. When the index is beyond
a main scale line by 1/30 of a division or 1', line 1 on the vernier is lined up with the next main scale
line. When that difference is 2/30 or 2', line 2 on the vernier lines up with the next line on the main
scale, and so on.
Figure A3.1 shows an example where degree and Vernier scale run from right to left. Again, reading
the angle is a two step process. First we note the position of the index (zero line on the Vernier) on the
main scale. In the figure it is just beyond 155.0o. To read the vernier, we note that line 15 seems to be
the best match between a vernier line and a main scale line. The reading is then 155.0o+15’=155.25o.
The example shows one problem working with angles, the common necessity of converting between
decimal fraction and degree-minute-second (DMS) notation. We illustrate another place where this
arise with the problem of determining the angle between the direction of light entering the
spectrometer, and the telescope used to observe light of a particular wavelength.

Example: The position of the telescope to observe the zeroth diffraction order is 121o55’. Light of a
certain wavelength is observed at 138o48’. The steps in the subtraction are illustrated below, using
DMS and decimal notation, respectively.

Reference: Introductory Physics Laboratory Manual, The city college, The city University, New York.