Hazardous Waste Impacts PDF

The health and environmental
impacts of hazardous wastes
IMPACT PROFILES
Final report
Prepared for:
The Department of the Environment
Prepared by:
Ascend Waste and Environment Pty Ltd
Date::7 June 2015

Geoff Latimer
Project Number:
Project # 15001AG
The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes
Project # 15001AG
Date: 7 June 2015
This report has been prepared for The Department of the Environment in accordance with the terms and
conditions of appointment dated 6 January 2015, and is based on the assumptions and exclusions set out in our
scope of work. The report must not be reproduced in whole or in part except with the prior consent of Ascend
Waste and Environment Pty Ltd and subject to inclusion of an acknowledgement of the source.
Whilst reasonable attempts have been made to ensure that the contents of this report are accurate and complete
at the time of writing, Ascend Waste and Environment Pty Ltd cannot accept any responsibility for any use of or
reliance on the contents of this report by any third party.
© Ascend Waste and Environment Pty Ltd
VERSION CONTROL RECORD

Document File Name Date Issued Version Author Reviewer
Draft first profiles for review 11 March 2015 Rev 0 Geoff Latimer Ian Rae
15001AG_AWE_Health Env 27 April 2015 Rev0 Geoff Latimer Ian Rae
Impacts draft report rev 0
15001AG_AWE_Health Env 7 June 2015 Rev0 Geoff Latimer Ian Rae
Impacts final report rev 0
The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes

Contents
Page
1 Introduction 5
2 Summary report: Australia’s key hazardous waste impacts and risks 6
3 Hazardous waste impact profiles 16

3.1 Clinical waste from medical care in hospitals, medical centres and clinics 16
3.2 Wastes from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products 22
3.3 Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines 26
3.4 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of biocides and phytopharmaceuticals 32
3.5 Wastes from the manufacture, formulation and use of wood preserving chemicals 39
3.6 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of organic solvent 44
3.7 Wastes from heat treatment and tempering operations containing cyanides 48
3.8 Waste mineral oils unfit for their originally intended use 51
3.9 Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures, emulsions 56
3.10 Waste substances and articles containing or contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) and/or polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) and/or polybrominated biphenyls
(PBBs) 59
3.11 Waste tarry residues arising from refining, distillation and any pyrolytic treatment 63
3.12 Wastes from production, formulation and use of inks, dyes, pigments, paints, lacquers,
varnish 66
3.13 Wastes from production, formulation and use of resins, latex, plasticizers, glues/
adhesives 70
3.14 Wastes of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation 74
3.15 Wastes from production, formulation and use of photographic chemicals and processing
materials 78
3.16 Wastes resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics 82
3.17 Residues arising from industrial waste disposal operations 86
3.18 Metal carbonyls 93
3.19 Beryllium; beryllium compounds 96
3.20 Hexavalent chromium compounds 99
3.21 Copper compounds 103
3.22 Zinc compounds 107
3.23 Arsenic; arsenic compounds 111
3.24 Selenium; selenium compounds 115
3.25 Cadmium; cadmium compounds 119
3.26 Antimony; antimony compounds 124
3.27 Tellurium; tellurium compounds 128
3.28 Mercury; mercury compounds 132
3.29 Thallium; thallium compounds 137
3.30 Lead; lead compounds 141
3.31 Inorganic fluorine compounds excluding calcium fluoride 146
3.32 Inorganic cyanides 150
3.33 Acidic solutions or acids in solid form 154
3.34 Basic solutions or bases in solid form 160
3.35 Asbestos (dust and fibres) 164
3.36 Organic phosphorus compounds 170
The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page i

3.37 Organic cyanides 174
3.38 Phenols; phenol compounds including chlorophenols 177
3.39 Ethers 181
3.40 Halogenated organic solvents 186
3.41 Organic solvents excluding halogenated solvents 190
3.42 Any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-furan 194
3.43 Any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin 198
3.44 Organohalogen compounds other than substances referred to in this list (e.g. Y39, Y41,
Y42, Y43, Y44) 202
3.45 Other metal compounds (such as compounds of barium, cobalt, nickel and vanadium) 208
3.46 Other inorganic chemicals (such as inorganic sulfides, boron compounds, phosphorus
compounds and non-toxic salts) 212
3.47 Other organic chemicals 216
3.48 Controlled putrescible/ organic waste 220
3.49 End of life tyres 225
List of Appendices
Appendix A: Basel Y-code to NEPM code conversion

Appendix B: NEPM code to Basel Y-code conversion
Appendix C: Approach to quantifying relative hazard
The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page ii

Glossary of terms
The Act Hazardous Waste (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1989
ANZSIC Australia and New Zealand Standard Industry Codes
Basel The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous

Convention Wastes and their Disposal. The Convention puts an onus on exporting countries to
ensure that hazardous wastes are managed in an environmentally sound manner in
the country of import.
Controlled Waste that falls under the control of the Controlled Waste National Environment
Waste Protection Measure. Generally equivalent to hazardous waste, although definitional
differences of the latter exist across jurisdictions
Controlled National Environment Protection (Movement of Controlled Waste between States and
Waste NEPM Territories) Measure.
CRT Cathode ray tube
e-waste Electrical and electronic equipment that has reached the end of its functional life. For
the purposes of the scheme, this includes televisions and computers and their
peripheral components
Hazard score A quantification of comparative hazard (between wastes) expressed on a scale of 1 –

6 (in order of increasing hazard) , developed specifically for this project
Hazardous A hazardous waste, as defined in the Australian Government’s National Waste Policy:
waste Less waste, more resources (2009), is a substance or object that exhibits hazardous
characteristics, is no longer fit for its intended use and requires disposal. According to
the Act, hazardous waste means:
(a) waste prescribed by the regulations, where the waste has any of the
characteristics mentioned in Annex III to the Basel Convention; or
(b) wastes covered by paragraph 1(a) of Article 1 of the Basel Convention; or
(c) household waste; or
(d) residues arising from the incineration of household waste; but does not include
wastes covered by paragraph 4 of Article 1 of the Basel Convention.
Interstate data Data collected about hazardous waste generated in one jurisdiction and treated in
another, through cross-border transport under the Controlled Waste NEPM
Intrastate data Data collected about hazardous waste generated, transported and treated within the
one jurisdiction
kt Kilotonnes (thousands of tonnes)
LPCL Low POP concentration limit
Mt Megatonnes (millions of tonnes)
NEPM National Environment Protection (Movement of Controlled Waste between States and
Territories) Measure 1998
NEPM codes Alphanumeric codes, in the format A123, that are used to describe waste types under
the Controlled Waste NEPM
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
PFOS Perfluorooctane sulfonate
The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page iii

POP Persistent organic pollutant
POP-BDE Persistent organic pollutants - bromodiphenyl ethers (various forms)

The Department Department of the Environment
Tracking Jurisdiction-based hazardous waste tracking systems, which are in place in New
system South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and Victoria. These
tracking systems can be either online, paper-based, or a combination of both these
mechanisms.
Tracked data Hazardous waste collected under the arrangements of a tracking system
Treatment Treatment of waste is the removal, reduction or immobilisation of a hazardous
characteristic to enable the waste to be reused, recycled, sent to an Energy from
Waste facility or disposed.
Waste (For data collation purposes) is materials or products that are unwanted or have been
discarded, rejected or abandoned. Waste includes materials or products that are
recycled, converted to energy, or disposed. Materials and products that are reused
(for their original or another purpose without reprocessing) are not solid waste
because they remain in use.
Waste arisings Hazardous waste is said to ‘arise’ when it causes demand for processing, storage,
treatment or disposal infrastructure.
Waste Code Three-digit code typically used by jurisdictions to describe NEPM-listed wastes.
These are also referred to as ’NEPM codes’ although it is noted that the actual codes
do not appear in the NEPM itself.
Waste fate Refers to the destination of the waste within the set of defined end points. It includes
reuse, treatment, recycling, energy recovery, and disposal. Waste transfer and
storage should not generally considered as a waste fate. The term fate does not infer
that the waste material is destroyed or lost.
WEEE Waste electrical and electronic equipment
Y-code The Basel Convention’s waste coding or classification system which encompasses 47
wastes (Y1 – Y47).
Y+8 A term introduced to describe those wastes that are reported in controlled waste
tracking in Australia, but do not have a logical conversion in Y code terms, so have
been reported to Basel as 8 new codes: ‘Y+8’ 1-8.
The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page iv

1 Introduction
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal (Basel Convention), which regulates the movement of hazardous wastes
across international boundaries, came into force in 1992, the same year that Australia
became a signatory to it.
The Australian Government is obliged to submit an annual report to the Basel Secretariat
containing the tonnages of hazardous wastes generated in the country each calendar year.
The data must be reported using the Basel Convention’s classification system known as Y-
codes. State and territory governments collect this data as part of their regulatory role in
managing hazardous waste and its potential for impact on the environment and human
health, and use their own classification systems, which are based on those adopted
nationally under the National Environment Protection (Movement of Controlled Waste
between States and Territories) Measure (Controlled Waste NEPM), referred to in this report
as ‘NEPM codes’.
A NEPM code to Basel Y-code conversion list is provided in Appendix A, while a Basel Y-
code to NEPM code conversion is shown at Appendix B.
The Australian Government Department of the Environment commissioned Ascend Waste

and Environment to prepare a collation of Australia-relevant knowledge on the health and
environmental impacts of hazardous waste (actual and potential). This report presents that
collation in the form of a catalogue of 49 individual hazardous waste impact profiles,
designed to strengthen the knowledge of hazards, impacts, potential risks and the
management of hazardous waste specifically relevant to Australia.
Impact profiles cover Y codes 1-45, and exclude Y46 (waste collected from households),
Y47 (residues from the incineration of household waste) and Y14 (waste chemical
substances arising from research and development or teaching activities, including those
which are not identified and/or are new and whose effects on human health and/or the
environment are not known). Of the additional eight wastes Australia reports to Basel (the so
called ‘Y+8’), three of these (waste containers, contaminated soils and contaminated
sludges) have also been excluded because they, like Y14, are not hazard-specific so could
have a range of impacts, and would be covered by other wastes in the list.
An important feature of each profile is a relative measure of hazard, called hazard score,
described by a colour-coded bar graphic and numeric score from 0 to 6. This provides a
comparative sense of the severity of hazard posed by each waste. The method used in
compiling hazard scores is described in Appendix C.
As an adjunct to the profiles catalogue, section 2 presents a brief report discussing those
wastes considered to pose significant risks in the Australian context, through either their
inherent hazard, the management challenges they pose or the sheer volume in which they
are produced in each year.
The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 5

2 Summary report: Australia’s key hazardous waste
impacts and risks
Of the 49 waste groups listed in the attached profiles, it is difficult to determine which ones
have the most potential for impact or present the most significant risks in an Australian
context. Overall tonnage contribution is a raw indicator that does not take account of the
degree of hazard posed by the waste, while inherent hazard provides no indication of the
potential for exposure, either to humans or the environment, and therefore risk to both. It
seems logical that a combination of both hazard and tonnage (a proxy for exposure) is
relevant to identifying key risk wastes, but a metric to do so is not clear. Typically risk is a
measure of hazard and exposure, but exposure is variable depending on different
circumstances that exposure to the waste could occur within.
Figure 1 provides an infographic of wastes, in this case as NEPM codes (because some Y
codes cover multiple NEPM codes with different tonnage arisings and hazards). Each
waste’s hazard score is displayed alongside the 2013 tonnage. This allows quick
identification of the most significant volume contributors on the left and the most significant
hazard contributors on the right.
In hazard score terms, the top 10-12 wastes exhibit hazard characteristics of biohazard
(clinical and related waste), chromium-based toxicity/ eco-toxicity (wood preserving
chemicals and hexavalent chromium compounds), explosivity, or persistent (mainly chronic)
debilitative impacts widely in the environment as well as to human health (dioxins and
furans, pesticides, PCBs and other halogenated organic compounds). Looked at in pure
volume terms, the top 10-12 wastes are completely different, and dominated by biosolids
and contaminated soils (the latter is not listed in Figure 1, since no hazard score was
possible).
Putting biosolids and soils to one side, the remaining top ten wastes (by tonnage of arisings
in 2013) were:
1. Asbestos (790kt)
2. Grease trap waste (557kt)
3. Tyres (435kt)
4. Oily waters (416kt)
5. Alkali wastes (351kt)
6. Animal effluent and residues (342kt)
7. Waste oils (240kt)
8. Zinc compounds (211kt)
9. Lead compounds (133kt)
10. Non-toxic salts (91kt).
All wastes in this report are inherently hazardous, at least at some level. Tonnage is
important in prioritising the potential for impact because, in a simplistic sense, as quantity
increases the potential for exposure to hazards (across the population), and therefore risk
also increases. However, from the above list there are a number of wastes that probably
don’t deserve ‘high priority’ status from a risk of impact perspective: very large tonnage/ low
hazard wastes like animal effluent (K100), grease trap (K110) and tyres (T140); while D230
is unique in that its large volumes comes from a very small number of very specific sources,
which limits the potential for exposure.

Taking a broader view that includes volume, hazard and professional opinion-based
considerations such as specific problem wastes, current and future, the key wastes in terms
of impact risk, critical to improved hazardous waste management in Australia, are:
1. Asbestos
2. Waste oil
3. Alkali wastes
4. Lead waste
5. Clinical and related wastes
6. Contaminated soils
7. Spent pot liner (SPL) waste
8. ‘Contaminated’ biosolids
9. Non-toxic salts [Coal seam gas (CSG) waste]
10. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) waste.
These are described below with reference to their respective Basel and NEPM codes in
parentheses).

Figure 1: Hazardous relative waste hazard versus quantity in 2013
Waste quantity (tonnes) NEPM Waste Code Hazard score (1-6)

1,500,000 t 1,000,000 t 500,000 t

1. Asbestos (Y36, N220)
Asbestos waste includes both end-of-life asbestos-containing building materials as well as

soil that has been tested to demonstrate asbestos contamination. Since the latter may
involve very low asbestos fibre concentrations and very high soil volumes, this greatly
contributes to reported asbestos waste volumes.
Asbestos is one of the largest flows of hazardous waste in Australia, making up 11% of
national hazardous waste arisings and posing significant health risks. There is no evidence
to suggest the supply of waste asbestos is peaking or slowing.
The risks posed by asbestos are predominantly related to human health. Asbestos only
poses a risk to health when asbestos fibres are breathed in. Inhaling asbestos fibres may
cause asbestos-related disease and death. When asbestos fibres are breathed in, they can
lodge in lung tissue and cause inflammation, scarring and some more serious asbestos-
related diseases, which usually take many years, if not decades, to develop. The four major
asbestos-related diseases, in increasing order of severity, are: pleural plaques, asbestosis,
lung cancer and mesothelioma.
From the 1950s to the 1970s the most refined form of brown and blue asbestos was pumped
into the roof cavities of more than 1,000 Canberra and NSW homes as insulation. Loose raw
asbestos was touted as cheap and effective insulation. The product was called Asbestosfluf,
and the company that installed it became known as Mr Fluffy. Despite an extensive
Commonwealth Government asbestos removal program in the 1980s, in recent years
twenty-seven Canberra families have had to leave their homes, which have been deemed
unsafe to live in,. Recent assessment reports show that if there are fine cracks around
cornices or halls, ceiling fibres are being released into living areas and potential onto
clothing via cracks in wardrobes.
2. Waste oils (Y8, J100)
Waste mineral oils are used lubricating oils that come from industrial and domestic vehicle
engines and machinery, and can be reclaimed or recovered and recycled for other uses.
Tracking data suggests that about 3.5% of national hazardous waste volume is waste oil. Oil
waste arisings continue to grow, almost doubling in the last 5 years, with some of this growth
possibly due to metal and petroleum-based mining activities, which are significant industrial
engine users.
Impacts from oils are mostly to the environment. Oil spills at sea have occurred historically
with catastrophic impacts on local ecosystems. The infamous Exxon Valdez oil tanker
incident in Alaska in 1989 was shocking in terms of both its scale and its impact. Immediate
effects were the deaths of over 100,000 birds and mammals and 16,000 – 21,000 gallons
were estimated to still remain on surrounding beaches as recently as 2014, 25 years later.
In March 2009 large quantities of fuel oil, other fuel and ammonium nitrate spilled from the
MV Pacific Adventurer into the Coral Sea, north of Moreton Bay, Queensland, during
Cyclone Hamish. Over the following days, the spill washed ashore along 60 km of coastline
encompassing the Sunshine Coast, Moreton Bay, Bribie Island and Moreton Island.
Queensland Premier Anna Bligh described the spill as "worst environmental disaster
Queensland has ever seen". It took over 1,425 people 16 months to clean up the affected
areas at a total cost of $4 million.
The Product Stewardship for Oil Program was introduced by the Australian Government in
2001. The arrangements comprise a levy-benefit system, where an 8.5 cents per litre levy on

new oil, helps fund the benefit – 50 cents per litre paid back to re-refiners and recyclers on
the sale of ‘re-refined’ waste oil. While the program has been successful, there is some
uncertainty about the legitimacy of benefits claimed by the recycling industry, due to
vagaries in definition of activities and outputs, leading to the current situation of a program
that pays out more in benefits than it collects in usable levies. 1.
3. Alkali wastes (Y35, C100)
Alkali or alkaline wastes, otherwise known as basic solutions or bases in solid form, are
produced in significant quantities from coal seam gas (CSG) extraction in Queensland,
cement and lime kilns around Australia, aluminium smelting and as a surface cleaner/
degreaser in a range of industries as diverse as metal coating and finishing to fast food.
The main impacts of alkalis are to human health, felt acutely as a result of exposure to
concentrated solutions. Exposure can result in severe burns to the skin, mouth, throat or
eyes depending on the exposed area.
This waste is moderately significant nationally, at around 5% of all hazardous waste arising
in 2013, with 64% of it coming from Queensland. Since about 2009 there has been
exponential growth in Queensland arisings which, given a similar trend for non-toxic salts
(the primary classification for CSG waste), is likely to be reflective of the rise of the CSG
extraction industry in Queensland. The CSG industry produces around 95% of alkali waste in
Queensland.
The main waste concern from CSG extraction is liquid, solid or sludge salt/ brine waste,
discussed under ‘9. Non-toxic salts’ below. However, 95% of the Queensland-generated
alkali wastes are actually produced by the CSG industry, which equates to over 200,000
tonnes, which is about 4 times Queensland’s total non-toxic salts arisings. This discrepancy
is discussed further in ‘9’ below.
4. Lead wastes (Y31/ D220)
A significant component of lead waste in Australia is from lead acid batteries. Leaded glass
is another wastestream that has emerged from the e-waste recycling industry, where
cathode ray television/ monitor (CRT) glass contains large quantities of lead.
While lead is ecotoxic, persistent and bioaccumulative in the environment, it is primarily a

health impact consideration. Long-term exposure to lead can result in a variety of adverse
health effects, mainly involving the central nervous system, major organs and effects on
unborn babies. Health consequences from exposure are more significant in children aged 5
years or younger. Unborn children can be exposed through their mothers and harmful effects
may include: premature birth, smaller babies, decreased mental ability, learning difficulties
and reduced growth.
Lead waste generation in Australia is significant and growing. In 2013 lead waste made up
around 2% of all hazardous waste generated. While lead acid battery recycling infrastructure
has grown substantially in Australia in recent years, environmentally sound and cost-
1
Byron, N, Aither (2013), for the Department of the Environment. Third independent review of the Product
Stewardship (Oil) Act 2000 Final Report. Accessed on 29 May 102015 from:
http://www.environment.gov.au/resource/third-independent-review- product-stewardship-oil-act-2000

effective solutions to the growing problem (in the short term at least) of leaded CRT-glass
waste from the e-waste recycling industry remain.
5. Clinical (biohazardous) waste (Y & Y3/ R100 & R120)
Clinical and related wastes arise from medical, nursing, dental, veterinary, laboratory,
pharmaceutical, podiatry, tattooing, body piercing, brothels, emergency services, blood
banks, mortuary practices and other similar practices, and wastes generated in healthcare
facilities or other facilities during the investigation or treatment of patients or research
projects, which have the potential to cause disease, injury, or public offence.
Other wastes are also generated within health care settings. Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs
and medicines are waste pharmaceutical products that have: passed their recommended
shelf life; been discarded as off-specification batches; been returned by patients or
discarded. These wastes are often generated directly from pharmacies, hospitals, medical
centres and hospital dispensaries. A particularly notable pharmaceutical waste is waste
cytotoxic drugs, or waste (including sharps) contaminated by cytotoxic drugs. A cytotoxic
drug has carcinogenic (cancer-causing), mutagenic (increase mutations of genetic material)
or teratogenic (birth defect) potential, and is commonly used in the treatment of cancer.
At around 1% of all hazardous waste in Australia, they are notable in volume terms. When
combined with the extreme nature of their hazard, any discussion of priority hazardous
wastes from a risk perspective must include them.
The hazardous nature of clinical waste is due to the presence of infectious agents and/or the
presence of used sharps (for example, needles). Clinical waste should always be assumed
to potentially contain a variety of pathogenic microorganisms, because the presence or
absence of pathogens cannot be determined at the time the waste is produced. Pathogens
in clinical waste that is not well managed may enter the human body through the skin, by
inhalation or by ingestion.
Apart from fear of health hazards, the community is sensitive to the visual impact of this
waste, particularly recognisable human body parts. In some other cultures, religious beliefs
require human body parts to be returned to a patient’s family and buried in cemeteries.
Health-care workers are particularly vulnerable to needle stick injury, through accidental
puncture of the skin for the use, handling or disposal of sharps.
Australian states and territories tightly regulate the management of biohazardous wastes.
However, because of the distributed nature of health care facilities and workers in Australia,
and the consequences of poor handling of this waste are high, clinical or biohazardous
waste as a constant source of human health risk.
6. Contaminated soils (N120)
As discussed above, contaminated soils are not covered in these profiles because their
collectively variable hazards make discussing specific impacts impossible. However,
produced at approximately 1.4Mt annually, they are impossible to ignore.
Their key potential impact is to the environment, and these profiles reference many
instances of historical soil contamination that has had major consequences, and clean costs.
Such examples are discussed in the “Has anything happened before in Australia?” section of
the following profiles: Y5/ H170, Y6/ G160, Y11/ J160, Y27/ D170, Y29/ D120, Y31/ D220,
Y33/ A130, Y34/ B100, Y36/ N220, Y41/ G150, Y42/ G110 and Y43/44/ M170/180.

‘Invisible’ wastes
A substantial quantity of hazardous waste is generated and managed onsite in industrial

settings that does not appear in waste tracking data, making it ‘missing’ or ‘invisible’ in
nationally reported estimates of waste arisings. Some of these wastes have also, historically,
not been considered within the hazardous waste framework. Two major examples, in
volume, potential impact and management complexity terms are described below.
7. Spent pot liner (SPL)
Spent pot lining (SPL) is a waste material generated from aluminium smelters, of which there
are five in Australia. Aluminium smelting takes place in electrolytic cells that are known as
pots. During the operation of the cell, substances, including aluminium and fluorides, are
absorbed into the cell lining. After some years of operation, the pot lining fails and is
removed. The removed material is SPL, a hazardous waste due to:
• the presence of fluoride and cyanide compounds that are leachable in water
• its corrosiveness – it exhibits high pH due to the presence of alkali metals and oxides
• its reactivity with water - producing inflammable, toxic and explosive gases. This last
hazard in particular makes it difficult to handle and treat
Apart from the major human health hazard posed, the presence of fluorine in particular
means that this waste has the potential for long-term toxic effects on the environment
(fluorine is highly persistent) if poorly managed.
SPL does appear in waste tracking systems, variously as D300 (non-toxic salts), N205
(residues from industrial treatment and disposal operations) or, probably its most accurate
classification, D110/ Y32 (inorganic fluorine compounds) as it appears in these profiles. This
waste stream is likely to diminish over time - the tightening economics of the aluminium
smelting industry in Australia have recently closed two smelters. But the primary issue,
combined with the risk of human health and environmental impact, is the scale of long-term
industry stockpiles – estimated to be in the order of 900,000 tonnes – sufficient to more than
half fill the Melbourne Cricket Ground.
8. ‘Contaminated’ biosolids
Biosolids are a product of sewage sludge (the sludge collected from wastewater treatment)
once it has undergone further treatment to reduce disease causing pathogens and volatile
organic matter, producing a stabilised product. Biosolids have significant potential for
beneficial reuse, which currently occurs throughout Australia. Suitable quality biosolids can
be applied as a fertiliser to improve and maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth.
They are not a controlled waste under the NEPM, nor are they assigned a Basel Y code, and
consequently are not tracked in most jurisdictions, causing them historically to be ‘invisible’
in national hazardous waste estimates. At almost 1.5Mt nationally in 2013, biosolids take a
lot of ‘hiding’, so they were included in Australia’s annual hazardous waste reporting to the
Basel Convention from 2012 onwards under Y18/ N205 Residues arising from industrial
waste treatment/disposal operations, along with other wastes that are reported to tracking
systems under this category.
While not typically considered as hazardous waste, or even waste at all by some, it is widely
accepted that some biosolids – particularly those generated in treatment plants servicing
industrial areas – are contaminated with heavy metals at levels exceeding criteria set to

protect environmental and human health values, that would (if they were soils for example)
would classify them as a hazardous waste.
Noting that a hazard risk versus resource value tension exists for biosolids, the application of
state-based biosolids guideline chemical contaminant concentration levels should ensure
that beneficial reuse applications match the quality of the biosolids in a ‘fit for purpose’ way.
Apart from the scale of the waste stream – the largest of all reported to Basel – an emerging
problem is the reality that many biosolids guidelines applied by states and territories have
inadequate coverage of hazardous chemicals. For example Western Australian and South
Australian guidelines, do not consider arsenic, mercury or lead, although these are the
heavy metals within much of Victoria’s historical Western Treatment Plant biosolids stockpile
that exceed hazardous waste concentration thresholds.
A bigger issue is the potential presence of chemicals only relatively recently determined to
be an environmental concern, such as the new Stockholm Convention listings of POPs,
which are known to be present in biosolids. Should these chemicals be present at levels high
enough to cause concern, legislative change is foreseeable that could lead to a quite
different set of biosolids management requirements in the near future.
Emerging wastes
Coal seam gas (CSG) waste and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) waste are two
looming waste issues. The former has emerged in the last decade and is growing at
unprecedented rates. The latter is waiting on the regulatory near-horizon.
9. Coals seam gas (CSG) waste
Coal seam gas (CSG) mining occurs predominantly in Queensland and to a lesser extent in
NSW. Consequently, approximately 80% of CSG-based waste is generated in Queensland,
in the Bowen and Surat Basins. These wastes are nominally captured in waste tracking
systems as D300 non-toxic salts.
The CSG extraction process produces a range of wastes, but salty/ brine wastes are of most
concern. CSG wastes are produced in very large tonnages and they are a difficult problem
for the waste industry, which often relies on landfill. Water penetrating a landfill will mobilise
any stored salt in the leachate stream, which creates a major environmental risk of
groundwater infiltration and subsequent contamination of aquifers, especially given the
volumes to be managed.
The alkali wastes discussion in ‘3’ above notes that the Queensland CSG industry alone
produces alkali waste at a rate that is over 4 times the state’s non-toxic salts figure, This
could be an issue of coding the same waste in two different ways, since salt wastes from
CSG extraction may be alkaline. Regardless, given the large known onsite storages of CSG
waste, which don’t make their way onto national arisings figures (because they haven’t hit
the tracking system), the CSG industry currently and even more so in the future has an
environmental management issue of unprecedented scale.
10. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) waste
Referred to in the profile for Y45/ M160 Organohalogen compounds other than substances
referred to in this list, POPs waste also shared a commonality with other waste types such
as chlorophenols (Y39), halogenated solvents (Y41), dioxins and furans (Y43 and Y44),
PCB-like compounds (Y10) and organochlorine pesticides (within Y4), due to the
halogenated elements (typically fluorine, chlorine or bromine) in their structure.

The best examples of POPs are the new additions to the Stockholm Convention in 2009, the
brominated flame retardants (BFR) polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and
hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS).
POPs are hazardous and environmentally persistent substances which can be transported
between countries by the earth's oceans and atmosphere. POPs accumulate in living
organisms and have been traced in the fatty tissues of humans and other animals. While
impacts vary with each individual chemical species, human health effects tend to be chronic
– some POPS are possible human carcinogens. Generally speaking, their environmental
impact is of equivalent or greater concern - the PBDEs, PFOS and HBCD all demonstrate
significant aquatic toxicity, persistence in the environment and tend towards biomagnification
(increasing accumulation along the food chain). There is general international agreement
that they require global action to reduce their impact on humans and the environment.
Banned since 2004, PBDEs have been historically added at percentage levels to plastics in
a range of products including electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), furniture upholstery,
automobile interiors, mattresses and carpet underlay. HBCD has been added to extruded
and expanded polystyrene foams used in building insulation and PFOS, a fluorinated
surfactant, has been primarily as a dispersant in firefighting foams.
These substances, when present in wastes such as end of life products presenting for
disposal, are not technically regarded as hazardous wastes in Australia at present. E-waste
is a good example of such a potentially PBDE-containing waste. This is because Australia is
still undertaking its assessment processes to determine whether to ratify these new additions
to the Stockholm Convention.
Another waste, one that was in the initial 12 listed under the Stockholm Convention, is
hexachlorobenzene (HCB), a substantial and intractable stored quantity of which has been
under close management by Orica at its Port Botany site for the last couple of decades. It
has been long understood that existing Australian infrastructure for halogenated chemical
treatment is inadequate for dealing with the Orica HCB waste, not to mention how it would
cope with a new, related wastestream.
Lastly, as recently as May 2015, there were three more additions to the Convention –
polychlorinated napthalenes, hexachlorobutadiene and pentachlorophenol. While ratification
assessment processes for countries like Australia are lengthy and their ultimate decisions
uncertain, indications are that POPs-containing wastes are an emerging consideration for
Australian waste policymakers and waste managers alike, particularly given local limitations
that currently exist in POPs-specific treatment infrastructure.
These issues indicate an emerging potential problem in relation to management of POP

waste as it arises, and to the set of current infrastructure available to treat it in an
environmentally sound manner.

Conclusion
Hazardous wastes have been regulated by state and territory governments in Australia for
decades, leading to strong controls around licensing of facility operations that generate
these wastes as well as those that treat, dispose or otherwise handle them. A deeper
knowledge of what specific hazardous wastes are produced in Australia, from what sources
they arise, which management pathways and fates they go to and what their human health
and environmental impacts or consequences could be, pertinent to Australia, is only more
recently growing. As information and data is being built upon through various co-operative
Australian Government/ State and Territory Government projects, more co-operative
management of national-scale issues is likely to occur.
The health and environmental impact profiles developed in this report contribute to a deeper,
richer, more current and more broadly accessible understanding of hazardous wastes and
their impacts in Australia.

3 Hazardous waste impact profiles
3.1 Clinical waste from medical care in hospitals, medical centres and clinics
Waste name:
Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Clinical waste from medical care in category:Y1 code: A4020 R100
hospitals, medical centres and clinics
Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0
Clinical waste is waste arising from medical, nursing, dental,

veterinary, laboratory, pharmaceutical, podiatry, tattooing, body
piercing, brothels, emergency services, blood banks, mortuary
Description of practices and other similar practices, and wastes generated in
the waste healthcare facilities or other facilities during the investigation or
treatment of patients or research projects, which have the potential
to cause disease, injury, or public offence, and includes: sharps and
non-sharps clinical waste.
Waste form Solid and liquid
Sharps can cause disease and/or injury and include: syringes,

needles, lancets, scalpel blades and anything capable of cutting or
penetrating the skin.
Non-sharps clinical waste is potentially pathogenic and includes: -
What is it? human blood or body fluids;
- human tissue;
- a clinical specimen (other than urine or faeces);
- a laboratory culture;
- tissue, carcasses or other waste arising from animals used for
Physical/ laboratory investigation or for medical or veterinary research;
chemical - materials or equipment contaminated with any of the above;
description - waste from patients known to have, or suspected of having a
communicable disease.
Pathogenicity is the capacity of a virus, bacteria or related organism
to cause a disease.
Clinical waste that has been containerised correctly will be present
in yellow colour-coded bags, boxes (sharps) and bins.
Clinical settings also produce pharmaceutical waste (covered by Y3)
and can produce limited mercury wastes (Y29) from equipment such
as thermometers, blood pressure gauges and other medical
applications, products and chemicals.
Substances or wastes containing viable
H6.2: Infectious micro-organisms or their toxins which are
Primary hazard
substances known or suspected to cause disease in
Why is it
animals or humans
hazardous?
H13: Capable of Capable, by any means, after disposal, of
Secondary
yielding another yielding another material, e.g., leachate,
hazard
hazard or hazardous which possesses any of the characteristics

Waste name:
material listed above.
Other hazard(s) N/A N/A
Main likely chemical contaminants N/A
Where does it Healthcare and related facilities such as those described under
Main sources
come from? ‘Description of the waste’.
Like other hazardous wastes, clinical waste is regulated at the state

and territory level in Australia. In general, clinical waste must be
treated to render the waste non-hazardous prior to final disposal.
Such treatment includes incineration, autoclaving, chemical
How is it
Main fates disinfection and microwave irradiation, with shredding regularly used
managed?
in conjunction with non-incineration techniques. Incineration is
typically acceptable for all types of clinical waste, whereas other
treatment methods are typically not suitable for some components of
clinical waste, such as human tissue.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 1.0%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 72,214 ACT: 207 NSW: 27,296
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 297 Qld: 24,630 SA: 5,775
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 8 Vic: 10,711 WA: 3,289
The hazardous nature of clinical waste is due to the presence of

infectious agents and/or the presence of used sharps. Clinical waste
should always be assumed to potentially contain a variety of
pathogenic microorganisms, because the presence or absence of
pathogens cannot be determined at the time the waste is produced.
Pathogens in clinical waste that is not well managed may enter the
human body through several routes:
- through a puncture, abrasion or cut in the skin
- through mucous membranes
Potential health
Overview - by inhalation
impacts
- by ingestion.
Apart from fear of health hazards, the community is sensitive to the
visual impact of this waste, particularly recognisable human body
parts. In some other cultures, religious beliefs require human body
parts to be returned to a patient’s family and buried in cemeteries.
Health-care workers are particularly vulnerable to needle stick injury,
through accidental puncture of the skin for the use, handling or
disposal of sharps.
An additional health impact is in the form of air pollution, from

Waste name:
emissions of pollutants as constituents of flue gases from the
incineration of clinical waste. It is noted however that stringent
emission standards apply to operators of these incinerators by
environmental regulators, through the use of advanced pollution
control equipment.
Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste, its

inherent pathogenicity and the extent of the disease threat posed by
Acute toxicity the infected waste. Acuteness of toxicity and impact risk (ranging
from harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of the
infecting virus, bacteria, etc.

Chronic toxicity the infected waste. Irreversability of toxic effects and impact risk
(ranging from harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of
the infecting virus, bacteria, etc.
Low: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its

inherent carcinogenicity. Cancer is not a communicable disease so
it is extremely unlikely to be spread through contact with infectious
Carcinogenicity
wastes, even if they contain blood from a cancer sufferer.
Theoretical risk from contamination of the clinical wastestream with
residual cytotoxics, a related medical waste.

Reproductive
the infected waste. Risk to the unborn child (ranging from harmful to
toxicity
potentially fatal) is dependent on the nature of the infecting virus,
bacteria, etc.
In the year 2000, sharps injuries to health-care workers worldwide were estimated to have
caused about 66 000 hepatitis B, 16 000 hepatitis C and 200–5000 HIV infections among
Workplace 1
health-care workers . It is estimated that more than two million health-care workers are
health & safety 1
exposed to needle stick injuries with infected sharps every year . Sharps and needle stick
impacts
injury incidents in Australia are estimated to affect at least 18,000 healthcare workers each
2
year .
The risk of a sharps injury among patients and the public is much lower, particularly in
Australia, as there are tight controls around proper handling, storage, transport and
treatment of infectious clinical waste.
But globally, because the amount of waste produced is growing faster than the
Population
infrastructure to deal with it, it is thought that at least half the world’s population is at risk
scale impacts
from environmental, occupational or public-health exposure to poor clinical waste
3
management .
Members of the public can be exposed to used syringes (waste) from careless discarding
practices of intravenous drug users.
Potential Overview The major hazard from clinical waste is impact to human health.

Waste name:
environment However, environmental impacts are also possible, but not in the
impacts strictest sense of ecotoxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation.
Clinical waste is typically an environmental health issue, in the
sense that infectious agents can be transported through
environmental channels (such as pollution or accidental contact with
syringes discarded in public places) with an ultimate impact on
human health.
Consequently the typical component measures of environmental
impact are not directly applicable for this waste.
Acute ecotoxicity N/A
Chronic
N/A
ecotoxicity
Persistence N/A
Bioaccumulation N/A
Where are the Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of impacts
most likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low
Clinical waste in Australia is handled in a way that constrains the highest risk of impact (to
human health) to those closest to handling the waste at the point of generation and onsite
management in the health care industry.
Needle stick injuries occur in Australia at low relative frequency to the number of sharps
Has anything handled in the health care system but, overall, the estimate of 18,000 needle stick injury
2
happened incidents per year (in Australian health care) is unacceptably high.
before in From time to time there are reports in the media of people standing on discarded
Australia? hypodermic syringe needles in public places like beaches and parks.
4
The Syringe Tide was an environmental disaster during 1987-88 in New Jersey and New
York (USA) where significant amounts of medical waste, including hypodermic syringes,
and raw garbage washed up onto beaches on the Jersey Shore, in New York City, and on
Long Island.
Australian hospitals have stringent infection control policies and

procedures in place to promote waste segregation and proper,
puncture-proof containerisation at source, as well as management
What control
responsibility for infection control. Hospitals also have waste
measures are in
Industry – management plans, procedures and training programs that require
place to
systematic strict handling practices, since the risks to waste staff can be
manage risks
controls overlooked in infection control training.
posed by this
The Biohazard Waste Industry, as part of the Waste Management
waste?
Association of Australia (WMAA), publishes a comprehensive
Industry Code of Practice for the Management of Clinical and
5
Related Wastes .

Waste name:
Best practice clinical waste management routinely employed in
Australia involves the critical first step of waste separation and
segregation in colour coded bags, bins and purpose-built waste
containers, clear signage and training regarding the colour-coded
Industry –
system, minimal manual handling of waste containers, regular
exposure
removal of waste containers from wards to (potentially refrigerated)
controls
storage and removal, transport and treatment by health care waste
specialist contractors.
All waste management staff are provided PPE such as protective
clothing, gloves, eye protection and spill kits.
State and territory governments regulate the management of

hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
disposal of all hazardous wastes, including clinical waste, through
Government
licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.
Governments also provide needle and syringe programs that include
the widespread provision of safe syringe disposal containers in
public places.
The community is protected from infection risk from clinical waste in

hospitals through the bin segregation system used by health care
workers. This isolates the risk to receptacles that are either difficult
for patients to access or clear as to their separation from the non-
infectious waste stream.
However, there is room for greater education around infection
control and waste management in the home environment, given the
rise of health care delivery alternatives, such as community nursing,
day surgery and other home-based care.
6
The public can telephone a Needle Clean Up Hotline or local
Community council for information on how to remove needles and syringes
found in public places. If you find a needle and syringe and want to
dispose of it yourself, find a hard plastic container with a screw top
(such as a plastic juice, milk or soft drink bottle). Take the container
to the syringe. Keep away from the sharp end of the needle.
Carefully pick up the syringe by the barrel. Do not replace the cap on
the needle. Needle point first, put the syringe in to the container and
6
seal it tightly. Ring the Needle Clean Up Hotline or local council in
your area to arrange for the container to be collected. Alternatively,
you can put the container with the needle and syringe inside in to a
syringe disposal bin if one is nearby.
References 1. Prüss-Üstün A, Rapiti E, Hutin Y (2005). Estimating the global burden of disease
attributable to contaminated sharps injuries among health care workers. American Journal

Waste name:
of Industrial Hygiene, 48(6):482–490.
2. Alliance for Sharps Safety and Needlestick Prevention in Healthcare (2013). Accessed
March 10, 2015 from: http://www.allianceforsharpssafety.org/2013/10/safety-is-a-frame-of-
mind-for-healthcare-workers/#more-500
3. Harhay MO et al. (2009). Health care waste management: a neglected and growing
public health problem worldwide. Tropical Medicine and International Health, 14(11):1414–
1417.
4. The New York Times (Jul 12, 1988). “Beach Debris Still a Mystery; 77 Syringes Wash
Up on S.I.” Accessed March 12, 2015 from:
http://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/12/nyregion/beach-debris-still-a-mystery-77-syringes-
wash-up-on-si.html
5. Biohazard Waste Industry (2014). Industry Code of Practice for the Management of
th
Biohazardous Waste (including Clinical & Related wastes), 7 Edition. Waste
Management Association of Australia.
6. Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing (2005). Needle and syringe
programs: Your questions answered, pp 19 – 22. Accessed March 11, 2015 from:
http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/
73934F5307F88EC7CA257BF0001E009F/$File/ques.pdf
7. EPA Victoria Industrial Waste Resource Guidelines (2009). Clinical and Related Waste
– Operational Guidance. Accessed March 10, 2015 from
http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/IWRG612%201.pdf
8. World Health Organization (2013). Safe management of wastes from health-care
nd
activities, edited by Y. Chartier et al, 2 Edition. Accessed March 12, 2015 from:
http://www.searo.who.int/srilanka/documents/ safe_management_of_wastes_from_
healthcare_activities.pdf
9. Latimer G, ENVIRON Australia (2014). Baseline Study for the Pacific Hazardous Waste
Management Project – Healthcare Waste. Prepared for Secretariat of the Pacific Regional
Environment Programme (SPREP).

3.2 Wastes from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products
Waste name:
Wastes from the production and Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
preparation of pharmaceutical category:Y2 code: A4010 R140
products
Hazard score Low Moderate Medium High Extreme
(0 – 6) >5.0
This category of waste is similar in hazard and potential impact to

Y3, Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines. As a result this
profile to a large extent mirrors that of Y3. The key difference is the
setting that it is generated – for Y2 this is at the pharmaceutical
product manufacturing stage rather than the point in the lifecycle
Description of where the product is sold, administered or used (pharmacy or health
the waste care facility).
What is it?
Another difference is that as a manufacturing waste, there will be
process wastes that may be raw materials-based rather than wastes
of final manufactured products.
A pharmaceutical product is a restricted drug or medicine.
Physical/ Solid tablets, powdered solids, liquid medicines or solid and liquid
chemical chemical or physical process wastes.
description
Substances or wastes liable to cause either

H6.1: Poisonous death or serious injury or to harm human
Primary hazard
(acute) health if swallowed or inhaled or by skin
contact.
Substances or wastes which, if they are

Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
hazard or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
Why is it including carcinogenicity.
hazardous? Substances or wastes which if released
present or may present immediate or
Other hazard(s) H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the
environment by means of bioaccumulation
and/or toxic effects upon biotic systems.
An enormous variety of potential organic

Main likely chemical contaminants and inorganic chemicals used in drug
formulations.
Where does it Pharmaceutical and cosmetic product manufacturing or formulation

Main sources
come from? facilities.
Like other hazardous wastes, pharmaceutical product wastes are

How is it
Main fates regulated at the state and territory level in Australia. Depending on
managed?
the inherent risk of the waste, it often undergoes some form of

Waste name:
products
chemical/ physical treatment before final fate of hazardous waste
landfill disposal. As opposed to Y3, Y2 does not contain cytotoxic
wastes so incineration is not typically a mandatory form of treatment.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.02%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 1,163 ACT: 0 NSW: 371
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 76 SA: 5
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 711 WA: 0
Pharmaceutical products and their derivatives, precursor materials

and wastes have the potential to cause harm to genetic material,
cause birth defects or induce acute or chronic conditions of toxicity
or poisoning, if taken outside medically supervised circumstances or
Overview inadvertently handled.
Product packaging is typically absent or damaged, making
identification of the underlying drug difficult. This is why waste
pharmaceuticals must be assumed to pose the highest carcinogenic,
mutagenic or toxic potential, and handled with the utmost caution.
Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste and its

inherent toxicity. Acuteness of toxicity and impact risk (ranging from
Acute toxicity
harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of the chemical
Potential health
or biological hazard posed by the pharmaceuticals present.
impacts
inherent toxicity. Irreversability of toxic effects and impact risk
Chronic toxicity (ranging from harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of
the chemical or biological hazard posed by the pharmaceuticals
present.

Carcinogenicity
inherent carcinogenicity.

Reproductive inherent teratogenicity or potential effects on fertility, lactation and
toxicity endocrine effects such as oestrogen and androgen disruption. Risk
to the unborn child could range from harmful to potentially fatal.
In the workplace, occupational exposure may occur where control measures fail or are not
Workplace in place. Exposure may be through skin contact, skin absorption and inhalation of aerosols
health & safety and drug particles resulting from the following activities:
impacts - drug preparation
- handling waste

Waste name:
products
- transport and waste disposal, or
- spills.
The major hazard from waste pharmaceuticals is impact to human

health. However, environmental impacts are also possible, but not
in the strictest sense of ecotoxicity, persistence and
bioaccumulation. This waste is typically an environmental health
issue, in the sense that toxic agents can be transported through
environmental channels (such as pollution) with an ultimate impact
Overview
on human health. There is the potential for increased target species
immunity from antibiotics (for example), if waste antibiotics are
Potential exposed to populations of these species (such as mosquitos), which
environment is also ultimately a human health issue.
impacts Consequently the typical component measures of environmental
Chronic
N/A
ecotoxicity
Persistence N/A
Bioaccumulation N/A
Where are the

Generation Transport Storage Treatment Recovery Final disposal
risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A N/A

Industry –
Association of Australia (WMAA), publishes a comprehensive
systematic
Industry Code of Practice for the Management of Clinical and
controls 4
Related Wastes .
Staff may be required to handle hazardous substances such as

What control
Industry – strong acids, formaldehyde or antibiotic tablets that release dust
measures are
exposure when crushed. Appropriate measures must be taken to protect staff
in place to
controls such as provision of a fume or powder cupboard, protective masks,
manage risks 5
goggles, clothing, footwear and gloves.
posed by this
waste? State and territory governments regulate the management of
Government
disposal of all hazardous wastes, including waste pharmaceuticals,
drugs and medicines, through licensing, tracking and transport
accreditation requirements.
References 1. World Health Organization (2013). Safe management of wastes from health-care
nd

Waste name:
products
3. World Health Organization. Waste from health-care activities, fact sheet No.253 (2011).
Accessed March 12, 2015 from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs253/en/
th
Biohazardous Waste (including Clinical & Related wastes), 7 Edition. Waste
Management Association of Australia.
5. The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia. SHPA Practice Standard – Guidelines
for Medicines Prepared in Australian Pharmacy Departments. Accessed April 8, 2015
from:
http://www.shpa.org.au/lib/pdf/practice_standards/Manufacturing_standards_0610_ro.pdf

3.3 Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines
Waste name: Basel permit
Basel waste NEPM code:
Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and code: A4010 /
category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0
In addition to clinical waste, other wastes are generated within health

care settings. These include waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and
medicines:
Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines are waste
pharmaceutical products that have: passed their recommended shelf
life; been discarded as off-spec batches; been returned by patients
or discarded. A pharmaceutical product is a restricted drug or
Description of
medicine.
the waste
These wastes are often generated directly from pharmacies,
hospitals, medical centres and hospital dispensaries.
What is it? A particularly notable pharmaceutical waste is waste cytotoxic drugs,

or waste (including sharps) contaminated by cytotoxic drugs. A
cytotoxic drug has carcinogenic (cancer-causing), mutagenic
(increase mutations of genetic material) or teratogenic (birth defect)
potential, and is commonly used in the treatment of cancer.
Solid tablets, powdered solids, liquid medicines. The category also

includes discarded items used in the handling of pharmaceuticals,
such as bottles or boxes with residues, gloves, masks, connecting
Physical/
tubing, and drug vials.
chemical
description The most commonly used cytotoxic products used in healthcare are:
azathioprine, chlorambucil, chlornaphazine, ciclosporin,
cyclophosphamide, melphalan, semustine, tamoxifen, thiotepa and
1
treosulfan.
Primary hazard
contact.

Why is it hazard or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
hazardous? including carcinogenicity.
Substances or wastes which if released

Other hazard(s) H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
by means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
effects upon biotic systems.
Main likely chemical contaminants An enormous variety of potential organic

category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
and inorganic chemicals used in drug
formulations.
Healthcare and related facilities such as those described for Basel

Where does it
Main sources code Y1: Clinical waste from medical care in hospitals, medical
come from?
centres and clinics.
Like other hazardous wastes, waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and

medicines are regulated at the state and territory level in Australia.
How is it These wastes must be treated to render the waste non-hazardous
Main fates
managed? prior to final disposal. This treatment is usually incineration, which is
regulated in most jurisdictions as the only acceptable method of
treatment of cytotoxic and pharmaceutical waste.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.08%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 1,782 SA: 372
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 14 Vic: 720 WA: 0
Cytotoxic drugs are therapeutic agents intended for, but not limited
to, the treatment of cancer. These drugs are known to be highly toxic
to cells, mainly through their action on cell reproduction. Many have
proved to be carcinogens, mutagens or teratogens. Consequently
waste containing these substances has the potential for extreme
health impact.
Other drugs and medicines have the potential to cause harm to
genetic material, cause birth defects or induce acute or chronic
conditions of toxicity or poisoning, if taken outside medically
supervised circumstances or inadvertently handled.
Overview
Often drug packaging may be absent or damaged, making
Potential health
identification of the underlying drug difficult. This is why waste
impacts
pharmaceuticals must be assumed to pose the highest carcinogenic,
mutagenic or toxic potential, and handled with the utmost caution.
An additional health impact is in the form of air pollution, from
emissions of pollutants as constituents of flue gases from the
incineration of clinical waste. It is noted however that stringent
emission standards apply to operators of these incinerators by
environmental regulators, through the use of advanced pollution
control equipment.

Acute toxicity inherent toxicity. Acuteness of toxicity and impact risk (ranging from
harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of the chemical

category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
or biological hazard posed by the pharmaceuticals present.

inherent toxicity. Irreversability of toxic effects and impact risk
Chronic toxicity (ranging from harmful to potentially fatal) dependent on the nature of
the chemical or biological hazard posed by the pharmaceuticals
present.

inherent carcinogenicity. When not apparent through colour-coded
Carcinogenicity (purple) and clearly identified packaging containerisation, this waste
must be handled and managed as if it may contain cytotoxic
material.

Reproductive inherent teratogenicity or potential effects on fertility, lactation and
toxicity endocrine effects such as oestrogen and androgen disruption. Risk
to the unborn child could range from harmful to potentially fatal.
In the workplace, occupational exposure may occur where control measures fail or are not
in place. Exposure may be through skin contact, skin absorption, inhalation of aerosols and
drug particles, ingestion and needle stick injuries resulting from the following activities:
- drug preparation
- drug administration
- handling patient waste
Workplace
- transport and waste disposal, or
health & safety
impacts - spills.
Sharps and needle stick injury incidents in Australia are estimated to affect at least 18,000
1
healthcare workers each year .
Similarly, waste management staff working in or servicing health care environments are
prone to such accidental exposures, particularly if there has been breaches in
containerisation protocols or damage to such containment between generation and
handling by the waste manager.
The risk of a sharps injury among patients and the public is much lower, particularly in
Australia, as there are tight controls around proper handling, storage, transport and
treatment of infectious clinical waste.
Population
Collection, transport and treatment of waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines in
scale impacts
Australia is strictly controlled and regulated, with destruction by incineration the only
allowable treatment option. Exposure pathways for the general public are extremely
limited.
The major hazard from waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines

Potential is impact to human health. However, environmental impacts are also
environment Overview possible, but not in the strictest sense of ecotoxicity, persistence and
impacts bioaccumulation. This waste is typically an environmental health
issue, in the sense that toxic agents can be transported through

category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
environmental channels (such as pollution) with an ultimate impact
on human health. There is the potential for increased target species
immunity from antibiotics (for example), if waste antibiotics are
exposed to populations of these species (such as mosquitos), which
is also ultimately a human health issue.
Consequently the typical component measures of environmental
Chronic
N/A
ecotoxicity
Persistence N/A
Bioaccumulation N/A
risks of impacts
most likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A N/A
Needle stick injuries occur in Australia at low relative frequency to the number of sharps
handled in the health care system but, overall, the estimate of 18,000 needle stick injury
2
incidents per year (in Australian health care) is unacceptably high.
Has anything Public incidents of exposure to waste pharmaceuticals, drugs or medicines in Australia, are
happened typically through individual cases of needle-stick injury from standing on hypodermic
before in syringes in public places, discarded carelessly by needle users.
Australia? In June 2000, six children were diagnosed with a mild form of smallpox (vaccinia virus)
after having played with glass ampoules containing expired smallpox vaccine at a garbage
3
dump in Vladivostok (Russia) . Although the infections were not life-threatening, the
vaccine ampoules should have been treated before being discarded.
Australian hospitals have stringent policies and procedures in place

to ensure segregation, signage, labelling and containerisation of
these wastes, as well as clear management responsibility. Hospitals
also have waste management plans, procedures and training
programs that require strict handling practices.
What control
measures are in
Industry – Association of Australia (WMAA), publishes a comprehensive
place to
systematic Industry Code of Practice for the Management of Clinical and
manage risks 4
controls Related Wastes .
posed by this 5
Best practice standards have been developed in Australia :
waste?
- The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia (SHPA) Standards
of Practice for the Safe Handling of Cytotoxic Drugs in Pharmacy
Departments (2004)
- The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia (SHPA) Standards
of Practice for the Transportation of Cytotoxic Drugs from

category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
Pharmacy Departments (2007)
Industry – As described in The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia

exposure (SHPA) Standards of Practice for the Safe Handling of Cytotoxic
5
controls Drugs in Pharmacy Departments (2004)

disposal of all hazardous wastes, including waste pharmaceuticals,
drugs and medicines, through licensing, tracking and transport
accreditation requirements.
Following a series of trials the Commonwealth Department of Health
provided funds to facilitate the collection and disposal of unwanted
Government
and out-of-date medicines from the Australian community. The
National Return & Disposal of Unwanted Medicines Limited is a
national not-for-profit company, registered specifically for this
purpose. Known as the Return Unwanted Medicines (RUM) Project
6
, the national scheme provides for unwanted and out-of-date
medicines to be collected by community pharmacies from
consumers. The medicines are then disposed of by high temperature
incineration, which is the EPA approved method of disposal.
6
Community See the Return Unwanted Medicines (RUM) Project .

nd
3. World Health Organization. Waste from health-care activities, fact sheet No.253 (2011).
th
Biohazardous Waste (including Clinical & Related wastes), 7 Edition. Waste Management
References Association of Australia.
5. The Society of Hospital Pharmacists of Australia. SHPA Practice Standards. Accessed
March 12, 2015 from: http://www.shpa.org.au/Practice-Standards
6. The Return Unwanted Medicines (RUM) Project. Accessed March 12, 2015 from:
http://www.returnmed.com.au
7. EPA Victoria Industrial Waste Resource Guidelines (2009). Clinical and Related Waste
– Operational Guidance. Accessed March 10, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/IWRG612%201.pdf
nd
activities, edited by Y. Chartier et al, 2 Edition.
9. Latimer G, ENVIRON Australia (2014). Baseline Study for the Pacific Hazardous Waste

category:Y3 R120
medicines A4020
Management Project – Healthcare Waste. Prepared for Secretariat of the Pacific Regional
Environment Programme (SPREP).

3.4 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of biocides and
phytopharmaceuticals
Waste name: Basel
Wastes from the production, Basel waste permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of biocides category:Y4 code: H100
and phytopharmaceuticals A4030
Low Medium Moderate High Extreme
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0*
Small quantities of feedstocks, intermediates, by-products and

impurities, solvents and biocides resulting from production and
formulation. Unused unwanted biocide formulations retained by users.
Vegetable material remaining after extraction of phytopharmaceuticals,
and by-products, solvents and other chemical substances such as acids
Description of and alkalis.
the waste A biocide is a substance or microorganism that kills or controls growth
What is it?
of living organisms. Biocides include antibiotics, pesticides, and
antibacterials. Pesticide classification is often broken further into
insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and growth promotants.
A phytopharmaceutical is a pharmaceutical agent of plant origin. This
component of Y4 has some similarities with Y2.
Physical/ Most wastes in liquid form except for vegetable waste. Pesticide wastes
chemical can be due to historical activities where the active ingredients may be
description mixed or perhaps unknown, due to weathered container labelling.
Substances or wastes which, if they are inhaled
H11: Toxic (delayed or ingested or if they penetrate the skin, may
Primary hazard
or chronic) involve delayed or chronic effects, including
carcinogenicity.
Substances or wastes which if released present
or may present immediate or delayed adverse
Secondary
H12: Ecotoxic impacts to the environment by means of
hazard
bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects upon biotic
systems.
Why is it
hazardous? Over 8,000 pesticide and veterinary products
have been registered for use in Australian
agriculture, horticulture, livestock, forestry,
commercial premises, parks, homes and
1
gardens .
Main likely chemical contaminants
Historical pesticides used in Australia were
2
various organochlorine (OC) and
organophosphate (OP) pesticides (see Y37),
the former banned in the late 1980’s but still an
issue due to their persistence and

Waste name: Basel
bioaccumulative effects.
Biocides mainly produced overseas and formulated in Australia by a

small range of companies. Vegetable material sourced locally, such as
poppy straw and pods produced in Tasmania and used in opiate
Where does alkaloid production.
it come Main sources The wastes from such production/ formulation can come from
from? agricultural chemical manufacturers and formulators, large scale facility
managers (that use biocides) such as the military, airports and port
operators and event-based agricultural or household collection drives
(of waste chemicals) collected by the waste industry.
Manufacturing and formulating wastes are mostly collected by licensed

How is it
Main fates operators and destroyed. Some going to trade waste but under licence
managed?
agreements with water authorities.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.04
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 1,567 SA: 22
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 670 WA: 0
Determining potential health impact for this waste type is dependent on

the nature of the chemical hazard posed by the individual biocides or
phytopharmaceuticals present, which can only be done generically,
given the large number of possible chemicals that may be present. This
assessment is somewhat skewed towards the potential for higher risk
chemicals historically used as active ingredients, because some of
Overview these wastes can still appear in small quantities via collection programs.
It is noted however that pesticide agents used today are more target-
species directed in their effect and, as a consequence, less likely to be
Potential hazardous to human health.
health Human health impacts are potentially high overall for this waste
impacts category, with potential to be very toxic (in both acute and chronic
measures).
Extreme: Impact dependent on the nature of the chemical hazard

posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present. May
Acute toxicity
be very toxic in contact with skin, if swallowed or by inhalation. Wastes
from currently used chemicals are likely to have lower acute toxicity.

Chronic toxicity posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present.
Danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure if

Waste name: Basel
swallowed, in contact with skin or through inhalation. Wastes from
currently used chemicals are likely to have lower chronic toxicity.
Low: There is no conclusive evidence linking cancer incidence with

3
pesticides currently used in Australia . However, in terms of the past,
there are two pesticides that are known human carcinogens (arsenic
compounds – see Y24 – and ethylene oxide), two probable carcinogens
Carcinogenicity
(ethylene dibromide and captafol) and a number of possible
carcinogens (OCs, phenoxy herbicides and polychlorinated
3
camphenes) . Given the vast number of active agents that could fall
into this category, overall the carcinogenic hazard is rated as low.
Low: Some pesticides (such as endosulfan) are potential endocrine

disruptors (substances that alter function of the endocrine system and
Reproductive
consequently cause adverse health effects in an intact organism).
toxicity
However, across the balance of all possible active agents that may be
captured by the waste type, the potential for this impact is low.
A number of international studies have found higher incidence and mortality rates from
specific cancers among people occupationally exposed to pesticides, including farmers and
4 5, 6 7
pesticide applicators , pesticide manufacturing workers , golf course superintendents
8
and market gardeners or orchardists . There is, however, no increase in the incidence or
9
Workplace mortality of these cancers among pest control workers (e.g. exterminators) .
health & It is not clear if pesticides are responsible for these elevated incidence rates, because
safety workers in these sectors are also exposed to a range of other potential carcinogens, such as
impacts diesel exhaust, solvents, metals, grain dusts, zoonotic (transmissible from animals to
humans) viruses and ultraviolet radiation, all of which could confound the relationship
between pesticides and cancer.
In addition, a study in Western Australia found that 78% of farm jobs have “no likelihood of
10
pesticide exposure” .
People can be exposed to pesticides that seep into the water supply or food chain, persisting
for a long time in the environment. The persistent, residual and bioaccumulative nature of
such compounds enables them to be measured in the human body, in blood and breast milk.
The organochlorine DDT (possible carcinogen) has been extensively studied as a risk factor
Population
for breast cancer. It is banned in Australia and other parts of the world, but in the 1940s and
scale 11
1950s, it was heavily used as an insecticide. Most epidemiological studies do not support a
impacts
conclusive link between DDT and cancer although there is some evidence that exposure in
12
early life or adolescence could increase the longer-term risk of breast cancer
Epidemiological studies have similarly not supported a link between organochlorine
13
pesticides in general and breast cancer .
Determining potential environmental impact for this waste type is

Potential dependent on the nature of the chemical hazard posed by the individual
environment Overview biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present, which can only be done
impacts generically, given the large number of possible chemicals that may be
present. This assessment is somewhat skewed towards the potential for

Waste name: Basel
higher risk chemicals to be present as active ingredients, tempered by
the fact that pesticide agents used today are (generally speaking) less
likely to have broad scale environmental impacts, if applied as intended.
Use of biocides can pose an environmental threat and damage to non-
target organisms. Contaminated soils and badly stored materials can
also be of concern.
Environmental impacts are potentially extreme overall for this waste
category, particularly in the case of pesticide wastes from historical use,
with potential to score highly in all four components of environmental
impact below.

posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present. May
Acute be very toxic to aquatic organisms.
ecotoxicity For example endosulfan, an organochlorine still used on cotton crops, is
very toxic to fish and can be toxic to birds. There may also be impact on
non-target species such as bees and frogs when biocides are used.

Chronic posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present. May
ecotoxicity cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.
Soil contamination can be a source of ecotoxicity.

posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present. Has
the potential to be highly persistent in the environment (for example the
Persistence
historically used organochlorine pesticides).
Most current biocides are short-lived but exceptions include atrazine
and other triazines.

posed by the individual biocides or phytopharmaceuticals present.
Bioaccumulation
Some active ingredients have the potential to accumulate in biota (for
example organochlorine pesticides), but these are no longer used.
Where are
the risks of
impacts most
likely? High Medium Medium Moderate N/A Low
Historical disposal of pesticide containers and wastes throughout rural Australia has left a
legacy of sites contaminated with a wide variety of pesticides. Below are three examples of
Has anything 14
impacts from pesticide use in Australia.
happened
Organochlorine pesticides in export beef
before in
Australia? A number of pesticide residue violations were identified in Australian beef product exported
to the USA in May 1987. The pesticides involved were the organochlorines, dieldrin and
heptachlor. The problems were caused by animals grazing contaminated pasture, ingesting

Waste name: Basel
contaminated feed or by being held in contaminated yards over a period of time. The
persistence of organochlorines in soils and the bioaccumulation of residues in their fat
tissues gave rise to eventual exceedances of maximum residue limits (MRL) and caused
violations, which threatened Australia's beef export industry worth in excess of two billion
dollars annually. Governments and industry responded quickly and significantly. The likely
sources of contamination were identified and controlled. The National Residue Survey (NRS)
was enhanced, a National Residue Data Base (NRDB) was established and a centralised
computer system interactive with abattoirs, laboratories and animal health authorities
developed. The cattle farm identity tail tag system already in place, capable of tracing cattle
15
to the farm of origin was refined and trace back systems for sheep and pigs were utilised.
Endosulfan (itself an OC pesticide) in cotton-growing
Records of fish kills in New South Wales and Queensland, from the 1970s to 1995, showed
that fish kills were reported more often in cotton growing areas and during the growing
season. Of the 98 total kills, 54% were from pesticides, with endosulfan implicated in almost
80% of these.
Brodifacoum, (active ingredient in “Ratsak”)
First used in Australia in the late 1970s, brodifacoum is a powerful anti-coagulant rodenticide
still widely used, although restricted to indoor applications. Brodifacoum is extremely toxic to
many mammals and birds. Due to its extreme persistence within both target and non-target
16
animals and the length of time to target death (3-18 days in mice) , brodifacoum presents a
high secondary poisoning risk. In the USA over 80% of anticoagulant deaths recorded in a
ten year period involved this toxin, with non-target species including squirrels, chipmunks,
16
racoons, deer, and opossums. In Australia secondary poisoning is typically limited to
domestic animals such as dogs and cats, but there are a number of suspected secondary
17
poisonings to predatory birds. Young and De Lai attributed a major decline in predatory
birds in North Queensland since 1992 to brodifacoum, coincident with its introduction to
control rodents. Species of owls and harrier declined substantially from the Herbert River
region in Queensland, with specimens found dead or dying with symptoms consistent with
18
anticoagulant poisoning.
Companies are licensed by State and Territories to discharge solutions

of low concern to trade waste. Hazardous materials are destroyed by
licensed contractors who offer a wide range of destruction technologies.
Industry and
Training and certification requirements apply in all states and territories
What control Government –
in Australia for users of agricultural chemical products, as well as
measures are systematic
mandatory licensing and permitting for users of these chemicals in
in place to controls
some states.
manage risks
Unwanted unused organochlorine pesticides are collected and
posed by this
destroyed under the ChemCollect programme funded by industry.
waste?
Industry – Exposure to concentrated materials in production, formulation or

exposure extraction is avoided through the use of containment, ventilation and
controls personal protective equipment.

Waste name: Basel
Workplace exposures and discharges to the environment are controlled
under State and territory legislation. The Globally Harmonized System
Government
for labelling facilitates decision-making in industries handling particular
substances.
The safe way to dispose of potentially hazardous household chemicals

(that may include pesticides) is through household collection events.
For example, in NSW, the Household Chemical CleanOut event is a
Community free service for the safe disposal of a range of household chemicals that
could cause harm to human health and the environment if they are not
disposed of correctly. CleanOut events are held at locations throughout
NSW on specified dates throughout the year.
1. Immig J. WWF-Australia and National Toxics Network (2010). A list of Australia’s most
dangerous pesticides. Accessed April 10, 2015 from:
http://awsassets.wwf.org.au/downloads/fs025_a_list_of_australias_most_
dangerous_pesticides_1jul10.pdf
2. Organochlorine pesticides typically include: aldrin, hexachlorobenzene, alpha BHC, beta
BHC, gamma BHC (lindane), delta BHC, chlordane, DDT, DDD, DDE, dieldrin, endrin, endrin
aldehyde, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, methoxychlor and endosulfan (includes
endosulfan I, endosulfan II and endosulfan sulphate)
3. Cancer Council Australia. Position statement – pesticide and cancer. Accessed April 10,
2015 from:
http://wiki.cancer.org.au/policy/Position_statement_-_Pesticides_and_cancer#
Appendix_1._Overview_of_pesticide_carcinogenicity_classifications
4. Weichenthal S, Moase C, Chan P. A review of pesticide exposure and cancer incidence in
the Agricultural Health Study cohort. Environ Health Perspect 2010 Aug; 118(8):1117-25.
[Abstract available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20444670]
5. Van Maele-Fabry G, Duhayon S, Lison D. A systematic review of myeloid leukemias and
occupational pesticide exposure. Cancer Causes Control 2007 Jun;18(5):457-78 [Abstract
available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17443416].
References 6. Van Maele-Fabry G, Duhayon S, Mertens C, Lison D. Risk of leukaemia among pesticide
manufacturing workers: a review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Environ Res 2008
Jan;106(1):121-37 [Abstract available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18028905].
7. Kross BC, Burmeister LF, Ogilvie LK, Fuortes LJ, Fu CM. Proportionate mortality study of
golf course superintendents. Am J Ind Med 1996 May;29(5):501-6 [Abstract available at
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8732923].
8. Littorin M, Attewell R, Skerfving S, Horstmann V, Möller T. Mortality and tumour morbidity
among Swedish market gardeners and orchardists. Int Arch Occup Environ Health
1993;65(3):163-9 [Abstract available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8282414].
9. MacFarlane E, Benke G, Del Monaco A, Sim MR. Cancer incidence and mortality in a
historical cohort of Australian pest control workers. Occup Environ Med 2009
Dec;66(12):818-23 [Abstract available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19553229].
10. MacFarlane E, Glass D, Fritschi L. Is farm-related job title an adequate surrogate for
pesticide exposure in occupational cancer epidemiology? Occup Environ Med 2009
Aug;66(8):497-501 [Abstract available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19221114].
11. Australian Rural Health Research Collaboration, Beard J. DDT and human health. Sci
Total Environ 2006 Feb 15;355(1-3):78-89 [Abstract available at
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15894351]
12. Cohn BA, Wolff MS, Cirillo PM, Sholtz RI. DDT and breast cancer in young women: new

Waste name: Basel
data on the significance of age at exposure. Environ Health Perspect 2007
Oct;115(10):1406-14 [Abstract available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17938728]
13. Calle EE, Frumkin H, Henley SJ, Savitz DA, Thun MJ. Organochlorines and breast
cancer risk. CA Cancer J Clin 2002 Sep;52(5):301-9 [Abstract available at:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12363327]
14. Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering. Pesticide use in
Australia (2002), p.138. Accessed April 10, 2015 from:
http://www.atse.org.au/Documents/Publications/Reports/Climate%20Change/
Pesticide%20Use%20in%20Aust%202002.pdf
15. Corrigan PJ, Seneviratna P (1990). Occurrence of organochlorine residues in Australian
meat. Australian Veterinary Journal, 1990 Feb; 67(2):56-8.
16. McLeod L and Saunders G, NSW Department of Primary Industries (2013). Pesticides
used in the Management of Vertebrate Pests in Australia: A Review. Accessed April 10, 2015
from: http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/486187/Pesticides-used-in-the-
management-of-vertebrate-pests-in-australia-a-review.pdf
17. Young J and De Lai L (1997). Population declines of predatory birds coincident with the
introduction of Klerat rodenticide in North Queensland. Aust Birdwatcher 17 (3): 161 – 167.
18. MP Biomedicals Australasia Pty Limited (2005). Dieldrin Material Safety Data Sheet.
Accessed April 10, 2015 from:
http://www.t3db.ca/system/msds/attachments/000/001/425/original/T3D0017.pdf
?1413587682
19. National Environment Protection Council (1999). National Pollutant Inventory Technical
Advisory Panel Final Report.
20. G.E. Totten, ed., Steel Heat Treatment: metallurgy and technologies (Boca Raton,
nd
Florida, 2007), 2 ed.
* Hazard score of >5.0 based on dieldrin, an organochlorine pesticide used up until the
1990s. This waste category is highly variable in hazard, because of the enormous number of
active ingredients that may be present. It would be expected that the majority of wastes in
this category arise from current-day product applications, which would generally have much
lower hazard potential. However there are still selected applications of very hazardous
pesticides in the present day, as well as limited occurrences of old stocks or contaminated
materials from past pesticide use.

3.5 Wastes from the manufacture, formulation and use of wood preserving
chemicals
Waste name:
Wastes from the manufacture, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of wood category:Y5 code: A4040 H170
preserving chemicals
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0
The timber preservatives copper, chromium and arsenic and arsenic

trioxide are used extensively to prevent damage caused by insects
(termites, borers, beetles), wood rot and wood fungus.
Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)-treated pine is the most common
type of treated timber in Australia and its uses include decks, garden
furniture, picnic tables, playground equipment, landscaping timbers,
retaining walls, fences, gazebos and patios. It is recognisable by its
green tinge, which fades with age.
Chromium and arsenic are the primary compounds of concern in this
category. Hexavalent compounds of chromium are reduced to the
trivalent form in the presence of oxidisable organic matter such as
timber and in living organisms - hence chromium’s role in timber
treatment.
CCA treated timber has the potential to generate leachate that
contains arsenic, chromium and copper pollutants. Hexavalent
Description of
chromium may arise if treatment solutions are overused, providing
the waste
opportunity for unreacted hexavalent chromium to be transferred to
What is it? humans or the environment early in the life of post treatment timber
products. Leachate management is of considerable concern when
timber treated with CCA is stockpiled in large amounts or when
disposed of to landfill.
CCA the chemical preservative, the leachate from CCA treated
timber, and products from the combustion of CCA treated
timber are classified as hazardous waste throughout Australia,
due to the concentration of these heavy metals. However, while
CCA treated timber is classified as hazardous waste in the EU,
CCA timber itself is not a controlled waste under the NEPM in
Australia; hence it may cross interstate borders without
1
tracking.
This category overlaps with Y21, Y22 and Y24, wastes of hexavalent
chromium, copper and arsenic compounds respectively.
In CCA formulations, copper acts as a fungicide, arsenic acts

Physical/ against insects and chromium fixes the chemicals in the timber to
chemical resist leaching.
description While Cr (III) is the predominant form of chromium in timber post
treatment Cr (VI) is readily released during the fixation period when

Waste name:
2
freshly treated timber is curing.
Waste CCA chemical preservative is present as liquid and CCA
treated timber product wastes are solid. Disposal of CCA wood
waste is a concern because burning produces toxic gases of these
treatment chemicals, Cr (III) is converted to toxic Cr (VI) during
2
combustion and landfilling leaches these heavy metals.

H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Primary hazard
or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
including carcinogenicity.

Why is it present or may present immediate or
hazardous? Secondary
H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
hazard
Main likely chemical contaminants Species of chromium, copper and arsenic.
Where does it Wood product manufacturing and other CCA timber preservation
Main sources
come from? processes.
Chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard, then the

How is it stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill.
Main fates
managed? Some reuse and recycling of CCA timber itself occurs and significant
1
stockpiling may occur .
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%
(% of national
Includes CCA chemical wastes – does not include
tonnes in 2013) 0.01%
How much is intact CCA treated timber
generated in
TOTAL: 570 ACT: 0 NSW: 9
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 206 SA: 304
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 31 WA: 20
Chromium (VI), as the potential worst case constituent of CCA

treatment wastes, has been chosen to reference specific health
impacts for this waste. The most common hazards of human
Overview
Potential health exposure to Cr (VI) compounds are irritation of the skin, eyes,
impacts mouth, throat, lungs and intestines. Acute poisoning, through
inhalation, can result in death. Cr (VI) is carcinogenic via inhalation.
Extreme: Very toxic and may be fatal by inhalation. Toxic if

Acute toxicity
swallowed or in contact with skin – contact causes severe skin burns

Waste name:
and allergic reactions and severe eye damage.
Low: May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated

exposure if inhaled, but the consequences of acute effects will be
Chronic toxicity most severe.
On the skin, chromic acid can cause chronic ulcers known as
‘chrome holes’.
High: Classified as “sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in

Carcinogenicity humans” and inhaled hexavalent chromium is a known human
carcinogen. Particularly with respect to lung cancer.
Reproductive High: Suspected of damaging fertility or the unborn child and may
toxicity cause genetic defects.
Exposure to CCA impregnation solutions could arise as the result of splashes or as

Workplace
contaminated dust or wood fragments/ shavings. Occupational exposure to hexavalent
health & safety
chromium has been associated with lung cancer and arsenic is also classed as a human
impacts
carcinogen.
There has been ongoing media and public interest in the use of CCA-treated timber and
the possible health risks it may present, particularly when used in settings where children
may be exposed. Published results of scientific studies indicate that copper, chromium and
arsenic slowly leach from CCA-treated timber products. All three metals pose a risk to
human health and the environment.
Population The Commonwealth Government body which registers chemicals for use, the Australian
scale impacts Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA), has released a draft report for
public comment reviewing the risk CCA-treated timber poses to the community. The
review found that at this stage it has insufficient information to be satisfied that continued
use of CCA treated timber is safe when used in the manufacture of structures where the
general community are likely to come in frequent close contact. As a result the APVMA is
proposing that such use no longer be permitted.
Chromium (VI), as the potential worst case constituent of CCA

treatment wastes, has been chosen to reference specific
environmental impacts for this waste. It can have a high to
moderate, acute toxic effect on plants, birds or land animals, and is
Overview very toxic to fish. This can mean death of animals, birds or fish and
death or low growth rate in plants. Chromium (VI) does not
Potential breakdown or degrade easily and there is a high potential for
environment accumulation of chromium (VI) in fish life.
impacts
Cr (VI) is highly mobile, soluble and bioavailable in the environment.
Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Very toxic to aquatic organisms.
Chronic Extreme: May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic

ecotoxicity environment.
Persistence Extreme: Very persistent in the environment.

Waste name:
Bioaccumulation High: Can accumulate in seafood.
risks of impacts
most likely? High Moderate Moderate Moderate N/A Low
A wood treatment plant using the Copper Chrome Arsenic process operated in Armidale,
NSW from approximately 1968 - 1980. Armidale papers had carried numerous reports of
spills and accidents at the site during its operation. The land was rezoned and developed
as a housing estate in the late 1980's. Onsite contamination of creosote was discovered
Has anything
during excavation activities for foundations of the first buildings, and follow up soil testing
happened
detected levels of arsenic up to 3800 ppm, chromium at 1950 ppm and copper at 1000
before in 3
ppm, plus very high levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
Australia?
The developer successfully sued the Council for breaching its duty of care in approving the
4
development of the land and was awarded $1,479,576 in damages and interest. This, and
other high profile cases of contaminated land in NSW, triggered new laws such as the
Contaminated Land Management Act 1997 (NSW).
The Australian environmental guidelines for copper chrome arsenate

timber preservation plants, was prepared jointly by the Australian
and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council
Industry – (ANZECC) and The Timber Preservers Association of Australia
systematic (TPAA). This was superseded by the Australian/ New Zealand
controls Standard AS/NZS 2843.2:2000 Timber preservation plant safety
code Part 2: Plant operation, which promotes the safe operation of
treatment plants and reduction of environmental and occupational
hazards.
Potential industrial sources of hexavalent chromium waste have

What control
strict emissions control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters,
measures are in
Industry – fume controls and dust extraction equipment, as well as stringent
place to
exposure trade waste emissions agreements. Additionally at-risk workers wear
manage risks
controls appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), particularly
posed by this
relating to restricting exposure to airborne sources of chromium and
waste?
arsenic.

disposal of all hazardous wastes, including this waste, through
Government licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.
Timber treatment companies are licensed by state environmental
regulators to control industrial processes and equipment so as to
limit environmental emissions of pollutants like chromium, copper
and arsenic.

Waste name:
The New Zealand Environmental Risk Management Authority
(ERMANZ) and the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines
Authority (APVMA) have suggested some common sense tips to
minimise unnecessary exposure to CCA-treated timber:
• Treated wood should never be burned in open fires, stoves,
Community fireplaces, or residential boilers.
• Always wash hands thoroughly after contact with any treated
wood, especially before eating and drinking.
• Food should not come into direct contact with any treated wood.
• Precautions should be taken to wear protective gear when
5
working with CCA-treated wood.
1. Environment Protection Authority South Australia (July 2008). Report on CCA treated
timber in South Australia. Accessed March 15, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/xstd_files/Waste/Report/cca.pdf
2. Environment Protection Authority South Australia (November 2004). Guideline 572/04:
Copper chromated arsenate (CCA) timber waste – storage and management. Accessed
March 15, 2015 from: http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/xstd_files/Waste/Guideline/guide_cca.pdf
3. Parliament of New South Wales, Hansard transcript 15 November 1991. Accessed
March 15, 2015 from:
http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LA19911115029
4. McGrath C, Mending holes in the green safety net. Precedent, Issue 113, November/
December 2012. .Accessed March 15, 2015 from:
http://envlaw.com.au/wp-content/uploads/green_safety_net.pdf
References 5. Environment Protection Authority New South Wales. Questions and answers on the
wood preservation industry. Accessed March 15, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/licensing/qaswood.htm#1
6. Beder S (2003). Timber Leachates Prompt Preservative Review. Engineers Australia
75(6), June 2003, pp. 32-4. Accessed March 15, 2015 from:
https://www.uow.edu.au/~sharonb/cca.html
7. Website, accessed March 15, 2015 from:
http://baddevelopers.nfshost.com/Docs/treatedtimber.htm#Treatment
8. Australian Government Department of the Environment. National Pollutant Inventory
Fact Sheet – Chromium VI compounds. Accessed March 14, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/chromium-vi-compounds

3.6 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of organic solvent
Waste name:
Wastes from the production, Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
formulation and use of organic category:Y6 code: A3140 G160
solvent
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9
Organic solvents are simply liquid organic chemicals that have the
ability to dissolve other substances. This usually assists their role in
an industrial application, such as cleaning and degreasing.
Solvents have three principal areas of use; as cleaning agents, as a
raw material or feedstock in the production and manufacture of other
substances, and as a carrying and/or dispersion medium in chemical
synthetic processes.
Description of Wastes deriving from solvents and their use may be either:
the waste
• relatively clean, derived from cleaning and washing processes
• inclusive of other reaction products and by products – from
synthesis/manufacture of other substances
• highly aqueous wastes, from chemical processes, washing and
extractions or
• be present as sludges from manufacturing by products, recycling
What is it?
residues and residues from cleaning processes.
Typically liquid but

Waste form
may include sludges
Many organic substances exhibit solvent type properties. Solvents

display a very wide range of properties and characteristics. Many
are flammable, some highly flammable, many are volatile and
evaporate quite rapidly to give off vapours. Such vapours may be
toxic or flammable - flammable vapours in confined spaces can be
explosive.
Physical/
Organic solvents include aliphatic hydrocarbons such as naphtha
chemical
solvents, aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and xylenes,
description
alcohols, glycols, epoxides, ketones and aldehydes. This category
does not include those solvents and their wastes that contain
halogens in their structure, such as fluorine, chlorine and bromine,
as these compounds may have different toxicity characteristics.
Halogenated organic solvents and their wastes are described by
Y41.
The word ‘flammable’ has the same

meaning as ‘inflammable’. Flammable
Why is it H3: Flammable liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or
Primary hazard
hazardous? liquids liquids containing solids in solution or
suspension (for example, paints, varnishes,
lacquers, etc, but not including substances

Waste name:
solvent
or wastes otherwise classified on account of
their dangerous characteristics) which give
off flammable vapour at temperatures of not
more than 60.5°C, closed-cup test, or not
more than 65.6°C, open-cup test.


Other solvents, organic chemicals,

Main likely chemical contaminants petroleum residues, heavy metals, greases,
dirt.
Organic and Inorganic chemical manufacturing, fertiliser

Where does it manufacturing, agrichemical formulation, motor vehicle
Main sources
come from? manufacturing, adhesives manufacturing, metal coating and
finishing, printing.
Waste solvents are often subject to reclamation, with any residues

How is it
Main fates sent to energy recovery processes such as incineration or
managed?
hazardous waste landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.19%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 11,195 SA: 26
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 44 Vic: 1,705 WA: 0
Some organic solvents (such as benzene) have been replaced with

other substances due to their carcinogenic properties, which is a
primary health concern for these types of wastes Other toxic
Overview properties can be varied, and include being narcotic and possibly
Potential health mutagenic or teratogenic.
impacts
The flammability risk also heightens the care in which this waste
should be handled.
Low - medium: Harmful if swallowed – may cause lung damage.

Acute toxicity
Vapours may cause drowsiness and dizziness. Acute effects may

Waste name:
solvent
also range from an alcohol-like intoxication to narcosis (stupor or
insensibility) which may lead to unconsciousness.
May be irritating to skin.
Low - medium: Both short and long term exposure to certain

organic solvents has been found to be harmful to the kidney.
Chronic toxicity
Petroleum distillates, for example, gasoline, jet fuel and turpentine,
are among the most toxic.
High: Some organic solvents may cause cancer and heritable

genetic damage. Benzene is the main organic solvent which has
Carcinogenicity
definitively been proven to cause cancer in humans from industrial
use – the main cancer being leukaemia.
Reproductive Low: Limited evidence of reproductive impacts – possible risk of

toxicity impaired fertility.
Workplace
Inhalation is usually the most significant route of entry by which organic solvents enter the
health & safety
human body at work. Poor hygiene practices could result in skin absorption.
impacts
Most non-industrial applications of benzene, a natural constituent of crude oil and one of
the most elementary petrochemicals, have been limited by benzene’s carcinogenicity.
However, significant primary exposure occurs routinely in everyday activities, particularly
relating to petrol (gasoline) or other fossil fuel use. These include petrol vapour exposure
Population at fuel outlets, burning coal and oil, motor vehicle exhaust, cigarette smoke, wood burning
scale impacts fires, some adhesives and low concentrations in ambient air from all of these sources.
Population exposure studies from any particular exposure pathway have proved difficult to
ascribe health effects to a particular source/ activity due to the range of confounding
variables. However, epidemiologic studies provide clear evidence of a causal association
between exposure to benzene and a number of forms of leukaemia.
Organic solvents are highly toxic to aquatic environments. The risk

Overview of subsequent fire in the environment from a spill of this waste would
also have broader environmental impacts.
Potential Acute ecotoxicity High: Toxic to aquatic organisms.

environment
Chronic Extreme: May cause long-term adverse impacts in the aquatic
impacts
Persistence Low.
Bioaccumulation Low.
risks of impacts
most likely? High Medium Medium Moderate High Low
Has anything The contaminated site industry in Australia, in terms of identification, testing, classifying

Waste name:
solvent
happened and remediating legacy waste impacts to land, was borne out of ground pollution from
before in organic solvents or, more particularly, petroleum fuel leakages from underground storage
Australia? tanks. Thousands of contaminated sites have been registered by environmental regulators
across Australia and are in various stages of identification, quantification, remediation and
clean up.
Companies that handle organic solvents and their wastes are

Industry –
licensed by environmental regulators to control industrial processes
systematic
and equipment so as to limit environmental emissions of these
controls
pollutants.
Potential industrial sources of organic solvent waste have strict

emissions control and chemical handling equipment and systems in
Industry –
place. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate personal
What control exposure
protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to restricting
measures are in controls
exposure to airborne sources of, and skin contact with, solvents and
place to
their wastes.
manage risks
posed by this Regulatory levels are set by state and territory government agencies
waste? for exposure of workers to a range of volatile organic substances.
Government
Similar controls for emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
exist on companies through environmental licensing regimes.
Labels and containers of consumer products are required to carry

Community advice on safe handling of the contents, although components are
seldom identified.
1. UNEP (2002). Basel Convention. Technical Guidelines on Hazardous Waste from the
Production and Use of Organic Solvents (Y6). Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.basel.int/Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/meetings/sbc/
workdoc/old%20docs/tech-y6.pdf
2. Shell Trading International Ltd (2011). Naphtha (petroleum), solvent-refined light
Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.shell.com/content/dam/shell-new/local/corporate/trading-shipping/downloads
References /msds/in-country/uk-stasco/mogas-naphtha-petroleum-solvent-refined-light-cas-64741-
84-0---stil---en.pdf
3. National Occupational Health and Safety Commission (1990). Australian Government.
Industrial Organic Solvents. Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/157/
IndustrialOrganicSolvents_1990_PDF.pdf
4. US EPA. TEACH Chemical Summary – Benzene. Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.gov/teach/chem_summ/BENZ_summary.pdf

3.7 Wastes from heat treatment and tempering operations containing
cyanides
Waste name:
Wastes from heat treatment and Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
tempering operations containing category:Y7 code: A4050 A110
cyanides
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9 >5.0
Molten inorganic salts used to ‘case harden’ or ‘face harden’ iron or

Description of low-carbon steel or to control temperature in the tempering process.
the waste There is overlap between this category and Y32 wastes (inorganic
What is it? cyanides).
Waste form Solid
A mixture of a cyanide (typically potassium cyanide) and a

Physical/
carbonate (typically potassium carbonate or barium carbonate),
chemical
partly decomposed due to strong heating. Inorganic cyanides CASR
description
57-12-5.

Primary hazard

Secondary
Why is it hazard
hazardous? effects upon biotic systems.
Solids, or waste solids, other than those

classed as explosives, which under
H4.1: Flammable
Other hazard(s) conditions encountered in transport are
solids
readily combustible, or may cause or
contribute to fire through friction.
Main likely chemical contaminants Inorganic cyanides
Objects were case hardened by immersion in the molten mixture at

o
Where does it about 700 C. The bath is used repeatedly until depleted of cyanide,
Main sources
come from? the most active ingredient. Process no longer used in Australia, so
limited industrial sources of this waste.
After cooling the solid is either broken up and disposed of as solid

How is it
Main fates hazardous waste or dissolved in water for subsequent treatment to
managed?
render it non-hazardous.
How much is Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

generated in (% of national
Australia? tonnes in 2013) 0.0002%

Waste name:
cyanides
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 13 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 0
This process is no longer used in Australia so there are no

implications for human or environmental health. Cyanides are highly
toxic if ingested or inhaled and can be absorbed through the skin.
Solid cyanides in contact with acids are converted to gaseous
Overview
hydrogen cyanide and exposure can occur via this route (Eight hour
3
time weighted exposure limit 11 mg/m . Other uses of cyanide may
result in its release to waterways where it can pose a hazard to
Potential health human health and environmental species.
impacts
Acute toxicity Extreme: Very high acute toxicity.
Low - medium: Long term exposure to low levels of cyanide may

Chronic toxicity
cause deafness, vision problems and loss of muscle coordination.
Carcinogenicity Cyanides are not known to be carcinogenic.
Reproductive
Cyanides do not exhibit reproductive toxicity.
toxicity
Workplace This process is no longer used in Australia so there are no implications for human or
health & safety environmental health. Other processes using cyanides, such as electroplating or gold
impacts recovery may cause exposure to cyanides.
Population This process is no longer used in Australia so there are no implications for human or
scale impacts environmental health but other uses of cyanide may cause such impacts.
This process is no longer used in Australia so there are no

Overview implications for human or environmental health. However, other
uses of cyanide may result in its release to waterways.
Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Cyanides have high toxicity to animal species.

Potential
environment Chronic
Low: Cyanides can exhibit chronic effect on aquatic organisms.
impacts ecotoxicity
Low: A number of environmental processes destroy cyanides so

Persistence
they cannot be regarded as persistent.
Bioaccumulation Cyanides are not bioaccumulative.
risks of impacts
most likely? High Medium Medium Moderate N/A Low
Has anything
No incidents reported in recent years.
happened

Waste name:
cyanides
before in
Australia?
Industry –
systematic Past users were well-versed in safe handling of cyanides.
controls
What control
Industry – Since the process is no longer used in Australia there are no specific
measures are in
exposure controls. Controls exist for other uses of cyanide such as in
place to
controls electroplating and gold recovery.
manage risks
posed by this
waste? Government Workplace regulatory levels are in place.
Community exposure to cyanide used in gold recovery can occur

Community where cyanide is present in tailings that are discharged to tailings
dams.
1 G.E. Totten, ed., Steel Heat Treatment: metallurgy and technologies (Boca Raton,
nd
Florida, 2007), 2 ed.
2. Cyanide – information on handling, storage and first aid (2014):
www.commerce.wa.gov.au/publications/cyanide-information-storage-handling-and-first-
References aid.
3. S.P. Ayodeji, T.E. Aboye and S.O. Olanrewaju, Investigation of Surface Hardness of
Steels in Cyanide Salt Bath Heat Treatment Process, Proceedings of the International
MultiConferenceof Engineers and Computer Scientists 2011Vol II, IMECS 2011.

3.8 Waste mineral oils unfit for their originally intended use
Waste name:
Waste mineral oils unfit for their category:Y8 code: A3020 J100
originally intended use
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8
Waste mineral oils are used lubricating oils come from industrial and
Description of
domestic vehicle engines and machinery, and can be reclaimed or
the waste
recovered and recycled for other uses.
Predominantly liquid
What is it?
but also includes oily
Waste form rags (solid) and
contaminated
greases.
Physical/
Liquid, black and viscous material with, petroleum odour. May
chemical
present as solids in the form of oily rags or used oil filters.
description

liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or
liquids containing solids in solution or
H3: Flammable
Primary hazard lacquers, etc., but not including substances
liquids
‘Spreading' potential to blanket environmental media, such as

Why is it Secondary
surface waters, when spilled, causing environmental impacts related
hazardous? hazard
to ‘oiling’ of animals and oxygen depletion of impacted waters.

Other hazard(s) Substances or wastes which if released
Main likely chemical contaminants Iron, manganese and heavy metals.
Mining; manufacturing (various, including food, petroleum & metal

Where does it
Main sources coating), transport; retail (vehicle servicing shops) and the waste
come from?
sector.

Waste name:
Waste oils are usually either reused or recycled (re-refined but may
How is it
Main fates also be composted or sent to some other form of biodegradation.
managed?
They may also be combusted for energy recovery.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 3.35%
TOTAL: 240,630 ACT: 1,510 NSW: 29,449
NT: 1,392 Qld: 72,504 SA: 1,267

How much is
generated in Tas: Not available Vic: 23,413 WA: 111,096
Australia?
Waste arising in These estimates are taken from jurisdictional tracking data collected as part of
2013 (tonnes) Australia’s Basel 2013 report. These numbers appear to be an underestimate, in part
due to regulatory exemption from tracking in NSW and potential exemption in Victoria,
but also due to the fact that Tas, NT and ACT have no tracking system and rely on
Controlled Waste NEPM data. No reliable data is available for Tasmania, given its
exports of oils are very low and expected to be dwarfed by management options within
Tasmania.
In addition to being a fire hazard, exposure to waste oils may give

Overview
rise to acute or chronic health impacts.
Low – medium: High vapour or mist concentrations may be harmful

if inhaled. High concentrations of vapour or mist may irritate the
Acute toxicity
respiratory tract (nose, throat, and lungs). Direct contact may cause
irritation to skin or eyes. May be harmful or fatal if swallowed.
Low – medium: Prolonged or repeated inhalation of oil mist may

cause oil pneumonia, lung tissue inflammation, and/or fibrous tissue
formation. Prolonged or repeated eye contact may cause
Potential health Chronic toxicity
inflammation of the membrane lining the eyelids and covering the
impacts
eyeball. Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause drying,
cracking, redness, itching, and/or swelling.
High: Contains substances that are known carcinogens. There may

be hydrocarbon and chlorinated solvents; metals, and polynuclear
Carcinogenicity aromatic hydrocarbons present which are listed as known, probable,
or possible carcinogens.
Risk of cancer depends on duration and level of exposure.
Reproductive High: Repeated exposure may impair fertility or cause harm to the
toxicity unborn child.
Common exposure risk to workers involved in motor vehicle or other mechanical repairs,
Workplace machine shops and maintenance of industrial machinery. Inhalation is a significant route of
health & safety entry into the body at work, most likely to contribute to chronic impacts. Skin contact is a
impacts more likely form of entry for acute effects - poor hygiene practices could result in skin
absorption.

Waste name:
Oil spills at sea have occurred throughout history with catastrophic
impacts on local ecosystems. The infamous Exxon Valdez oil tanker
incident in Alaska in 1989 was shocking in terms of both its scale
and its impact. Immediate effects were over 100,000 birds and
1
mammals were killed and 16,000 – 21,000 gallons were estimated
to still remain on surrounding beaches as recently as 2014, 25 years
Overview 2
later.
Dissolved oxygen starvation is a symptom of high organic loading of
waters, such as occurs with oil spills, which effects fish populations
both as a physical surface barrier to the atmosphere and from
Potential unnaturally active biochemical processes in response to degradation
environment of the organic waste discharge.
impacts High: Oils can cause devastating physical effects such as coating
animals and plants with oil and suffocating them by oxygen
Acute ecotoxicity
depletion, foul shorelines, clog water treatment plants and catch fire
when ignition sources are present.
Chronic High: Can destroy future and existing food supplies, breeding
ecotoxicity animals and habitats.
Medium: Oils will biodegrade in the environment, the rate

Persistence dependent on the type of oil spilled, but can form products that linger
in the environment for many years.
Bioaccumulation Low: Does not bioaccumulate in fish.
risks of impacts
Spills of oils can occur on a scale varying from a vehicle or truck sized accident or spill
incident, all the way through to oil tanker spills at sea. In either case the environmental
damage that can result is due to oil’s immiscibility with water, and its consequent tendency
to spread across large distances by blanketing the surface of waterways.
While there have been no oil spill environmental disasters of the scale of the Exxon
Valdez, Australia has a large oil industry and there have been several large oil spills.
3
Has anything Three examples are described here.
happened Kirki oil tanker spill (WA, 1991)
before in
On 21 July 1991, the Greek tanker Kirki lost its bow off the coast of Western Australia
Australia?
(WA). During the incident and the subsequent tow of the tanker to a safe haven some
17,280 tonnes of light crude was lost. Serious pollution of the West Australian coast was
avoided due to the dual combination of severe weather conditions and the effects of the
Leeuwin Current in dispersing the 7,900 tonnes of oil lost during the initial stages of the
spill off Cervantes and Jurien Bay.
The response to the Kirki spill involved in excess of 100 experts in salvage, pollution
clean-up and emergency response. In addition, to supplement existing stockpiles,

Waste name:
significant quantities of equipment from Brisbane, Geelong and Port Adelaide were moved
by air and road to Perth, Fremantle, Jurien Bay and Dampier (for the cargo transfer
process) at very short notice.
This was Australia’s largest oil spill at sea, by volume.
Montara Wellhead Platform spill (WA, 2009)

On Friday 21 August 2009, the Montara Wellhead mobile drilling unit located 140 miles
offshore from the NW Australian coast, had an uncontrolled release of hydrocarbons from
one of the platform wells. Consequently oil escaped to the surface and gaseous
hydrocarbons escaped into the atmosphere.
It was estimated that 64 tonnes per day (400 barrels) of crude oil were initially being lost,
amounting to 4,750 tonnes in total. The leak continued until 3 November 2009 and
response operations continued until the well was capped on 3 December 2009 (105 days).
A total of 844,000 litres of product was recovered. It is estimated that some 493,000 litres
of this oil-water mixture was oil.
Conservation group WWF described this as “Australia’s worst oil spill.”
MV Pacific Adventurer spill (Qld, 2009)

In March 2009, the 2009 southeast Queensland oil spill occurred, when 230 tonnes of fuel
oil, 30 tonnes of other fuel and 31 shipping containers containing 620 tonnes of
ammonium nitrate spilled from the MV Pacific Adventurer into the Coral Sea, north of
Moreton Bay during Cyclone Hamish. Over the following days, the spill washed ashore
along 60 km of coastline encompassing the Sunshine Coast, Moreton Bay, Bribie Island
and Moreton Island. Queensland Premier Anna Bligh described the spill as "worst
environmental disaster Queensland has ever seen". It took over 1,425 people 16 months
to clean up the affected areas at a total cost of $4 million.
Industries that handle or store significant amounts of waste oils are

licensed by environmental regulators to control industrial processes,
Industry –
tanks and equipment to prevent environmental emissions.
systematic
The waste oil recycling industry has operated within the Product
controls
Stewardship for Oil Program (PSO) (see ‘Government’ below) for
over a decade.
What control
measures are in
place to
manage risks Potential industrial sources of these wastes have strict emissions
Industry –
posed by this control equipment, site engineering and contingency plans in place.
exposure
waste? Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate personal protective
controls
equipment (PPE), relating to inhalation of oil mists and skin contact.
The Product Stewardship for Oil Program (PSO) was introduced by

Government the Australian Government in 2001 to provide incentives to increase
used oil recycling. The Program aims to encourage the

Waste name:
environmentally sustainable management and re-refining of used oil
and its re-use. The arrangements comprise a levy-benefit system,
where an 8.5 cents per litre levy on new oil, helps fund benefit
payments to used oil re-refiners and recyclers. These arrangements
provide incentives to increase used oil recycling and re-refining in
the Australian community.
In terms of marine oil spills, more stringent laws, rules, and
guidelines, and increased vigilance by industry and regulators—has
reduced accidental spills, at least in developed countries. For
instance, studies of tanker spills have prompted regulations for the
steady, ongoing replacement of single-hulled tankers in the world
4
fleet with double-hulled tankers.
Cars, trucks, farm machines and boats all need regular lubricating oil
changes. It takes only one litre of oil to contaminate one million litres
of water and a single automotive oil change produces 4 to 5 litres of
used oil.
Community
By pouring your used oil back into an empty oil container and taking
it to your local used oil facility for recycling (which can be located by
contacting your local council), you are helping to conserve a
valuable resource and protect the environment.
1. Graham, S (2003). Environmental Effects of Exxon Valdez Spill Still Being Felt.
Scientific American.
2. PBS Newshour article, March 24, 2014. 25 years later, scientists still spot traces of oil
from Exxon Valdez spill. Accessed 23 April, 2015 from:
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/25-years-later-scientists-remember-exxon-valdez-
spill/#the-rundown
3. Australian Government, Australian Maritime Safety Authority. Major historical incidents.
References Accessed 23 April, 2015 from:
https://www.amsa.gov.au/environment/major-historical-incidents/
4. Farrington, J and McDowell, J. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Mixing Oil and
Water: Tracking the sources and impacts of oil pollution in the marine environment.
Oceanus Magazine, Vol. 43, No.1, November 2004. Accessed 23 April 2015 from:
http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/mixing-oil-and-water
5. 'Used oil' MSDS: Accessed 23 April 2015 from:
http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/asp/pdf/06_0022_response_to_submissions_part_2.pdf

3.9 Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures, emulsions
Waste name:
Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water category:Y9 code: A4060 J120
mixtures, emulsions
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0
This category describes the core waste Y8 (waste oils) in the context
of mixtures with water, which may result in high water content with
residual levels of oil contamination and mixtures of hydrocarbon
materials and water (oily water), or mixtures of same that have
formed an emulsion – oil droplets dispersed (but not dissolved) in
Description of water (the continuous phase).
the waste
This category describes oil contents in water up to a maximum of
50% oil and typically substantially below this.
What is it? Wastes include truck and vehicle washwaters, skimmer and
interceptor waters, vehicle coolant waters and potentially shipping
bilge water.
Waste form Liquid
Oil has similar properties and risks to the environment as a

‘contaminant’ in water than it does as a neat material. However, oily
waters may not be as obviously tainted, which could result in
Physical/
ingestion risks of oil products (for human health) and dissolved
chemical
oxygen impacts in the marine environment.
description
Oil and water emulsions cause oil to sink and disappear from the
surface, giving the visual illusion that it is gone and the threat to the
environment has ended.
Primary hazard
hazard or hazardous which possesses any other hazardous
material characteristics.

Why is it including carcinogenicity.
hazardous?
Oils, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, other

organic pollutants.
Metal ore and petroleum mining, metal processing and refining,

Where does it
Main sources aircraft maintenance, fossil fuel electricity supply, vehicle wash
come from?
services (retail), vehicle servicing (retail).

Waste name:
mixtures, emulsions
Chemical/ physical and biological treatment to remove the
How is it hydrocarbon content, then the water is reused or recycled for
Main fates
managed? another purpose. Some wastewaters are discharged to sewer under
regulatory agreements.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 5.79%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 416,523 ACT: 1,554 NSW: 97,481
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 489 Qld: 195,079 SA: 3,903
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 64 Vic: 63,866 WA: 54,088
This overview and component assessment of potential human

Overview health impacts from oily waters is based on the risks associated with
the oil component of the mixture or emulsion.
Acute toxicity Low – medium: May be harmful or fatal if swallowed.
Low – medium: Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause

Chronic toxicity
drying, cracking, redness, itching, and/or swelling.
Medium: Oil component contains substances that are known

Potential health
carcinogens. There may be hydrocarbon and chlorinated solvents;
impacts
metals, and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons present which are
listed as known, probable, or possible carcinogens.
Carcinogenicity
Risk of cancer depends on duration and level of exposure but also
route of exposure, since lwater contaminated with low levels of oil is
more likely to be swallowed than neat oil, particularly if it is from
contamination of a drinking water supply.
Reproductive High: Repeated exposure may impair fertility or cause harm to the
toxicity unborn child.
Common exposure risk to workers involved in motor vehicle or other mechanical repairs,
Workplace
machine shops and maintenance of industrial machinery. Skin contact is a likely form of
health & safety
entry for acute effects - poor hygiene practices could result in skin absorption of
impacts
contaminants in water.
This overview and component assessment of potential

environmental impacts from oily waters is based on the risks
associated with the oil component of the mixture or emulsion.
Potential
Dissolved oxygen starvation is a symptom of high organic loading of
environment Overview
waters, such as occurs with spills of oil-laden wastewaters, which
impacts
effects fish populations due to unnaturally active biochemical
processes in response to degradation of the waste discharge, which
is high in biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

Waste name:
mixtures, emulsions
Low: While oils can cause devastating physical effects such as
Acute ecotoxicity coating animals and plants with oil, oily waters have more subtle
effects more likely to be chronic.
Chronic High: Can destroy future and existing food supplies, breeding
ecotoxicity animals and habitats.
Medium: Oils will biodegrade in the environment, the rate

Persistence dependent on the type of oil spilled, but can form products that linger
in the environment for many years.
Bioaccumulation Low: Does not bioaccumulate in fish.
risks of impacts
No oily water incidents identified in Australia, but diffuse pollution of waterways with oil/
Has anything
water mixtures occurs every day, through stormwater run-off that includes millions of oil
happened
drips and leaks from vehicles, unburnt fuels in engine exhausts washed out of the
before in
atmosphere in rain and leaked fuel-contaminated waters from outboard engines of small
Australia?
boats and pleasure craft.
Industries that collect significant amounts of oil contaminated waters

are licensed by environmental regulators to control industrial
Industry – processes, tanks and equipment to prevent environmental
systematic emissions.
What control
measures are in controls These waters are typically recycled after oil separation through
place to technologies such as flotation separation, filtration, ultrafiltration and
manage risks reverse osmosis.
posed by this
waste?
Government place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
1. Farrington, J and McDowell, J. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Mixing Oil and
Water: Tracking the sources and impacts of oil pollution in the marine environment.
Oceanus Magazine, Vol. 43, No.1, November 2004. Accessed 23 April 2015 from:
http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/mixing-oil-and-water
2. 'Used oil' MSDS: Accessed 23 April 2015 from:
References http://www.planning.nsw.gov.au/asp/pdf/06_0022_response_to_submissions_part_2.pdf
3. Australian Government. Water for the Future. Water Treatment and Reuse. Accessed
24 April 2015 from:
http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/73c2bfb0-2879-4915-b744-
90d7169cc192/files/weo-water-treatment-and-reuse.pdf

3.10 Waste substances and articles containing or contaminated with
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and/or polychlorinated terphenyls
(PCTs) and/or polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)
Waste name:
Waste substances and articles
containing or contaminated with Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
category:Y10 code: A3180 M100
and/or polychlorinated terphenyls
(PCTs) and/or polybrominated
biphenyls (PBBs)
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9
Polychlorinated biphenyls were removed from service in the 1980s

and 1990s, but there remained paraffin oil contaminated with
Description of
commercial polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) mixtures.
the waste
What is it? Polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) and polybrominated biphenyls
(PBBs) are not known to have been used in Australia.
Waste form Liquid
Physical/
High boiling point dilute solution of the chlorinated substances in
chemical
paraffin oil.
description

Primary hazard H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment

Why is it The word ‘flammable’ has the same

hazardous? meaning as ‘inflammable’. Flammable
H3: Flammable
Other hazard(s) lacquers, etc., but not including substances
liquids
Main likely chemical contaminants Commercial PCB mixture.
Where does it The waste was generated in the electricity industry where PCBs
Main sources
come from? were used as insulating and heat-conducting fluids in transformers

Waste name:
biphenyls (PBBs)
and other electrical installations. Starting in the late 1980s the
equipment was drained and refilled with paraffin oil. Because PCBs
were not completely removed, the result was a solution of PCBs in
paraffin oil. PCBs were also used in small items such as capacitors
and fluorescent-lighting ballasts.
PCBs have been shown to be present in materials such as caulking
compounds in Europe but data are lacking for this potential source of
waste in Australia.
Under a national PCB Management Plan introduced in 1996 the

contaminated oil has been removed and PCBs and other
contamination (or more usually the whole mixture) has been
How is it
Main fates destroyed. In 2004 the substance was listed under the Stockholm
managed?
Convention on persistent organic pollutants (to which Australia is a
signatory). Strict requirements placed on use, import, and
destruction.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.06%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 168 Qld: 1,556 SA: 27
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 22 Vic: 308 WA: 7
Toxic by skin contact or inhalation of fumes. PCBs are almost

ubiquitous in the Australian environment, being present in low
Overview concentrations in fish, animal fats (including butter) and in personal
body-burdens although no health effects can be attributed explicitly
to their presence in diet.
Potential health Acute toxicity Low: PCBs can produce skin pigmentation and affect liver function.
impacts
High: May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated
Chronic toxicity
exposure.
Carcinogenicity Extreme: Listed as a likely carcinogen.
Reproductive
Low – medium: Possible reproductive toxin.
toxicity
Workplace
health & safety Personal protective equipment required.
impacts

Waste name:
biphenyls (PBBs)
No impact on broader population. PCBs may have been used as components of caulking
Population
compounds with subsequent slow release to the environment. This has been
scale impacts
demonstrated in Europe but not in Australia.
Toxic to marine organisms and to other species who are exposed in

Overview
the food chain.
Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: PCBs are acutely toxic to aquatic organisms.

Potential
Chronic Extreme: PCBs are developmental and reproductive toxins in most
environment
ecotoxicity animal species.
impacts
Persistence Extreme: PCBs are persistent, with half-lives greater than 10 years.
Extreme: PCBs are bioaccumulative and concentrations undergo

Bioaccumulation
biomagnification up the food chain.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low
Release to the environment before the impact of bans on the use of PCBs and the
Has anything
implementation of the PCB Management Plan have resulted in very low level
happened
contamination of the environment and contributions to the chemical body burden of
before in
Australians. The substance has a long half-life and so concentrations are decreasing
Australia?
slowly.
Industry – Industry has complied with the specifications of the PCB

systematic management plan for effective management and destruction of PCB
controls wastes.
Industry –
Personal protective equipment and waste-handling by licensed
What control exposure
companies.
measures are controls
in place to PCBs are listed under the Stockholm Convention on persistent
manage risks organic pollutants, to which Australia is a signatory. States and
posed by this Government
territories control the tracking and reporting of PCB waste under
waste? auspices of the national PCB Management Plan (1996).
The PCB Management Plan was developed through consultation

with representatives of environment groups, industries involved in
Community
the production, use and destruction of hazardous wastes, and
governments.
1. Polychlorinated Biphenyls management Plan, revised 2003:

References www.nepc.gov.au/system/files/resources/

Waste name:
biphenyls (PBBs)
2. States and territories control the tracking and reporting of PCB waste. For
example, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) management (EPA Victoria, 2009):
www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/IWRG643%201.pdf.

3.11 Waste tarry residues arising from refining, distillation and any pyrolytic
treatment
Waste name:
Waste tarry residues arising from Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
refining, distillation and any pyrolytic category:Y11 code: A3190 J160
treatment
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 -4.9
Description of The waste consists of high-boiling material remaining after volatile

the waste substances have been removed.
What is it? Viscous liquid or

Waste form
gummy solid.
The main components are high molecular weight hydrocarbons,

Physical/
often polymeric in nature, but oxygenated species may also be
chemical
present and impurities such as black carbon and heavy metals may
description
be present, together with compounds of sulphur and phosphorus.

Primary hazard

Secondary
hazardous? H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
hazard
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)

and heavy metals.
Tarry residues are produced in the refining of petroleum, re-refining

Where does it
Main sources of lubricating oils, production of metallurgical coke or town gas by
come from?
pyrolysis of coal.
Much of the material is disposed of by combustion, with subsequent

disposal of ash to landfill after appropriate treatment. Some has
How is it
Main fates been used as road-making material. Past use for production of
managed?
carbon black pigment. Spills and leaks at gasworks have resulted in
contaminated sites.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
How much is
tonnes in 2013) 0.38%
generated in
Australia? TOTAL: 27,599 ACT: 0 NSW: 8,612
Waste arising in
2013 (tonnes) NT: 19 Qld: 178 SA: 18,628

Waste name:
treatment
Tas: 19 Vic: 132 WA: 12
Public exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated by

combustion processes including automobile exhausts, tobacco
smoking and uncontrolled combustion is widespread. Consequently
most exposure to PAHs is from fine particulate matter that is more
readily inhaled or ingested. That is not the case with tarry matter,
which poses risks from direct contact with the material or with soil
contaminated with it. In the workplace, naphthalene is taken as the
Overview
indicator component with an eight hour time weighted exposure limit
of 10 ppm with short term exposure not to exceed 15 ppm. The
-9
Australian Drinking Water Quality Guideline is 10x10 g/L for the
Potential health potent carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene.
impacts Heavy metals such as zinc, copper, cobalt and others are often
present in tarry matter, especially coal tar. The hazards associated
with these components of tarry matter are described in other profiles.
Acute toxicity Low: Phenols present in the mixture can cause skin irritation.
High: Various components of the PAH mixture are known or

Chronic toxicity
suspected carcinogens with long term irreversible effects.
Carcinogenicity Extreme: The PAH mixture includes known carcinogens.
Reproductive
Low: There is no evidence of reproductive toxicity.
toxicity
Workplace
health & safety Personal protective equipment.
impacts
Population
No widespread impacts
scale impacts
Most exposure to PAHs is from fine particulate matter that is more

Overview readily inhaled or ingested. Low risk because the viscosity of the
tarry residue material limits its dispersal to and in the environment.
Extreme: The PAH mixture is toxic to marine organisms and birds.

Dispersal of tarry matter into the environment, especially into water,
Acute ecotoxicity
Potential would pose the same threat as an oil spill from a production well,
environment storage or transport would be.
impacts
Chronic Insufficient data are available for chronic effects on environmental
ecotoxicity species.
Extreme: The PAHs are persistent and only slowly degraded in the
Persistence
environment.
Bioaccumulation Extreme: PAHs are known to be bioaccumulative.

Waste name:
treatment
Where are the
risks of
impacts most
Sites in Australia where town gas was produced from coal have been heavily
Has anything
contaminated by tarry matter. During remediation of the sites the tarry matter containing
happened
PAHs and heavy metals was removed to secure landfills. A recent example (2012-2014)
before in
is remediation of the site of the Toowoomba, Qld, gasworks
Australia?
(www.thiess.com.au/projects/toowoomba-gasworks-remediation-project/detail.
Industry –
No systematic controls of industrial management of tarry wastes
systematic
have been identified.
controls
What control Industry – Appropriate PPE is used by workers in the sampling, removal and
measures are exposure remediation of sites contaminated with tarry residue waste.
manage risks
State and territory environment agencies require residues destined
posed by this
Government for secure landfill as hazardous waste to be solidified and to meet
waste?
specifications for content and leachability of hazardous components.
The tarry materials are industrial wastes that the community is not
Community
normally exposed to.
1. Management of Coal Tar Waste and Coal Tar Contaminated Soils and Sediment (2002):
www.dec.ny.gov/regulations/2594.html.
2. Information for the Investigation of Former Gasworks Sites (Department of Environment
References and Conservation, NSW, 2005):
www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/clm/gasworks05237.pdf.
3. Australian Oil Recyclers Association: http://aora.asn.au/index.php.

3.12 Wastes from production, formulation and use of inks, dyes, pigments,
paints, lacquers, varnish
Waste name:
Wastes from production, formulation Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
and use of inks, dyes, pigments, category:Y12 code: A4070 F100
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0 3.9 -4.9
Waste from production and formulation of printing inks has been

reduced as a consequence of the introduction of water-based inks by
the major Australian manufacturer. A parallel innovation is the
introduction of vegetable oils and vegetable-based resins as vehicles
for printing inks, again avoiding organic vapours (wastes).
There is no manufacture of dyes or coloured pigments in Australia
but titanium dioxide pigment is produced from titanium minerals by
reaction with chlorine, separation of titanium tetrachloride, and
generation of titanium oxide from it with recovery of chlorine. When
ilmenite, FeTiO3, is treated with chlorine, iron chloride is also formed,
leading to production of iron oxide as a waste. Rutile, TiO2, is less
often used but some producers convert ilmenite to ‘synthetic rutile’
with low iron content that allows generation of iron oxide waste at an
Description of
earlier stage.
the waste
Paint and other surface coatings are produced in substantial
What is it? quantities in Australia. Most paint now consists of water-based
emulsions of polymeric material.
Wastes are generated during the use of inks, paints and surface
coatings.
A significant quantity of waste paint exists in the hands of
homeowners. Along with other domestic material such as pesticides
and solvents, this unused unwanted paint is collected from time to
time by local government operating in conjunction with industry and
state or territory governments.
Waste from glues and adhesives may contain polymeric materials
and solvents such as toluene.
In refining of titanium minerals for preparation of titanium dioxide

pigment, solid iron oxide Fe2O3 is produced for disposal.
Physical/
chemical The solid waste generated during use of paints and surface coatings
description consists of polymeric material such as polyacrylates and

methacrylates, together with pigments and small quantities of
substances like plasticizers and anti-oxidants.
Why is it H3: Flammable meaning as ‘inflammable’. Flammable
Primary hazard
hazardous? liquids liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or

Waste name:


Acrylate and methacrylates polymers,

solvents such as toluene.
Wastes are generated in production by poor process management

and by the need to reprocess batches that do not meet specification.
Where does it Solid polymer containing pigment is generated by over-spray in
Main sources
come from? coating of metal (notably, in the automobile industry) and the leather
industry as well as waste material from paint manufacturing itself
metal coating and finishing and the printing industry.
Wastes generated in production of paints and surface coatings are

kept to a minimum by quality control (QC) and, where necessary,
recycling into the process. This means that little waste is generated
so only small quantities are transferred to licensed disposal
companies. Solids are used as minor components in raw materials
for cement production. Solvents are recovered and after distillation
How is it used in cleaning operations.
Main fates
managed? When solvents are unable to be recovered they are transferred to
disposal companies for combustion with other solvent wastes.
Contaminated material such as cleaning rags and paper are
landfilled as hazardous waste.
Trials have been conducted on the incorporation of solid waste
generated by overspray into cement kiln feedstock but most such
waste is still sent to landfill.


Waste name:
TOTAL: 44,110 ACT: 206 NSW: 12,424
Waste arising in
NT: 86 Qld: 11,154 SA: 2,236
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 16,960 WA: 1,043
The advent of water-based paints and coatings has greatly reduced

the hazards that were associated with solvents incorporated into oil-
Overview
based paints. Similarly, vegetable oils have replaced petroleum
products in most printing inks.
Low: There is small risk from the presence of unpolymerized

Acute toxicity monomers such as butyl acrylate in water-based paints. Its
presence accounts for the smell of new paint.
Potential health
Low: Solvents present in oil-based paints, some inks and solvent-
impacts Chronic toxicity
based surface coatings can contribute to chronic toxicity.
Low - medium: No carcinogenic effects are known for common

constituents of inks, paints and surface coatings, although limited
Carcinogenicity
specialty (oil based) coatings may contain solvents with the potential
for carcinogenicity.
Reproductive Low: No impact on reproduction is expected from common

toxicity constituents of these industrial products.
Workplace Where solvents other than water are involved there is a need for good workplace
health & safety ventilation, system closed to the maximum extent, and availability of personal protective
impacts equipment where waste must be dealt with.
Population There are no population-wide risks arising from the production formulation and use of
scale impacts these industrial products.
Constituents of inks, paints and surface coatings etc. are seldom

released to the environment, except for organic solvents that
Overview
contribute to the Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) pollutant load
which is the source of ozone in the lower atmosphere.
High: Spills into aquatic environments constitute a form of waste that

Potential Acute ecotoxicity
could have acute toxic effects on biota.
environment
impacts High: Spills could have long term impact on the aquatic environment.
Chronic
Ozone formation from emissions of volatile organic compounds in
ecotoxicity
paint solvents is also a form of chronic environmental impact.
Persistence None of the constituents is persistent.
Bioaccumulation None of the constituent sis bioaccumulative.
Where are the

risks of

Waste name:
impacts most
High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low
likely?
Has anything
happened No major incidents have been reported. Risks to human health and the environment from
before in these industrial products are very low.
Australia?
Industry – Solvent- and oil-based materials posed flammability hazards during

systematic production, transport and use, but the advent of water-based
controls materials has largely removed this hazard.
Industry – Aromatic solvents such as toluene require measures to limit

exposure exposure of workers, but the other components of these products do
controls not require more than minimal caution.
What control
measures are Regulatory levels are set by government agencies for exposure of
in place to workers to a range of volatile organic substances. For example, the
manage risks eight hour exposure concentration for methyl methacrylates is 100
posed by this ppm.
Government
waste?
Industry and governments are working together to develop a
voluntary product stewardship programme to take back unused
paint.

seldom identified.
1. Titanium Dioxide and Titanium Dioxide Pigment (1997):

www.chemlink.com.au/titanium.htm.
2. R.H. Leach et al. eds, The Printing Ink Manual (Springer 1993) available as eBook.
References 3. Modern printing Ink Manufacture (c.2010):
http://letterpressprinting.com.au/page11.htm.
4. Understanding Paint: www.paintquality.com/en/understanding-paint/water-based-vs-
solvenbt-based.

3.13 Wastes from production, formulation and use of resins, latex, plasticizers,
glues/ adhesives
Waste name:
and use of resins, latex, plasticizers, category:Y13 code: A3050 F110
glues/ adhesives
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 -4.9
These products all involve polymers either as solid materials or

dissolved in organic solvents or dispersed in the form of latex in
water. Waste can consist of monomers used in production of the
polymers, waste products from the production site, or waste
generated in or after use of the products. Plasticizers may be
Description of present in the solid products.
the waste
A prominent use of resins, mainly epoxies, is in production of
fibreglass for use in interior construction, boats, surfboards and other
equipment.
Post-consumer waste is unlikely to be accepted by the recycling
industry.
The classes of polymers involved in such products include polyesters
What is it? in which cross-linking is achieved by incorporation of polyols and

polyacid monomers, or unsaturated monomers that provide cross-
linking points in the polymer chain. Small quantities of styrene,
maleic anhydride and epoxides such as ethylene and propylene
oxide may also be incorporated into copolymers. A second group
are the epoxy resins that involve specific monomers.
Hotmelt adhesives commonly used for gluing cardboard cartons are
Physical/ manufactured from ethyl-vinyl acetate copolymers.
chemical Phenol-formaldehyde and melamine-formaldehyde resins are
description adhesives for production of wood composites.
Low molecular weight polymers such as polymethyl methacrylates
and some polyurethanes may also find use as resins.
Glues and adhesives may be solvent-based or water-based. In the
first category, the active component may be a polymer of
intermediate molecular weight, and the carrier is a flammable solvent
such as toluene or petroleum spirit. Water-based adhesives
normally consist of stabilized emulsions of polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH)
in water, the polymer being derived from polyvinyl acetate.

Why is it Primary hazard
Secondary H12: Ecotoxic Substances or wastes which if released

Waste name:
glues/ adhesives
hazard present or may present immediate or
delayed adverse impacts to the environment
The polymers are the main components of

waste derived from manufacture and use of
these products and they are non-hazardous.
In some cases chemical additives may be
present, such as flame retardants (PBDEs)
or plasticizers (e.g. phthalate esters).
Some waste is generated at the site of production but since this is an

economic loss the quantity is minimized by the normal industrial
practices of Quality Control.
Where does it Manufacturers of resins, latex, plasticizers, glues and adhesives are
Main sources
come from? the main producers of this waste, along with major users of these
products such as plastic product manufacturers, motor vehicle, boat
and caravan manufacturers, other fibreglass product manufacturers
and the construction industry to a small extent.
Chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard (if required),

How is it then the stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous
Main fates
managed? waste landfill. Some waste may undergo energy recovery through
blending into waste-derived fuels.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.07%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 2 Qld: 881 SA: 442
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 447 WA: 843
The polymeric materials have very low toxicity mainly on account of

their low solubility. Some monomers pose workplace hazards –
methyl methacrylates, various isocyanates (components of
polyurethanes) and styrene.
Potential health Fat-soluble additives present in commercial products may be of more
Overview
impacts concern, including plasticizers such as phosphate esters or
phthalates, and flame retardants such as polybrominated
compounds (see Y45). Some of the latter are banned under multi-
national environment agreements such as the Stockholm Convention
on persistent organic pollutants but others remain on, or are just now

Waste name:
glues/ adhesives
entering, the market.
Medium - high: Polymers and additives do not exhibit acute toxicity

but monomers such as methyl methacrylate, isocyanates and
Acute toxicity
styrene do. Similarly, formaldehyde used in, or released from,
phenol-formaldehyde resins is acutely toxic.
Medium – high: Developmental effects may eventuate from

Chronic toxicity
exposure to flame retardants.
Carcinogenicity Low: Polymers, monomers and additives are not carcinogenic.
Low: Some additives such as the brominated flame retardants and

Reproductive
certain phthalate esters can affect reproduction but these effects
toxicity
have not been demonstrated in humans.
Workplace
The main substances of concern for industrial health and safety are styrene, methyl
health & safety
methacrylates and isocyanates (see Y+3 Other Organic Chemicals).
impacts
Population Broader impacts of additives may come about by release of these substances and plastics
scale impacts containing them to the environment and subsequent uptake by food species.
Long-range transport to colder regions of the planet and

Overview
bioaccumulation of flame retardants has been observed.
Acute ecotoxicity Polymers and additives do not exhibit acute toxicity.
Medium: Pathways have been shown to exist whereby additives can

Potential Chronic
be carried by and sequestered by plastic litter and then released into
environment ecotoxicity
the food chain.
impacts
Medium - high: Many of the additives and other sequestered fat-
Persistence
soluble chemicals are persistent.
Medium – high: Many of the additives and other sequestered fat-

Bioaccumulation
soluble chemicals are bioaccumulative.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
Has anything
happened No specific incidents are known. See Y+3 Other organic chemicals for a spill of ethyl
before in acrylate, a related compound.
Australia?
What control The amenity and toxicity hazards of reactive monomeric substances
Industry –
measures are are recognized in industry and subject to workplace controls. Where
systematic
in place to flammable solvents are involved in production of glues and
controls
manage risks adhesives appropriate precautions need to be taken.

Waste name:
glues/ adhesives
posed by this
Exposure controls are common in larger industrial organizations, but
waste?
Industry – not present in many small-to-medium enterprises (SME) nor
exposure implemented by home-operators and single traders. Exposure to
controls glass fibres when fibre-glass products are cut or abraded is more of
a hazard than exposure to the resins themselves.
Regulatory levels are set by government agencies for exposure of

workers to a range of volatile organic substances. For example, the
Government
eight hour exposure concentration for methyl methacrylates is 100
ppm.
Community members may be exposed to waste monomers when

undertaking construction or maintenance work with commercially-
available two-component mixtures that form polyesters,
Community
polyurethanes or epoxies. Labels and containers of consumer
products are required to carry advice on safe handling of the
contents, although components are seldom identified.
1. Methyl acrylate – product safety assessment (Dow Chemical, 2010):

https.msdssearch.dow.com
2. Safe Working with Fibreglass (CSBP, Allen Borham, 2009:
References http://csbp.com.au/Media/Contractor-resources/Saftey/GM-11-031-47.aspx
3. Results from Australia were reported by E.M. Chua et al., ‘Assimilation of
Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers from Microplastics by the Marine Amphipod, Allorchestes
compressa’, Environmental Science and Technology, 48 (2014), S127-S134.

3.14 Wastes of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation
Waste name: NEPM code:
Basel waste Basel permit
Wastes of an explosive nature not category:Y15 code: A4080 T200, D340,
subject to other legislation D350, E100
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0
In addition to NEPM code T200, which is a direct translation to this y-

code, this is a catch-all category that captures a number of wastes
classified in Australia under the National Environment Protection
(Movement of Controlled Waste between States and Territories)
Measure, but not reflected in any Basel Y codes. The other NEPM
wastes are:
• D340 Perchlorates
• D350 Chlorates
• E100 Waste containing peroxides other than hydrogen peroxide.
The common property of this waste category is the potential to cause

Description of
fire or explosion on account of the presence of strong oxidising
the waste chemicals.
Strong regulation in Australia is applied to most explosive
What is it? substances: nitroglycerine for military purposes, cordite for military
and recreational ammunition, pentanitro-erythritol (PETN) for fuse
manufacture, primary explosives such as lead azide, lead styphnate
and mercury fulminate for detonators, and ammonium nitrate for
mining and quarrying. Black powder, the traditional mixture of
saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal is little used these days.
Explosive substances also subject to regulation include chlorate and
perchlorate salts and some peroxides such as methyl ethyl ketone
peroxide used as a polymerization initiator.
Most of the substances derive their explosive power from the

presence of chlorine, nitrogen or oxygen in high oxidation states.
Physical/ Nitro groups are present in organic nitrate esters such as
chemical nitroglycerine (glyceryl trinitrate), and in nitro-aromatics such as
description trinitrotoluene (TNT). The nitrate ion is the oxidant in ammonium
nitrate. Primary explosives rely on high-energy structures of nitrogen
or oxygen.
An explosive substance or waste is a solid

or liquid substance or waste (or mixture of
substances or wastes) which is in itself
Why is it
Primary hazard H1: Explosive capable by chemical reaction of producing
hazardous?
gas at such a temperature and pressure
and at such a speed as to cause damage to
the surroundings.

Substances or wastes which, while in
themselves not necessarily combustible,
Secondary
H5.1: Oxidizing may, generally by yielding oxygen cause, or
hazard
contribute to, the combustion of other
materials.

Other hazard(s)
Nitro compounds, chlorates and

perchlorates.
The production and use of all explosive materials are subject to

regulation in Australia. Sources are primarily chemical
manufacturing, metal product manufacturing, water supply drainage
Where does it
Main sources & sewerage and oil and gas extraction. Also, soap and detergent
come from?
manufacture and ‘crisp’ manufacturing (as in potato crisps and
related snack foods) are sources which arises in small amounts
annually.
How is it Wastes are mostly contained within the industries themselves and
Main fates
managed? destroyed under controlled conditions.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.03%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 2,329 SA: 3
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 81 WA: 18
Since it used in the paper industry, sodium chlorate is taken as an

Overview
example (see MSDS – reference 3, below).
Extreme: Sodium chlorate is an irritant to the skin and to mucous

membranes (eyes, throat and nose) if dust is inhaled. Humans
appear to be more susceptible than animals to acute effects of
ingestion of sodium chlorate with doses of 100 grams or more
Potential health
Acute toxicity invariably fatal.
impacts
If ingested, sodium chlorate affects the oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood and can cause dizziness and damage to internal organs.
The risk of explosion presents an immediate and significant health
risk.
Low: Chronic effects may result from repeated exposure to these

Chronic toxicity
wastes. For example perchlorates can potentially inhibit iodide

uptake by the thyroid and result in a decrease in thyroid hormone.
Carcinogenicity Sodium chlorate is not carcinogenic.
Reproductive Low: The effects of sodium chlorate on blood can result in

toxicity reproductive effects.
Workplace
Protection against dust is essential, particularly because of this category’s explosivity,
health & safety
although these chemicals are usually handled in solution.
impacts
Population There are no population-scale impacts because exposure to sodium chlorate is confined to
scale impacts industrial settings.
Very little information is available on the environmental impacts of

Overview
sodium chlorate.
Medium: Sodium chlorate exhibits low acute toxicity to animals by

Acute ecotoxicity ingestion of dust exposure. The former use of sodium chlorate as a
Potential weedicide shows that it can be toxic to plant life, especially grasses.
environment
Chronic
impacts No information is available about chronic toxicity of sodium chlorate.
ecotoxicity
Sodium chlorate is not persistent in the environment since it is

Persistence
readily reduced to chloride.
Bioaccumulation Sodium chlorate is not bioaccumulative.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
Has anything
No incidents involving sodium chlorate are known in Australia. However, the Bali bombing
happened
in 2002 involved potassium chlorate, probably diverted illegally from safety match
before in
production (an industry not replicated in Australia).
Australia?
Manufacturers of explosives for commercial, sporting or military

purposes are tightly regulated in Australia. Some substances used
What control Industry – by firework manufacturers are also controlled under security
measures are systematic regulations. Some of these chemicals have other – examples are
in place to controls sodium chlorate that is used to generate chlorine dioxide for paper
manage risks pulp bleaching, and ammonium nitrate used as nitrogenous fertilizer
posed by this – and so regulations extend to those industries, too.
waste? Industry –
Most of the substances are not toxic and most industry controls are
exposure
directed at avoidance of explosive risks and illegal diversion (theft).
controls

Under Australia’s National Code of Practice for Chemicals of
Security Concern there are 11 chemicals considered high risk. The
list includes sodium and potassium chlorates, perchlorates, and
nitrates and sodium azide, Most of the chemical substances in the
Government list of 96 chemicals of security concern are those that could be
involved in chemical weapons and do not possess explosive
potential.
Ammonium nitrate is separately regulated by state and territory
governments.
Community members are not involved in management of these

Community
industrial chemicals.
1. www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/ChemicalSecurity/Pages/default.aspx.
2. Explosives and fireworks – example of state regulations and guidance:
References www.dmp.wa.gov.au/6684.aspx.
3. Sodium chlorate: http://www.hillbrothers.com/msds/pdf/n/sodium-chlorate.pdf

3.15 Wastes from production, formulation and use of photographic chemicals
and processing materials
Waste name:
and use of photographic chemicals category:Y16 code: A4090 T120
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8
Description of Wastes from photographic processes include chemical substances

the waste used in developing and fixing the image.
Waste form Liquid

What is it?
Waste solutions contain variable amounts of phenolic (such as
hydroquinone) or other substances used in developing the image
Physical/
after the latent image is created by light-induced changes in the
chemical
silver salts on the surface of the photographic medium. After fixing,
description
the silver image remains on the photographic medium. Fixer waste
contains unused sodium thiosulfate and silver salts,
Substances or wastes which, by chemical

action, will cause severe damage when in
contact with living tissue, or, in the case of
Primary hazard H8: Corrosives leakage, will materially damage, or even
destroy, other goods or the means of
transport; they may also cause other
hazards.

hazard

Other hazard(s)
Main likely chemical contaminants Phenols, thiosulfate and silver.
A number of chemical substances are used in film and print

photography. Traditional black-and-white photography employed
light-sensitive film and paper that was coated with an emulsion
(usually comprising gelatine) of silver halide. Exposure to light
Where does it began the process of reducing silver ions to silver metal, and this
Main sources
come from? was accelerated and completed with a ‘developer’ (usually a phenol
or heterocyclic equivalent such as a pyrazolidone). The print was
then ‘fixed’ with ‘hypo’ (sodium thiosulfate) that dissolved unexposed
silver halide. Wastes from the fixing process contains silver ions.
Film use has declined since the advent of the digital camera and is

Waste name:
now confined to medical imaging (X-ray and MRI), dentistry,
industrial radiography, and a small market sector of ‘art’
photographers and enthusiasts.
Colour printing from digital files is now provided by machines located
in department stores or stationery suppliers. No silver is involved.
Medical and industrial X-ray images are captured on film in

automatic processors that use traditional chemical solutions.
Wastes are collected for disposal (and recovery of silver where
How is it feasible) by licensed companies. Small quantities of waste
Main fates
managed? generated by artists and enthusiasts are normally discarded to sewer
like trade waste. Silver, because of its intrinsic value, is recovered
from X-ray films by specialist companies and recycled, at an
indicative rate of 4kg/ tonne of film.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.01%
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 826 ACT: 20 NSW: 144
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 159 SA: 10
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 7 Vic: 476 WA: 9
Chemicals in the developer can cause skin irritation. Thiosulfates

Overview
are toxic by ingestion. Silver ions are oxidants.
Medium: Irritation to exposed unprotected skin. Harmful if

Acute toxicity
swallowed. Risk of serious eye damage.
High: Irritation from prolonged exposure. Possible risk of irreversible

Potential health Chronic toxicity
effects.
impacts
Low: Limited evidence of a carcinogenic effect. But possibility of
Carcinogenicity cancer or mutagen-causing effects from some chemicals used in the
fixing process.
Reproductive
Photographic chemicals do not exhibit reproductive toxicity.
toxicity
Workplace
In the workplace these photographic processes are carried out in closed systems so
health & safety
exposure is minimal and would only occur during charging and cleaning equipment.
impacts
Mild hazards exist for photographic enthusiasts who do not take steps to protect
Population
themselves by, for example, wearing water-resistant gloves while handling solutions and
scale impacts
damp papers.
Potential Thiosulfates are toxic to a wide range of organisms, and silver ions
Overview
environment can cause irritation of tissues. Because silver is valuable it is

Waste name:
impacts recovered from wastes for reuse so little enters the environment.
High: It is not commonly realised that thiosulfate is about as toxic as

Acute ecotoxicity cyanide, although it does not give rise to volatiles like hydrogen
cyanide and so the toxicity is only evidenced on ingestion.
Chronic High: Only silver poses a chronic hazard, since other photographic
ecotoxicity chemical substances have short half-lives in the environment.
Persistence High: Silver ion is persistent.
Bioaccumulation None of the photographic chemicals are bioaccumulative.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium Medium Low
Has anything
happened
No incidents involving photographic chemicals have been reported.
before in
Australia?
Closed systems are routinely used. Colour printing, following digital

Industry –
photography, is now done by dry processes in which dyes are
systematic
transferred from a ribbon to the polymer-coated paper blank. No
controls
silver is involved, and no developer or fixer solution.
Industry –
A number of companies in Australia collect X-ray films and destroy
exposure
What control them using a thermal process that allows recovery of silver.
controls
measures are
in place to State and local governments encourage and assist with collection of
Government
manage risks X-ray films.
posed by this
waste?
Community Community groups such as Scouts collect X-ray films for disposal.
1. Http://recyclingnearyou.com.au/xray/.
2. C. Swedlund and E.Y. Swedlund, Photography, a handbook of history, materials and
nd
processes (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 2 ed., 1981.
References
3. Photographic Industry (OECD Emission Scenario Document) 2004. DOI:
10.1787/9789264221222-en.
4. Ilford Photo. MSDSs for various Photographic developer and fixer chemicals used in
Australia. Accessed April 2015 from:

Waste name:
http://www.ilfordphoto.com/healthandsafety/datasheet.asp?n=1

3.16 Wastes resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics
Waste name: Basel Basel permit

waste code: NEPM code:
Wastes resulting from surface category: Dependant on A100
treatment of metals and plastics Y17 chemicals used
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0
The wastes derive from overspray of coating materials together with

excess material removed in cleaning of equipment.
Surface treatments of metals provide protection against corrosion.
After thorough cleaning of the surface (an alkaline or acid wash) a
coating of manganese, zinc or iron phosphate is applied. Zinc
chromate is commonly used for aluminium surfaces but some
coatings contain chromate, fluoride and other anionic species (see
Description of
MSDS for Alodine 1200S).
the waste
What is it? Plastic items may be coated with protective films applied as powder
(followed by thermal fusion) or spray (in the case of polyurethane).
Chemical coatings are being replaced by surface modification
techniques, especially in the case of non-polar materials such as
polyethylene and polypropylene. These use plasma or corona
discharge to improve adhesion of inks, adhesives and sealants to
the treated surface.
Waste from metal coating can contain metal phosphates or

Physical/
chromates (see Y21 Hexavalent chromium compounds). Waste
chemical
from surface treatment of plastics consists of polymers such as
description
polyurethanes.

hazards.

hazard

Other hazard(s)
Main likely chemical contaminants Some metals such as Ni, Cr and Zn.

Basel Basel permit
Waste name:
The main sources of this waste are: marine fishing; in the context of
Where does it shipyards and slipways; mining: including coal and gold mining;
Main sources
come from? petroleum refining; metal manufacturing and, to a large extent, metal
coating and finishing: such as electroplaters and galvanisers.
Non-toxic materials such as the metal phosphates and

How is it
Main fates polyurethanes are disposed to landfill. Chromates would be
managed?
immobilised and disposed at hazardous waste landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.07%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 4,466 SA: 87
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 416
Overview The only coating materials of health concern are the chromates.
Extreme: Acute toxicity of chromates is associated with their

Acute toxicity oxidizing power. They can cause skin burns and damage to eyes
and other sensitive tissues.
Potential health Low – medium: Chronic effects can include allergic responses and
Chronic toxicity
impacts chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
High: Chromates are carcinogenic, especially by inhalation of

Carcinogenicity
chromium-containing dusts.
Workplace
health & safety Personal protective equipment is needed by workers handling chromates.
impacts
Population
No population impacts for these industrial chemicals.
scale impacts
Chromium toxicity from chromates use extends to other animal

species in the environment. This can mean death of animals, birds or
fish and death or low growth rate in plants. Chromium (VI) does not
Overview
breakdown or degrade easily and there is a high potential for
Potential
accumulation of chromium (VI) in fish life.
environment
Cr (VI) is highly mobile, soluble and bioavailable in the environment.
impacts


Basel Basel permit
Waste name:
High: Chromium compounds are persistent in the environment and
Persistence
could contaminate water.
Bioaccumulation Chromium is not bioaccumulated.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
Has anything
happened Chromium releases from the chemical industry have been reported (see Y21) but not from
before in the metal surface treatment sector.
Australia?
Higher risk workplaces like chrome plating and associated metal

industries, where worker exposure to Cr (VI) compound wastes may
Industry – be possible, routinely monitor at-risk staff via blood or respiratory
systematic testing.
controls Such companies are licensed by environmental regulators to control
industrial processes and equipment so as to limit environmental
emissions of pollutants like Cr (VI).
Potential industrial sources of hexavalent chromium waste have

What control strict emissions control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters,
measures are electrostatic precipitators and stringent trade waste emissions
Industry –
in place to agreements. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate personal
exposure
manage risks protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to restricting
controls
posed by this exposure to airborne sources of chromium.
waste? The advent of trivalent, as opposed to hexavalent (chromate) surface
treatment is limiting exposure to the most hazardous species.

The community is not exposed to wastes from the use of metal

Community
surface treatment substances such as chromates.
1. www.henkelna.com/adhesives/complete-product-line-21163.htm.
2. www.telfordinfustries.com.au/system/products/pdf1/0000/0404/Alodine_1200S.pd
f.
References 3. Protective coatings for plastic items www.rhinolinings.com.au/industrial.
4. www.epw.com.au/trivalent.html.
5. SafeWork Australia: Health Monitoring for Exposure to hazardous Chemicals.
Guide for persons Conducting a Business or Undertaking

Basel Basel permit
Waste name:
(www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/.)

3.17 Residues arising from industrial waste disposal operations
Basel permit NEPM code:
Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Residues arising from industrial Dependant on
category:Y18 (also N150,
waste disposal operations residue
characteristics N160)
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 - 4.9
This is a catch-all waste category that captures a number of wastes

Measure, but not reflected in any Basel Y codes. The most significant
contribution by volume comes from biosolids, a material not
specifically classified by either the Basel Convention or NEPM. This
collection of wastes is:
• N205 Residues arising from industrial waste treatment/disposal
operations
• Biosolids
• N150 Fly ash, excluding fly ash generated from Australian coal
fired power stations
• N160 Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerised
wastes
Residues arising from industrial waste treatment/disposal

operations
What is it? This is a broad category of treatment residues that may contain
Description of residual hazardous material from chemical/ physical treatment plants,
the waste thermal treatment residues such as bottom ash, landfill leachate and
tailings from colliery washeries.
Biosolids
The vast majority of waste in this category by tonnage is biosolids
(80%), a product of sewage sludge (the sludge collected from
wastewater treatment) once it has undergone further treatment to
reduce disease causing pathogens and volatile organic matter,
producing a stabilised product.
Biosolids are typically 75-80% water in their ‘wet’ state, compared to
sewage sludge which is approximately 97% water.
Suitable quality biosolids can be applied as a fertiliser to improve and
maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth.
Fly ash
Fly ash is a residue generated from combustion that comprises
particles so fine they mix and rise with combustion flue gases in
chimneys and post-combustion chambers of thermal plant, and are
captured by particle filtration equipment such as electrostatic
precipitators. Fly ash usually refers to ash produced during

Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
combustion of coal, which makes the NEPM classification of “fly ash,
excluding fly ash generated from Australian coal fired power stations”
somewhat curious.
Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerised wastes

Chemical/ physical treatment plants, an industry known as ‘waste
treaters’, are oftern used as an intermediate processing step to
remove/ reduce or ameliorate the hazard in wastes, to enable lawful
final disposal. This category contains those wastes that are outputs
from such treatment processes, which may be encapsulated
chemically or physically for recycling into other uses or for safe landfill
disposal.
Typically solid and

Waste form sludge but liquid in
some cases.

operations
This category contains a variety of waste residues in a variety of
physical and chemical forms, sometimes as outputs of processes
designed to reduce the hazard – either through volume reduction
(such as incineration) or hazard amelioration (chemical/ physical
treatment).
These output residues may be of reduced hazard (compared to
inputs) or increased hazard (such as a concentration process).
Biosolids
Biosolids may have their own distinctive odour depending on the type
of treatment it has been though. Some biosolids have a stronger
Physical/
odour that may be offensive to some people, while most biosolids
chemical
have a slightly musty, ammonia odour. Sulphur and ammonia
description
compounds (both plant nutrients) in biosolids are normally the cause
of these odours.
Fly ash
Fly ash is characterised by the fineness of its particles, as opposed to
‘bottom ash’ from combustion processes, which falls to the bottom of
combustion chambers. Fly ash often contains hazardous materials
such as heavy metals at low concentrations derived from their
composition in input fuel – either as constituent of fine combustion
particles or as gaseous combustion products themselves. The major
constituents are crystalline silica and oxides of iron and calcium.

Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205

These wastes are usually solid as the fixing matrix can be materials
such as concrete, polymers or purified low hazard chemical
compounds/ commodities.

Primary hazard

present or may present immediate or delayed
Secondary
H12: Ecotoxic adverse impacts to the environment by
hazard
means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects
upon biotic systems.
Biosolids is a special case. It is not a controlled waste under the

NEPM and consequently is not tracked in all jurisdictions. However,
because of the potential for contaminants such as heavy metals and
other organic pollutants to be present, above criteria set to protect
Why is it environmental and human health values, biosolids have been included
hazardous? in Australia’s annual hazardous waste reporting to the Basel
Convention as a precaution.
Biosolids guidelines exist in all jurisdictions that allow appropriate
Are biosolids
beneficial uses of biosolids matched to their inherent hazard (with
hazardous?
respect to chemical contaminants such as heavy metals like cadmium,
lead and mercury). While it is highly conservative to classify biosolids
as hazardous waste, it is logical that those biosolids with
concentrations of these pollutants above the highest classification
levels outlined in biosolids guidelines may be deemed to be
hazardous waste. A good analogy is that soils, if contaminated to the
same extent, would be classified as contaminated soils (another
controlled waste) in all jurisdictions in Australia.
Many organic pollutants, inorganic pollutants

and heavy metals.

operations
Chemical/ physical treatment plants, incineration, landfill leachate,
Where does it wastewater treatment plants, fossil fuel, electricity supply, collieries,
Main sources Defence, coal seam gas extraction, aluminium smelting, petroleum
come from?
refining.
Biosolids
Wastewater treatment plants.

Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Fly ash
Incineration, meat processing, cement kilns, coal-fired power stations
(despite the waste classification name), asphalt plants, iron and steel
manufacturing and petroleum refining.

Physical/ chemical treatment plants, petroleum refining, chemical
manufacturing.

operations
Other chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard, then the
stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill.
Also hazardous waste landfill directly.
Biosolids
Biosolids may be productively used depending on their quality,
measured against state-based guidelines, for uses such as
agricultural land application, landscaping or land rehabilitation.
How is it Biosolids contaminated above guideline levels (in contaminants such
Main fates as heavy metals, for example) may be stockpiled onsite at treatment
managed?
plants or landfilled.
Fly ash
Fly ash is either stored in onsite storage ponds or landfills, hazardous
waste landfilled off-site or managed as a reuse product in concrete,
structural fill or road base.

Hazardous waste landfill. Some wastes may be sufficiently
ameliorated to allow reuse in applications such as concrete, road base
or building products.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 25.46%
TOTAL: 1,830,611 ACT: 51,768 NSW: 429,902

How much is Waste arising in
NT: 5,101 Qld: 528,700 SA: 188,844
generated in 2013 (tonnes)
Australia? Tas: 30,334 Vic: 451,357 WA: 144,604
The numbers above refer to all four waste types. A brief national level
Individual waste breakdown for each is provided below.
arisings Residues arising from industrial waste treatment/disposal
operations (N205)

Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
293,411 tonnes = 20% of this category and 4.1% of national tonnes
overall in 2013
Biosolids*
1,468,883 tonnes (on a ‘wet’ basis) = 80% of this category and 20.4%
of national tonnes overall in 2013
Fly ash (N150)**

5,001 tonnes = 0.3% of this category and 0.07% of national tonnes
overall in 2013

(N160)
62,901 tonnes = 3% of this category and 0.9% of national tonnes
overall in 2013
oooooo
* Tonnages of biosolids that may be deemed ‘contaminated biosolids’

have been estimated to be 266,653 ‘wet’ tonnes, or 18% of total
1
biosolids produced in 2013 .
** Actual quantities of fly ash generated from coal-fired electricity
generation in Australia, which are largely managed onsite and
therefore not deemed a hazardous waste for the purpose of tracking,
are likely to dwarf this tonnage by approximately three orders of
2
magnitude .
The least toxic wastes in this category with respect to human health
impacts are likely to be biosolids, which contributes 80% of the
category’s volume. Encapsulated wastes, by definition, should have
their hazards contained, rendering them very low impact to human
health.
Industrial waste treatment/disposal residues and fly ash have the
potential for higher human health impact, on account of the chemical
Overview
contaminants that may be present and, in the case of fly ash, the
inhalation risk of fine particles that may contain these contaminants.
Potential
While the likely levels of heavy metal contaminants in fly ash are low,
health
the concentrating effect of fly ash collection means that they may be
impacts
2
present at levels 10 times greater than in the original coal. Another
consideration of fly ash is its major constituent – crystalline silica – can
cause chronic health problems through prolonged inhalation.
Acute toxicity Low.
Medium - high: Heavy metal contaminants are likely to be present in

fly ash at low concentrations, but crystalline silica is a major
Chronic toxicity
constituent. If fly ash handling creates dust, inhalation of crystalline
silica can cause silicosis.

Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Medium - high: Crystalline silica has been classified as a human lung

carcinogen. Some heavy metals such as cadmium, with the potential
Carcinogenicity
to be present in fly ash or other industrial residues at low
concentrations, may cause cancer through prolonged inhalation.
Reproductive
Low.
toxicity
Residues such as fly ash present an inhalation risk due to the potential for very fine
particles to penetrate deep into the lungs. However, workplaces with large scale combustion
Workplace processes such as boilers or incinerators typically have very stringent controls in place such
health & as enclosed hoppers. Although crystalline silica is a large constituent of fly ash, worker
safety impacts inhalation exposure risk is much greater in industries such as sand blasting, foundries and
construction, due to close worker involvement in cutting, grinding or other abrasive
activities.
Encapsulated wastes, by definition, should have their hazards

contained, rendering them low environmental impact.
Industrial waste treatment/disposal residues, fly ash and biosolids (if
known to be contaminated) have the potential for higher
Overview
environmental impact, on account of the persistent and
bioaccumulative nature of heavy metals and (in the case of
contaminated biosolids) the potential for low levels of persistent
Potential organic pollutants (POPs) to be present.
environment
Acute ecotoxicity Low.
impacts
Chronic Low - medium: Dependent on the concentration of heavy metals or
ecotoxicity other contaminants in the waste.
High: Heavy metals and POPs (potentially at low concentrations in

Persistence
biosolids) are highly persistent in the environment.
Medium: Heavy metals and POPs (potentially at low concentrations in

Bioaccumulation
biosolids) can bioaccumulate to varying degrees in the environment.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? Medium Medium Medium Moderate N/A Moderate
Has anything
happened
Unable to identify specific incidents that would reflect this broad waste category.
before in
Australia?

Waste name: code:
Basel waste N205
Higher risk workplaces with large scale combustion processes and

Industry – waste treatment plants, where worker exposure to some of these
systematic residual wastes may be possible, are licensed by environmental
controls regulators to control industrial processes and equipment so as to limit
What control environmental emissions of pollutants.
measures are
in place to Potential industrial sources of these wastes have strict emissions
manage risks control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters, dust extraction
Industry –
posed by this systems, electrostatic precipitators and stringent trade waste
exposure
waste? emissions agreements. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate
controls
personal protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to restricting
exposure to airborne sources of such wastes.
Regulators, such as State departments of Health and Environment

Government
strictly control the application, production and quality of biosolids
1. Blue Environment, Ascend Waste and Environment and Randell Environmental

Consulting (2015). Hazardous waste infrastructure needs and capacity assessment, draft
report (not yet published) for the Australian Government Department of the Environment.
2. KMH Environmental (2014), report prepared for the Australian Government Department
of the Environment. Hazardous Waste Data Summary (2010/11) Final Report. Accessed 24
April 2015 from:
http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/national-waste-policy/publications/hazardous-
waste-data-assessment
3. US Geological Survey (1997). Fact Sheet FS-163-97: Radioactive Elements in Coal and
References Fly Ash: Abundance, Forms, and Environmental Significance. Accessed 27 April, 2015
from: http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs163-97/FS-163-97.pdf
4. US Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (2002). OSHA
Fact Sheet: Crystalline Silica Exposure Health Hazard Information. Accessed 27 April 2015
from: https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_General_Facts/crystalline-factsheet.pdf
5. Sunstate Cement Ltd. MSDS for Fly Ash. Accessed 27 April 2015 from:
http://www.sunstatecement.com.au/downloads/flyash_msds.pdf
6. Australia and New Zealand Biosolids Partnership (ANZBP) website. Questions &
Answers (FAQ) about biosolids in Australia and New Zealand. Accessed 27 April 2015 from:
http://www.biosolids.com.au/q-a-aust-nz.php

3.18 Metal carbonyls
Waste name: Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
Metal carbonyls category:Y19 code: A1040 D100
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 - 4.9
Metal carbonyls are regarded as extremely hazardous due to both

their toxicity and their flammability.
Description of
Nickel carbonyl is the most common metal carbonyl, which has been
the waste
used as a catalyst or coating agent in the mining/ mine processing
What is it? and manufacturing industries and is extremely toxic to humans.
Liquid (and
Waste form
occasionally solid)
Most metal carbonyls as neat chemicals are colourless or pale

Physical/ yellow volatile liquids, although they may occasionally exist as solids.
chemical They may have a pungent odour and are highly water soluble, which
description contributes to their mobility and toxicity. Metal carbonyls include
nickel carbonyl, cobalt carbonyl and iron pentacarbonyl.
Substances or wastes liable to cause death
H6.1: Poisonous
or serious injury or to harm human health if
(acute)
swallowed or inhaled or by skin contact.
Primary hazard Substances or wastes which, if they are
Liquids which give off a flammable vapour

Why is it 0
Secondary H3: Flammable at temperatures of not more than 60.5 C,
hazardous? 0
hazard liquids closed cup test, or not more than 65.5 C,
open\-cup test.

Main likely chemical contaminants Nickel, cobalt, manganese
Where does it Electricity supply, gas extraction, mining, mine processing,

Main sources
come from? petroleum refining and inorganic chemical manufacturing.

Main fates
managed? Metal carbonyls are also put through specialist recycling/reclamation
processes.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

How much is

0.01%
Australia? tonnes in 2013)

Waste arising in
NT: 67 Qld: 243 SA: 48
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 13 WA: 2
Metal carbonyls are very toxic to humans by inhalation The Merck

Index (the authoritative encyclopaedia of chemical compounds and
substances) describes one of the chemicals in this category, nickel
carbonyl, as "one of the most toxic chemicals encountered in
Overview
industrial processes." Long term effects such as carcinogenicity and
reproductive impacts are possible. Metal carbonyls are also
extremely flammable, and will rapidly vaporise (at room temperature)
if spilled, which also acts to increase the inhalation hazard.
Extreme: Very toxic by inhalation. Primary routes of exposure are
Potential health via inhalation and skin absorption. Inhalation may be fatal.
impacts Acute toxicity Metal carbonyls affect tissue directly and they also break down to
toxic carbon monoxide and products of the metal, which have
additional toxic effects.
Chronic toxicity Low.
Medium: Material is a probable carcinogen in humans. May cause

Carcinogenicity lung and nasal sinus cancer. Shown to cause lung cancer in
animals.
Reproductive High: May cause harm to the unborn child.
toxicity
Workplace
health & safety Low use chemical/ waste generated in Australia. No specific workplace impacts known.
impacts
Population Low use chemical/ waste generated in Australia. No specific population scale impacts
scale impacts known.
Metal carbonyls such as nickel carbonyl are both acutely and

Overview
chronically toxic to organisms in an aquatic environment.

Potential
environment Chronic Extreme: May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic
impacts ecotoxicity environment.
Persistence Low.
Bioaccumulation Medium.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? High Medium Medium Medium Medium Low

Has anything
happened
No evidence found of an Australian incident.
before in
Australia?
Companies that handle metal carbonyls and their wastes are

Industry –
systematic
controls
pollutants.
Potential industrial sources of metal carbonyl waste have strict

Industry – emissions control and chemical handling equipment and systems in
exposure place. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate personal
controls protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to restricting
What control exposure to airborne sources of, and skin contact with, pollutants.
measures are
in place to State and territory governments regulate the management of
manage risks hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
posed by this place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
Government
waste? disposal of all hazardous wastes, including this waste, through
Metal carbonyls are part of this hazardous waste control regime.
The National Pollutant Inventory, a legislated community right to

know reporting program (http://www.npi.gov.au), includes nickel
carbonyl as one of the chemical pollutants it tracks for emissions to
Community
air, water and land, and transfers of waste, in Australia. No nickel
carbonyl emissions were reported in Australia in its most recent year,
2013/14

Fact Sheet – nickel carbonyl. Accessed March 14, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/nickel-carbonyl
2. Strem Chemicals Inc. MSDS for nickel carbonyl. Accessed March 14, 2015 from:
References http://www.strem.com/catalog/msds/28-1150
3. Ni carbonyl risk phrases. Accessed March 14, 2015 from:
http://www.inchem.org/documents/ukpids/ukpids/ukpid68.htm

3.19 Beryllium; beryllium compounds
Waste name: Basel permit NEPM code:

Basel waste
code: A1010,
Beryllium; beryllium compounds category:Y20 D160
A1020
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 - 4.9
Waste from machining of alloys of beryllium with copper or

Description of aluminium. E-waste. Emissions to air from coal-burning. Because
the waste beryllium alloys are used in electrical and electronic equipment,
What is it? beryllium may be present as a minor component of E-waste.
Waste form Solid
Beryllium-containing wastes may be mixed with other components in

Physical/
solid E-waste. The species emitted to air by coal-fired power
chemical
stations is beryllium oxide, BeO (CASR# 1304-56-9) that is very
description
high-melting and almost insoluble in water.
Primary hazard

Why is it classed as explosives, which under
hazardous? Secondary H4.1: Flammable
conditions encountered in transport are
hazard solids
Main likely chemical contaminants Beryllium metal.
Beryllium is used as a moderator and reflector of neutrons in nuclear

reactors such as that operated by ANSTO at Lucas Heights, NSW.
Post-service this would become part of a nuclear waste stream.
Pure beryllium metal is used to make aircraft disc brakes from which
it would be abraded and so enter the environment. Copper alloys
containing beryllium are widely used in electrical connectors and
relays, springs, precision instruments, aircraft engine parts, tools,
cable-housing and moving parts such as wheels. Beryllium-
Where does it containing alloys have also been used in some sporting goods.
Main sources
come from? Beryllium oxide is used in specialty glasses and ceramics. In
Australia these uses are very small and are mainly confined to
electronic equipment.
The major source of waste beryllium and compounds in Australia is
emissions to air from coal-burning. These amount to approximately
4000 kg/year. The solid beryllium oxide would be widely dispersed
and remain in the environment.
The mineral beryl (beryllium aluminium silicate) occurs widely and
can be found at some minesites. Because of its insolubility it is

Basel permit
Waste name: Basel waste NEPM code:
code: A1010,
A1020
cannot be regarded as a hazardous material.
Beryllium is a minor component of E-waste but is unlikely to be

recovered – the main aim being to recover precious metals - so any
How is it
Main fates beryllium would become part of consolidated mixed wastes going to
managed?
landfill. There is no active management of emissions to air or of on-
site mining waste.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.0001%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 1 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 4 WA: 0
The effects of beryllium on human health are not well understood.

Breathing beryllium-containing dust can cause inflammation of the
lungs and repeated exposure can bring about sensitization of the
Overview lungs, leading to permanent damage, and skin sensitization leading
to inflammation and ulcers. Beryllium is considered to have cancer-
causing potential. Because beryllium is mostly bound in alloys that
are incorporated into devices, the risk of exposure is negligible.
Potential health
impacts Acute toxicity Extreme: Damage to respiratory tract.
Extreme: Irritation and sensitization of lungs and skin on prolonged

Chronic toxicity
exposure.
Carcinogenicity High: Possible carcinogen.
Reproductive
No information available.
toxicity
Workplace
Control of dusts containing beryllium. The eight hour time weighted workplace exposure
health & safety 3
limit is 0.002 mg/m .
impacts
Beryllium is contained in manufactured equipment and may represent a hazard during

Population assembly or disassembly, but the general population is not at risk from exposure to
scale impacts industrial products. There could be health impacts of exposure to beryllium oxide that is
emitted to air and remains in the environment, but no impacts have been reported.
Beryllium oxide is released to the environment as fine dust that will

Overview be incorporated into soils. The resulting risk to plant and animal
Potential species is very low risk.
environment
Low - medium: Beryllium can be harmful to animals, especially
impacts Acute ecotoxicity
aquatic animals, and slow growth of plants.
Chronic Low – medium: No data are available on long-term effects of

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
ecotoxicity exposure to beryllium in the environment but it is expected that these
will be of similar type to the acute toxicity albeit at reduced potency.
The Australian water Quality Guideline for Fresh and Marine waters
(1992) is 4x10-6 g/L in fresh water which approximates the
maximum solubility of beryllium oxide.
Extreme: Beryllium in the environment as beryllium oxide is

Persistence
persistent.
Bioaccumulation Low: There is limited evidence of bioaccumulation of beryllium.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
Has anything
happened Health concerns arose in 2005 over waste (dust) from copper-beryllium alloys in material
before in used by the Australian defence forces.
Australia?
Beryllium and beryllium compounds have few industrial uses and

Industry – there is no widespread legislative or regulatory control over their use.
systematic While emissions from coal-burning power stations are reported to the
controls National Pollutant Inventory, no specific action is taken to control or
What control reduce emissions.
measures are
Industry – Australian defence industries are alert to the dangers posed by finely
in place to
exposure divided beryllium alloys and take active steps to educate the
manage risks
controls workforce and provide suitable personal protective equipment.
posed by this
waste? Beryllium and beryllium compounds have few industrial uses and
Government
there is no widespread legislative or regulatory control over their use.
No community action is required to address the dispersion of

Community
beryllium in the environment.
1. Toxicological profile for beryllium (2002) www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp4.pdf.

2. Beryllium Science and Technology Association. www.beryllium.eu.
3. World health organization beryllium profile.
www.who.int/ipcs/publications/cicad/en/cicad32.pdf.
References
4. Managing health Effects of beryllium Exposure (National Academies Press (US)2008).
www.ncbi.nih.gov/books/NBK214769/.
5. M, Brisson et al. (eds), Beryllium: environmental analysis and monitoring (Cambridge:
Royal Society of Chemistry, c2009).

3.20 Hexavalent chromium compounds
Hexavalent chromium compounds category:Y21 code: A1040 D140
Hazard score
(0 – 6) >5.0
Hexavalent chromium (Cr) compounds are those with chromium

present in one of its two common oxidation states - +6 or Cr (VI). Cr
(VI) is used in chrome plating, timber treatment (see Y5), brick and
refractory linings and dyes.
The other common oxidation state is trivalent chromium (+3) or Cr (III),
used in leather tanning, pigments and catalysts. Chromium metal
(oxidation state of 0) is also used in industrial processes, particularly
Description of the steel manufacturing.
waste Cr (VI) compounds and therefore wastes are highly hazardous, due to
the toxicity of the hexavalent state, compared with the trivalent state.
They are also powerful oxidising agents, highly irritant and corrosive.
While Y21 concerns itself only with Cr (VI), the NEPM code D140
What is it? Chromium compounds (hexavalent and trivalent) captures Cr (III) as
well. This is likely to be as a precautionary measure, since Cr oxidation
state may not be clearly known from a waste and environmental
criteria are often expressed in terms of total chromium.
Common Cr (VI) compounds include ammonium dichromate, barium

chromate, chromium trioxide, chromic acid, lead chromate, sodium
dichromate, potassium dichromate, sodium chromate, and zinc
chromate.
Physical/
Most Cr (VI) compounds/ wastes are soluble in water (with the
chemical
exception of barium chromate and lead chromate) and are typically
description
yellow/ orange in colour.
Cr (VI) is a powerful oxidising agent under acidic conditions, which in
turn reduces itself to Cr (III) in such a chemical reaction. However, Cr
(VI) solutions are much less oxidising under alkaline conditions.
H11: Toxic (delayed or inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Primary hazard
chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,

hazardous? Secondary hazard H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
Substances or wastes which, while in

Other hazard(s) H5.1 Oxidising themselves not necessarily combustible,
may, generally by yielding oxygen cause, or

contribute to, the combustion of other
materials.
Main likely chemical contaminants Cr (III)
Chrome plating, steel manufacturing, casting and foundries, timber

Where does it
Main sources treatment, leather tanning (primarily Cr III), chemical manufacturing
come from?
and aerospace industries.

Main fates
managed? Some Cr liquid wastes are discharged to sewer under regulatory
agreements.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.02%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 195 SA: 9
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 725 WA: 90
The most common hazards of human exposure to Cr (VI) compounds

are irritation of the skin, eyes, mouth, throat, lungs and intestines.
Overview
Acute poisoning, through inhalation, can result in death. Cr (VI) is
carcinogenic via inhalation.
Extreme: Very toxic and may be fatal by inhalation. Toxic if swallowed

Acute toxicity or in contact with skin – contact causes severe skin burns and allergic
reactions and severe eye damage.
Low: May cause damage to organs through prolonged or repeated

Potential health
exposure if inhaled, but the consequences of acute effects will be most
impacts
Chronic toxicity severe.
On the skin, chromic acid can cause chronic ulcers known as ‘chrome
holes’.
High: Classified as “sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans”

Carcinogenicity and inhaled hexavalent chromium is a known human carcinogen.
Particularly with respect to lung cancer.
Chromic acid, commonly used in electroplating and surface finishing, is a strong irritant and
Workplace corrosive. Exposure usually arises as the result of splashes, as a mist of chromic acid coated
health & safety bubbles of hydrogen or as chromic acid contaminated dust. Cr (VI) may also be liberated as
impacts a fume during welding of steel.
Occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium has been associated with lung cancer.
Population The general population is exposed to chromium by inhaling ambient air, ingesting food, and

scale impacts drinking water containing chromium. Dermal exposure of the general public to chromium can
occur from skin contact with certain consumer products or soils that contain chromium. The
primary route of non-occupational workers, however, is food ingestion, although this risk is
low. Present-day workers in chromium-related industries can be exposed to chromium
concentrations two orders of magnitude higher than the general population.
Chromium (VI) can have a high to moderate, acute toxic effect on

plants, birds or land animals, and is very toxic to fish. This can mean
death of animals, birds or fish and death or low growth rate in plants.
Overview
Chromium (VI) does not breakdown or degrade easily and there is a
high potential for accumulation of chromium (VI) in fish life.
Potential Cr (VI) is highly mobile, soluble and bioavailable in the environment.
environment
impacts
Bioaccumulation Chromium is not bioaccumulated.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Moderate N/A Low
In 2011 a malfunction at Orica's Kooragang Island synthetic ammonia production plant (near
Newcastle) resulted in the release of hexavalent chromium (in the form of sodium chromate
Has anything particles) over parts of Stockton. The company was fined $768,000 over this and a series of
happened related chemical spills and safety breaches that occurred within months of each other.
before in As much as 10kg of dissolved hexavalent chromium was estimated to have escaped from the
Australia? front stack and, after the plant was washed down, arsenic levels in waste holding ponds had
risen above the legal discharge limit of 0.05 milligrams a litre and were accidently discharged
to the Hunter River (see Y24).
Higher risk workplaces like chrome plating and associated metal

industries, where worker exposure to Cr (VI) compound wastes may
Industry – be possible, routinely monitor at-risk staff via blood or respiratory
systematic testing.
What control controls Such companies are licensed by environmental regulators to control
measures are
in place to
emissions of pollutants like Cr (VI).
manage risks
posed by this Potential industrial sources of hexavalent chromium waste have strict
waste? emissions control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters,
Industry – electrostatic precipitators and stringent trade waste emissions
exposure controls agreements. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate personal
protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to restricting exposure
to airborne sources of chromium.

Government In major Australian reticulated water supplies, total chromium
concentrations range up to 0.03 mg/L, with typical concentrations
being less than 0.005 mg/L. The Health Guideline Value for chromium
in Australian drinking water is set at 0.05 mg/L. If measurements by
water reticulation authorities of total chromium exceed this value then
a separate analysis for hexavalent chromium is undertaken.
1. Australian Government Department of the Environment. National Pollutant Inventory Fact

Sheet – Chromium VI compounds. Accessed March 14, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/chromium-vi-compounds
2. Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) Part one: Toxicology
Assessment. Accessed March 15, 2015 from:
http://apvma.gov.au/sites/default/files/arsenic-phase-8-tox.pdf
3. CSIROpedia (2011). Tanning waste minimisation processes. Accessed March 15, 2015
from:
http://www.csiropedia.csiro.au/display/CSIROpedia/Tanning+waste+minimisation+processes
References 4. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services. Toxicological Profile for Chromium. Accessed April 15, 2015 from:
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp7-c2.pdf
5. Sigma Aldrich (2015). Chromium (VI) oxide Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed April 13,
2015 from:
http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/DisplayMSDSPage.do?country=AU&
language=en&productNumber=675644&brand=ALDRICH&PageToGoToURL=http
%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaaldrich.com%2Fcatalog%2Fproduct%2Faldrich%2F6756
44%3Flang%3Den

3.21 Copper compounds
Basel permit
Waste name: Basel waste code: various NEPM code:
Copper compounds category:Y22 Cu code D190
options
(0 – 6) 0 – 2.5
Copper (Cu) is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical
conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed
surface has a reddish-orange colour. It is used as a conductor of
heat and electricity in a wide range of electrical and electronics
products, a building material (such as in water pipes), and a
constituent of various metal alloys. It is biostatic, meaning bacteria
will not grow on it. For this reason it has long been used to line parts
of ships to protect against barnacles and mussels. There are many
Description of other uses for copper in industrial applications.
the waste
Copper compounds are used in a plethora of applications. These
include: dyes, catalysts, preservatives, in metallurgy, fuel additive, in
electroplating, battery electrodes, fungicides, anti-fouling marine
What is it?
paints, flame proofing and in wood preservation (see Y5).
Copper wastes are both solids, such as refinery slags and flue dusts,
water-treatment sludges and liquids such as washings from shipyard
barnacle removal and spent solutions from refinery acid-plant
processes and scientific research activities.
Solid, sludge and

Waste form
liquid
Copper compounds can exhibit either +1 oxidation state (cuprous) or

+2 (cupric). The former oxidises to the latter relatively easily – the
Physical/ latter is much more stable. Common compounds are copper (II)
chemical acetate, copper (II) chloride, copper (II) sulfate, copper (II) oxide,
description copper (I) oxide, copper (I) cyanide and copper (1) chloride.
Copper can react with strong oxidants like chlorates, bromates and
iodates, causing an explosion hazard.
Why is it
hazardous?
Other metals such as Zn, Cd, Hg, Pb and

Ni.

Basel permit
options
Copper smelting and refining; shipyards and ports; organic chemical
Where does it
Main sources manufacturing, inorganic chemical manufacturing, Scientific research
come from?
activities.

stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill.
How is it
Main fates Significant copper metal recycling and recovery occurs, largely in the
managed?
form of e-waste (see ‘Community’), which is a significant source of
copper alongside virgin mining of the metal.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.01%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 419 SA: 53
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 302 WA: 6
Copper must be absorbed in small amounts on a daily basis to

Overview maintain good health. However, high levels of copper can be harmful
to health.
Low: Harmful if swallowed in excessive quantities, although this can

Acute toxicity be negated because vomiting is automatically triggered by its
irritating effect on the gastrointestinal tract.
Potential health
impacts High: Copper compounds may be irritating to eyes and skin.
Chronic toxicity Cumulative exposure to high levels can damage the liver and
kidneys.
Carcinogenicity Low: Unlikely to be carcinogenic.
Reproductive
No reproductive toxicity exhibited.
toxicity
Occupational sources of copper may result from copper mining and ore processing, by
Workplace
inhaling high levels of copper dust and fumes. Other occupational exposures can occur in
health & safety
agriculture, water treatment, and industries such as electroplating where soluble copper
impacts
compounds are employed.
Exposure to copper can be in many forms, as it is so ubiquitous in consumer products and

applications. Population based data is mostly present in the literature with respect to
chronic low copper dietary impacts, due to its role as a trace element in nutrition.
Population One avenue of exposure is via drinking water from the presence of copper hot water
scale impacts piping, especially if the water has been sitting in the pipes for some hours. After the water
is run for a while, the concentration of copper in the water decreases. The Australian
1
drinking water guideline for copper is 1 mg/L . This limit has been set to prevent laundry
staining and a disagreeable taste from copper in drinking water, which in itself is a form of

Basel permit
options
protection from toxicity.
Copper is a known toxin to fish species, particularly in its more

prevalent Cu (II) ionic form.
Overview
Fish and crustaceans are 10 to 100 times more sensitive to the toxic
effects of copper than are mammals.
Potential Acute ecotoxicity Low: Harmful to aquatic organisms.

environment
High: May cause long-term adverse impacts in the aquatic
impacts Chronic
environment. Chronic impacts have regularly been associated with
ecotoxicity
salmon populations.
Persistence High: Highly persistent in the environment.
Bioaccumulation High: Copper is expected to bioaccumulate in fish tissues.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? Medium Moderate Low Moderate Medium Low
In April 2010 the Northern Territory media reported that copper concentrate (approximately
30-60% copper) had been spilled during use of the bulk ore ship loading facility, a
conveyer belt and portable loading mechanism with a chute, at East Arm Wharf in Darwin
Has anything Harbour. The media alleged that substantial amounts of copper concentrate were spilled
happened onto the wharf hard stand, where dust posed a hazard to human health and directly into
before in the water where it constituted aquatic pollution.
Australia? The NT EPA conducted an investigation and concluded that a number of incidents
involving copper concentrate pollution of the air and water environment of Darwin Harbour
occurred, and enforcement action was successfully undertaken against both Darwin Port
Corporation and the miner of the ore, Oz Minerals Ltd.
Higher risk workplaces like metal smelters, metal coating and metal
Industry – processing industries, where worker exposure to Cu compound
systematic wastes may be possible, are licensed by environmental regulators to
controls control industrial processes and equipment so as to limit
environmental emissions of pollutants like Cu.
What control
Potential industrial sources of Cu waste have strict emissions control
measures are
equipment in place, such as baghouse filters, dust extraction
in place to Industry –
systems, electrostatic precipitators and stringent trade waste
manage risks exposure
emissions agreements. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate
posed by this controls
personal protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to
waste?
restricting exposure to airborne sources of copper.

Government

Basel permit
options
The National Television and Computer Recycling Scheme involves a

combination of government regulation and industry action to take
responsibility for the collection and recycling of waste televisions,
computers, printers and computer products. Under the Scheme,
householders and small business can drop-off these items for free at
Community
designated access points, which may include permanent collection
sites, take-back events or through a mail-back option.
While not expressly classified as a Y22/ D190 waste, e-waste
contains significant amounts of copper, which are recovered for
downstream recycling.
1. Australian Government. National Health and Medical Research Council. Australian

Drinking Water Guidelines (2004). Accessed March 20, 2015 from:
http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines-publications/eh34
Fact Sheet – Copper and compounds. Accessed March 20, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/copper-and-compounds
References 3. Melpat International Pty Ltd. (2013). Copper sulphate Material Safety Data Sheet.
http://www.melpat.com.au/documents/CopperSulphate_MSDS_001.pdf
4. Safe Work Australia. Hazardous Substances Information System (HSIS). Accessed April
20, 2015 from: http://hsis.safeworkaustralia.gov.au

3.22 Zinc compounds
Zinc compounds category:Y23 code: A1080* D230
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0
Zinc (Zn) is a metallic element that is relatively abundant in the

earth’s crust as a zinc ore such as sphalerite, a zinc sulfide mineral.
Australia has large mineable deposits of zinc, commonly called a
‘base’ metal.
Zinc is mainly used as a protective coating for iron and steel
Description of
(galvanising). It is further used for the production of zinc alloys (e.g.
the waste
brass), rolled zinc, zinc dust (a pigment and a reducing agent), and
zinc compounds (e.g. zinc oxide).
Zinc wastes are usually solids and can present as waste slag from
What is it? smelting operations, spent filter cartridges from electroplating or
dusts from metal manufacturing and processing activities.
Waste form Solid
Zinc metal is brittle at ambient temperatures but malleable at 100 to

150°C. It can also be rolled at these temperatures. It is a reasonable
conductor of electricity. Zinc forms many alloys such as brass (with
Physical/ copper).
chemical Elemental zinc is stable under ordinary conditions of use and
description storage. However, zinc is listed below to exhibit some self-heating
properties - moist zinc dust can react exothermically and ignite
spontaneously in air.
Zinc oxide the most widely zinc compound in industrial applications.

Substances or wastes which are liable to

H4.2: Substances or
spontaneous heating under normal
wastes liable to
conditions encountered in transport, or to
spontaneous
Why is it heating up on contact with air, and being
combustion
hazardous? Secondary then liable to catch fire.
hazard H4.3: Substances or
Substances or wastes which, by interaction
wastes which, in
with water, are liable to become
contact with water
spontaneously flammable or to give off
emit flammable
flammable gases in dangerous quantities
gases

H11: Toxic (delayed
Other hazard(s) inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
or chronic)
skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,

Copper, Lead, Mercury, Cadmium, arsenic,

antimony.
Basic iron and steel manufacturing; Copper, Silver, Lead and Zinc
Where does it
Main sources smelting and refining; Metal coating and finishing, Inorganic chemical
come from?
manufacturing.

How is it
Main fates stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill.
managed?
Some metal recycling and recovery occurs.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 675 SA: 91,339
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 111,170 Vic: 7,034 WA: 873
Zinc is an essential trace element in the diet of all living organisms

from bacteria to humans. Either too little zinc or too much zinc can
be harmful, causing health problems.
Overview
Unlike its heavy metal counterparts such as lead, mercury and
cadmium, zinc exhibits quite low human health impacts. It is similar
Potential health to copper in this regard.
impacts Acute toxicity Low:
Chronic toxicity Low:
Carcinogenicity Not carcinogenic.
Reproductive
Low:
toxicity
Workplace Occupational exposure to higher than normal zinc levels may occur when breathing zinc
health & safety dust or fumes at industrial sites such as smelters, galvanising facilities or metal
impacts manufacturing plants.
Population
None included due to zinc’s relatively low potential for health impacts.
scale impacts
The toxicity of zinc in water is influenced by water hardness and pH,

with lower toxicity encountered in waters with higher water hardness
Potential and lower pH, and vice versa. Generally, zinc and its salts have high
Overview
environment acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic life in polluted waters.
impacts Insufficient data are available to evaluate or predict the effects of
zinc and its compounds to plants, birds, or land animals.
Acute ecotoxicity High: Toxic to aquatic organisms.

Chronic
High: May cause long term toxic effects in the aquatic environment.
ecotoxicity
Extreme: Like other base or heavy metals, zinc does not break down
Persistence
in the environment.
Bioaccumulation Low: Tendency to bioaccumulate is low.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? Medium Moderate Low Moderate Medium Low
Historical mining and metal processing operations have resulted in serious heavy metal
Has anything pollution in a number of areas in Australia, some of which involve zinc. These include the
happened King River (mainly Cu, also Zn, Pb and Cd) and the Derwent River estuary (mainly Zn and
before in Cd, also Hg) in Tasmania; as well as Captains Flat and Molongolo River in New South
Australia? Wales (mainly Zn, also Cu, Cd, Pb and As). These have resulted in legacy pollution of
1
waters, sediments, fish and other aquatic life.
Industry – processing industries, where worker exposure to Zn compound
systematic wastes may be possible, are licensed by environmental regulators to
controls control industrial processes and equipment so as to limit
environmental emissions of pollutants like Zn.
What control Potential industrial sources of Zn waste have strict emissions control
measures are equipment in place, such as baghouse filters, dust extraction
Industry –
in place to systems, electrostatic precipitators and stringent trade waste
exposure
manage risks emissions agreements. Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate
controls
posed by this personal protective equipment (PPE), particularly relating to
waste? restricting exposure to airborne sources of zinc.

1. Hutchinson T and Meema K (ed), Lead, Mercury, Cadmium and Arsenic in the
Environment, Chapter 13 (Hart B and Lake P). John Wiley and Sons Ltd (1987). Accessed
April 17, 2015 from:
http://dge.stanford.edu/SCOPE/SCOPE_31/SCOPE_31_2.08_Chapter13_187-216.pdf
Fact Sheet – Zinc and compounds. Accessed March 19, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/zinc-and-compounds
References
3. Sigma Aldrich (2013). Zinc Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed April 19, 2015 from:
30%3Flang%3Den
4. Safe Work Australia. Controlling Risks associated with Electroplating.

* Relevant only if zinc residues contain lead or cadmium at significant concentrations

3.23 Arsenic; arsenic compounds

Basel waste
code: A1010,
Arsenic; arsenic compounds category:Y24 D130
A1030
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9
Arsenic and arsenic compounds have been used in Australia in

manufacturing and formulating chemicals used in wood preservation
and pesticide applications, although arsenic is no longer used in
pesticides in Australia. Arsenic may also be used in specific
glassmaking applications; such as to produce clear glass, free from
Description of
the green stain of iron impurity.
the waste
Arsenic also occurs naturally in mineral form, usually with sulphur
What is it? and valuable metals such as copper and gold – for example
geologists often look for arsenic in soil as a means of locating an ore
1
body . Solid arsenic wastes can result from smelting for other
metals, where arsenic is present in the ore.
Waste form Solid
Elemental arsenic is unlikely to occur in pure form in Australia as

most of its applications are either in its trivalent (As III, called
Physical/
arsenites) or pentavalent (As V, called arsenates) oxidation states,
chemical
both typically present as solids. The former is its most hazardous
description
form and the simplest trivalent arsenic compound, arsine gas, is
extremely toxic.
Primary hazard

hazard
Main likely chemical contaminants Other heavy metals could be present.
Glass manufacturing, metal smelting, mining, inorganic chemical

Where does it
Main sources manufacturing and manufacturers/ formulators of copper chrome
come from?
arsenate (CCA) wood preservative (see Y5).
How is it Chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard, then the

Main fates
managed? stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste landfill.


Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1030
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 126 SA: 1
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 73 WA: 0
The most common hazards of human exposure to arsenic

compounds are:
Overview • Irritation of the skin, eyes, mouth, throat and lungs.

• Chronic poisoning, including cancer of the skin and lungs.
• Acute poisoning that may result in death.
High: Toxic by inhalation – the most likely exposure route - irritation

of the nose, throat and lungs, impaired respiration and perforation of
Acute toxicity 2
the nasal septum have been reported in smelter workers . Toxic if
swallowed and can be fatal.
Potential health Extreme: Chronic arsenic poisoning due to exposure to compounds

impacts such as calcium arsenate and copper acetoarsenate, is
characterised by weakness, loss of appetite, gastro-intestinal
Chronic toxicity
disturbances, numbness and tingling of the extremities. Chronic
exposure to arsenic trioxide may lead to liver damage and skin
disorders such as keratoses and pigmentation.
Extreme: Can cause cancer in humans, particularly skin cancer, and

has also been associated with increases in the incidence of various
Carcinogenicity
other types of cancers, such as lung cancer among copper smelter
2
and pesticide workers .
Reproductive
High: Possible reproductive and teratogenic effects.
toxicity
Occupational exposure studies have been conducted on adults working in copper smelters
3
in the 1940s-1960s, following their health impacts through to the 1990s . Definitive links
Workplace were established between arsenic, a by-product of copper smelting, and lung cancer via
health & safety inhalation. The pathway of exposure for these workers was mainly via inhalation of arsenic
impacts dusts but could also have been from arsenic trioxide vapours. Occupational and
environmental controls have virtually eliminated these workplace risks today, at least in
Australia.
Elevated arsenic concentrations in water have been indicated as a public health hazard in
4
many countries where individuals rely on groundwater for drinking purposes . Australian
Population cities maintain high levels of water quality so such epidemiological observations have not
scale impacts occurred in Australia. It is possible however, that more remote areas located near
abandoned mine workings could have elevated natural arsenic levels in the soil and, as a
result, drinking water supplies in these areas may be contaminated.
Arsenic exhibits toxic effects in the environment as well as on human

Potential
Overview health. It is persistent and bioaccumulative and can exhibit long-term
environment
toxic effects in the aquatic environment similar to related heavy

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1030
impacts metals.
Arsenic levels in groundwater from either naturally high surrounding
mineralogy, from mining run-off of high-arsenic ores and from other
forms of pollution are a problem in some parts of the world.
Acute ecotoxicity Moderate: Toxic to aquatic organisms.
Chronic High: May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic

Persistence Extreme: Very persistent in the environment
Bioaccumulation High: Can accumulate in seafood.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? Medium Moderate Moderate Moderate N/A Low
Effluent containing high levels of arsenic leaked into the Hunter River from Orica’s
Has anything
Kooragang Island chemical plant (in Newcastle) in 2011. Arsenic had not been used on the
happened
site since 1993, however, during a clean-up of a hexavalent chromium spill on the site the
before in
week prior (see Y21), approximately 1.2 million litres of washwater containing old deposits
Australia? 5
of arsenic leaked into a storage pond and drained into the Hunter River.
Higher risk workplaces like metal smelters, where worker exposure

to arsenic or other airborne pollutants may be possible, routinely
Industry –
monitor at-risk staff via blood or urine-based testing.
systematic
Such companies are licensed by environmental regulators to control
controls
emissions of pollutants like arsenic.
Potential industrial sources of arsenic waste have strict emissions

What control Industry –
control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters and
measures are exposure
electrostatic precipitators. Additionally at-risk workers wear
appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
manage risks
posed by this State and territory governments regulate the management of
waste? hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
Government licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.
Australian drinking water guidelines set a maximum level of arsenic
at 0.01mg/L. Australian drinking water monitoring shows results are
6
typically between <0.001 and 0.03 mg/L , although levels above
0.01mg/L are not commonly encountered.
1. What is the role of arsenic in the mining industry? Accessed March 10, 2015 from:
References http://www.miningfacts.org/Environment/What-is-the-role-of-arsenic-in-the-mining-industry/
2. National Occupational Health and Safety Commission, Commonwealth of Australia

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1030
(1989). Arsenic and its compounds. Accessed March 13, 2015 from:
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/22/Arsenic
AndItsCompounds_1989_PDF.pdf
3. Hughes M, Beck B, Chen Y, Lewis A and Thomas D (2011). Arsenic Exposure and
Toxicology: A Historical Perspective. Toxicol. Sci. 2011: 123 (2): 305-332. First published
online: July 12, 2011. Accessed April 13, 2015 from:
http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/content/123/2/305.full
4. Smith AH, Lingas EO, Rahman M. (2000). Contamination of drinking-water by arsenic in
Bangladesh: a public health emergency. Bull. World Health Organ 2000;78:1093-1103.
5. Newcastle Herald, 19 August 2011. Orica spills arsenic into Hunter River. Accessed
April 13, 2015 from: http://www.theherald.com.au/story/474359/orica-spills-arsenic-into-
hunter-river/
6. Arsenic in drinking water, a Queensland Health Fact Sheet (2012). Accessed March 10,
2015 from: http://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/documents/ehu/fs-arsenic.pdf
7. Sigma Aldrich (2015). Arsenic (III) Oxide Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed April 13,
2015 from: http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/DisplayMSDSPage.do?country=AU
&language=en&productNumber=311383&brand=SIAL&PageToGoToURL=http
%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaaldrich.com%2Fcatalog%2Fproduct%2Fsial%2F3113
83%3Flang%3Den


3.24 Selenium; selenium compounds

Basel waste
code: A1010,
Selenium; selenium compounds category:Y25 D240
A1020
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8
Trace amounts of selenium are essential for humans and most diets
usually provide enough selenium to meet the daily requirement.
Diets lacking selenium have resulted in heart problems and muscle
pain. Diets with too much selenium can be harmful at levels 5 to 10
times higher than the daily requirement.
Uses in electronics and photography account for the majority of
Description of selenium use, followed by the glass industry, then pigments (in
the waste plastics, paints, dyes, enamels, inks and textiles). Selenium dioxide
is the most widely used selenium compound in industry. It is used as
an oxidising agent in drug and other chemical manufacture, a
catalyst in organic syntheses, and an anti-oxidant in lubricating oils.
What is it?
In Australia, selenium waste is low in volume and limited to a small
number of industrial processes, typically involving metal processing
and/ or recycling.
Waste form Solid
Selenium is an odourless metalloid (an element which has both

metallic and non-metallic properties) like arsenic and antimony but
most closely resembling tellurium. It can be a grey (the 'metallic' and
Physical/ most stable form), red or black solid.
chemical Selenium can be present in sulfide minerals and also iron oxide
description minerals. However is among the rarer elements on Earth.
Common selenium salts such as selenium dioxide, selenium
disulphide and selenium hexafluoride are either slightly water soluble
or insoluble.

Why is it Substances or wastes which, if they are
hazardous? Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Main likely chemical contaminants As, S and heavy metals
Where does it
Main sources Inorganic chemical manufacturing, metal smelting, metal recycling.
come from?

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
How is it
managed?
Limited recycling and recovery of selenium may occur in Australia.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.001%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 1 SA: 7
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 0
Selenium is a trace element essential in a human diet but can be

harmful at levels only 5 to 10 times the daily recommended intake.
Overview For example, Accidentally swallowing a large quantity of selenium
supplement pills could be life-threatening without immediate medical
treatment.
High: Toxic by inhalation and if swallowed. Acute and fatal toxicities

have occurred with accidental or suicidal ingestion of gram quantities
Acute toxicity of selenium. Clinically significant selenium toxicity was reported in 13
individuals after taking supplements that contained 27.3 milligrams
1
Potential health (instead of micrograms) per tablet due to a manufacturing error.
impacts
High: Danger of cumulative effect. Chronic selenium toxicity
(selenosis) may occur with smaller doses of selenium over long
Chronic toxicity
periods of time. The most frequently reported symptoms of selenosis
1
are hair and nail brittleness and loss.
Low: Selenium is not known to have carcinogenic effects, although

Carcinogenicity one specific selenium compound, selenium sulfide, may be
carcinogenic.
Reproductive
Low: Not known to have reproductive effects.
toxicity
Workplace
health & safety Low use chemical/ waste generated in Australia. No specific workplace impacts known.
impacts
Exposure to selenium mainly takes place through food, because selenium is naturally
present in grains, cereals and meat. Humans need to absorb certain amounts of selenium
daily, in order to maintain good health.
Population
No specific population scale impacts from excessive selenium were identified, although a
scale impacts
number of references cited the impacts on populations with low selenium diets. For
example, epidemiological studies have reported an inverse association between selenium
2
levels in the blood and cancer occurrence.
Potential Overview Selenium can be toxic, particularly to livestock that eat plants that

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
environment accumulate selenium to high levels.
impacts Selenium can cause significant reproductive problems to fish and
aquatic-dependent wildlife as a result of its ability to bioaccumulate.
High: May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic

Chronic environment. Selenium can cause significant reproductive problems
ecotoxicity to fish and aquatic-dependent wildlife as a result of its ability to
bioaccumulate.
Persistence Extreme: Very persistent in the environment
Extreme: Highly bioaccumulative but this effect is dependent upon

Bioaccumulation the type of selenium at the source, the chemistry and biology of the
receiving environment.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low
There are no reported incidents involving selenium compounds in Australia. However, in

Has anything the US there were with two high-profile incidents in the 1980s. Belews Lake, North
happened Carolina, suffered a severe fish die-off and the loss of 16 of 20 species of fish as a result of
before in 10 years of discharging ash from a coal-fired power plant directly into the lake. The second
Australia? selenium event was when severe deformities were observed in birds at Kesterson Wildlife
3
Refuge, California, which was contaminated with selenium in agricultural drainage water.
Higher risk workplaces like metal smelters, where worker exposure

to selenium or other airborne pollutants may be possible, routinely
Industry –
monitor at-risk staff via blood or urine-based testing.
systematic
controls
emissions of pollutants like selenium.
What control
measures are Potential industrial sources of selenium waste have strict emissions
in place to Industry – control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters, scrubbing
manage risks exposure systems, electrostatic precipitators and mist eliminators. Additionally
posed by this controls at-risk workers wear appropriate personal protective equipment
waste? (PPE).

1. Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Information Center, Oregon State University.

References Accessed April 17, 2015 from: http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/selenium
2. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2000). Selenium compounds

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
hazard summary. Accessed April 17, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.gov/airtoxics/hlthef/selenium.html
3. Exponent (2010). Selenium Fact Sheet. Accessed on April 17, 2015 from:
http://www.tva.com/kingston/exponent/Selenium%20fact%20sheet.pdf
Fact Sheet – Selenium and compounds. Accessed March 17, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/selenium-compounds
5. Safework Australia. Hazardous Substances Information System (HSIS). Accessed April

3.25 Cadmium; cadmium compounds

Basel waste
code: A1010,
Cadmium; cadmium compounds category:Y26 D150
A1020
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9
Cadmium (Cd) is an extremely toxic metal commonly found in

industrial workplaces. Due to its low permissible exposure limit,
overexposures may occur even in situations where trace quantities
of cadmium are found. Cadmium is used extensively in
electroplating. Cadmium is also found in some industrial paints and
may represent a hazard when sprayed. Operations involving removal
of cadmium paints by scraping or blasting may pose a significant
hazard.
More contemporary uses of cadmium are in some types of batteries,
electronic equipment (as semi-conductors) and as the relatively
Description of stable cadmium telluride in solar panels.
the waste Cadmium is present as an impurity in products such as non-ferrous
metals (zinc, lead and copper), iron and steel, fossil fuels (coal, oil,
gas, peat and wood), cement, and phosphate fertilisers.
Contamination of soil, sediments and waterways is a historical
problem, primarily from the use of Cd-contaminated phosphate
fertilisers, deliberate land application and disposal of biosolids/
What is it?
wastewater effluent and atmospheric deposits from fossil fuel
combustion.
Cadmium wastes may arise from end of life products mentioned
above plus industrial residues, liquors and sludges from their
production.
Cadmium is a natural element in the earth's crust. It is usually found

as a mineral combined with other elements such as oxygen
(cadmium oxide), chlorine (cadmium chloride), or sulfur (cadmium
sulfate, cadmium sulfide).
In Australia cadmium oxide has been used in electroplating, and is
Physical/ found in semiconductors, batteries and in glass and ceramic glazes.
chemical Cadmium chloride is the ‘cadmium yellow’ pigment and cadmium
description sulfide is used in the electronics industry for photocells and light
emitting diodes.
In water some of the compounds will be quite soluble (cadmium
chloride) and others will be insoluble (cadmium oxide). As fine
powder cadmium metal will burn, releasing toxic fumes of cadmium
oxide.

Why is it H11: Toxic (delayed
Primary hazard inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
hazardous? or chronic)

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020

Secondary
hazard
Other heavy metals and metalloids such as

Main likely chemical contaminants tellurium, arsenic and antimony. Commonly
found in zinc deposits and phosphate rock.
The main industrial sources of cadmium related hazardous waste

are electricity supply, aerospace industries, ports, defence activities,
fertiliser manufacturing, metal mining and metal processing.
The largest waste from these industrial sources are end of life nickel
cadmium (NiCad) batteries. Cadmium may also be present in spent
Where does it
Main sources catalyst waste and other metal processing residues.
come from?
Significant contributions of cadmium in waste come through more
distributed and traditionally non-hazardous streams such as e-waste,
biosolids and agricultural fertiliser run-off. These streams are not
reflected in hazardous waste arising volumes of cadmium; cadmium
compounds.
End of life NiCad batteries are increasingly undergoing recycling, as

is e-waste.
Other forms of cadmium waste undergo chemical/ physical treatment
How is it
Main fates to immobilise the hazard, then the stabilised material is disposed of
managed?
in hazardous waste landfill. Some Cd liquid wastes may be
discharged to sewer under regulatory agreements, which will require
the meeting of low concentration limits for Cd.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.0004%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 8 SA: 4
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 2 Vic: 1 WA: 8
Cadmium is a very toxic and carcinogenic heavy metal, which is

ubiquitous (but generally at low levels) in the environment, food and
Potential health Overview
water supplies, primarily from historical pollution, and industrial
impacts workplaces.
Acute toxicity Extreme: Very toxic by inhalation – can be fatal. Toxic if swallowed.

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
Extreme: Toxic: danger of serious damage to health by prolonged
exposure through inhalation and if swallowed. Breathing air with
Chronic toxicity lower levels of cadmium over a number of years results in a build-up
of cadmium in the kidney, and if sufficiently high, may result in
kidney disease.
Extreme: Known to cause cancer in humans. Lung cancer has been

Carcinogenicity found in some studies of workers exposed to cadmium in the air and
studies of rats that breathed in cadmium.
Reproductive
Low: Possible risk of impaired fertility and harm to the unborn child.
toxicity
In the workplace, people are exposed where cadmium is used or generated as a by-
Workplace product, such as in battery manufacturing and recycling, some forms of painting and
health & safety sandblasting, metal soldering, welding or other activities in metal manufacturing and
impacts refining. There is the potential for airborne cadmium exposure anywhere where fossil fuels
are combusted.
People are exposed to cadmium primarily through their diet, since cadmium is absorbed
Population and bioaccumulated into plant and animal foods that people eat, from contamination of soil
scale impacts and to a lesser extent water. People are exposed to higher amounts of cadmium by
breathing cigarette smoke.
Cadmium is toxic to a wide range of micro-organisms. In the marine

environment, the presence of sediment, high concentrations of
dissolved salts or organic matter all reduce the toxic impact.
Conversely zinc, which is commonly is present in cadmium-
Overview containing wastes, increases the toxicity of cadmium to aquatic
invertebrates.
Industrial and agricultural cadmium discharges to air and water has
led to wide-reaching contamination of soil, sediment, groundwaters
Potential and surface waters.
environment Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Very toxic to aquatic organisms.
impacts
Extreme: Very persistent in the environment. Cadmium does not

break down in the environment, but may be affected by physical and
Persistence
chemical processes that modify its mobility, bioavailability, and
residence time in different environmental media.
Extreme: Strongly bioaccumulative, particularly in terrestrial

Bioaccumulation
environments through plant soil uptake and the animal food chain.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium Medium Low

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
Cadmium is commonly found with other heavy metal wastes, such as those relating to
zinc, lead and mercury, and there have been historical heavy metal environmental
incidents and impacts in Australia that have involved cadmium. The most notable have
been associated with the mining and metal processing industry. On a smaller scale there
Has anything
have also been examples of localised pollution by electroplating wastes and metal-based
happened
pigments.
before in
Historical mining operations have resulted in serious heavy metal pollution in a number of
Australia?
areas in Australia. These include the King River (mainly Cu, also Zn, Pb and Cd) and the
Derwent River estuary (mainly Zn and Cd, also Hg) in Tasmania; as well as Captains Flat
and Molonglo River in New South Wales (mainly Zn, also Cu, Cd, Pb and As). These have
resulted in legacy pollution of waters, sediments, fish and other aquatic life.
Higher risk workplaces like metal smelters and mine processing

industries, where worker exposure to Cd compound wastes may be
possible, routinely monitor at-risk staff via blood and urine testing.
emissions of pollutants like Cd.
Industry – NiCad batteries are a large source of cadmium-containing hazardous
systematic waste. Battery recycling is a growing industrial sector in Australia
controls dedicated to the recovery of a number of valuable commodities such
as precious and heavy metals, including cadmium. The Australian
Battery Recycling Initiative (ABRI) has been formed by a group of
What control battery manufacturers, recyclers, retailers, government bodies and
measures are environment groups to promote the collection, recycling and safe
in place to disposal of all batteries.
manage risks See “Community” section regarding e-waste recycling.
posed by this
waste? Potential industrial sources of Cd waste have strict emissions control
equipment in place, such as baghouse filters, electrostatic
Industry –
precipitators and stringent trade waste emissions agreements.
exposure
Additionally at-risk workers wear appropriate personal protective
controls
equipment (PPE), particularly relating to restricting exposure to
airborne sources of cadmium.

Government
See “Community” section regarding e-waste recycling.

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
The National Television and Computer Recycling Scheme involves a
combination of government regulation and industry action to take
responsibility for the collection and recycling of waste televisions,
computers, printers and computer products. Under the Scheme,
householders and small business can drop-off these items for free at
Community
designated access points, which may include permanent collection
sites, take-back events or through a mail-back option.
While not expressly classified as a Y26/ D150 waste, e-waste
contains a number of heavy metals in printed circuit boards in
particular, which are recovered for downstream recycling.

Fact Sheet – Cadmium and compounds. Accessed March 17, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/cadmium-and-compounds
2. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services. Toxicological Profile for Cadmium. Accessed April 17, 2015 from:
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/substances/toxsubstance.asp?toxid=15
3. Sigma Aldrich (2015). Cadmium oxide Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed April 17,
2015 from:
94%3Flang%3Den
References 4. International Cadmium Association (ICdA). Cadmium exposure and human health.
Accessed April 17, 2015 from: http://www.cadmium.org/pg_n.php?id_menu=5
5. Safework Australia. Hazardous Substances Information System (HSIS). Accessed April
6. Hutchinson T and Meema K (ed), Lead, Mercury, Cadmium and Arsenic in the
Environment, Chapter 13 (Hart B and Lake P). John Wiley and Sons Ltd (1987). Accessed
http://dge.stanford.edu/SCOPE/SCOPE_31/SCOPE_31_2.08_Chapter13_187-216.pdf
7. Australian Battery Recycling Initiative (ABRI) website. Accessed April 17, 2015 from:
http://www.batteryrecycling.org.au/home

3.26 Antimony; antimony compounds

Basel waste
code: A1010,
Antimony; antimony compounds category:Y27 D170
A1020
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 0 – 2.5
The vast majority of antimony is used in manufacturing processes for

plastics and polymers where, in its trioxide, pentoxide, or (especially)
sodium antimonite form, it functions as a fire retardant. It is also
mixed into alloys and used in lead storage batteries, solder, sheet
Description of
and pipe metal, motor bearings, castings, semiconductors, and
the waste
pewter.
What is it? Antimony has been mined in Australia several times in the past.
Antimony wastes is produced in extremely small quantities in
Australia.
Solid, but may be in

Waste form liquid form (as in
mine tailings).
Physical/
Antimony is a brittle silver-white metal that occurs in soil and rocks in
chemical
certain parts of the world. It may present as waste in mine tailings.
description

Primary hazard

Why is it Secondary
hazardous? hazard
Other mined metal species and heavy

Main likely chemical contaminants metals present in the ore body such as
arsenic and mercury.
There are approximately two antimony mines currently operating in

Australia. The very small quantities of antimony-related waste are
Where does it
Main sources likely to come from either these sources or other mining such as iron
come from?
ore or gold mining, given that antimony minerals are often found with
arsenic, iron, silver and sulphur, as well as gold.

Main fates
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

How much is

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
0.0001%

Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 0 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 4
Its toxicity highly depends upon chemical form and oxidation state
with +III compounds exerting greater toxicity than +V compounds.
Antimony compounds show toxic properties similar to those of
arsenic, though typically less severe. Exposure to antimony can
Overview result in a variety of adverse health effects, but it must be at quite
high levels, which is unlikely in most industrial settings.
It is noted that Antimony can have beneficial effects when used for
medical reasons. It has been used as a medicine to treat people
1
infected with tropical parasites.
Low: Harmful if inhaled or swallowed – breathing high levels for a

Potential health
long time can irritate eyes and lungs and can cause heart and lung
impacts Acute toxicity
problems, stomach pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, and stomach ulcers.
Ingesting large doses of antimony can cause vomiting.
Chronic toxicity Low: Likely to have low to negligible chronic effects.
Low: Studies are inconclusive as to its human carcinogenicity,

hence antimony has not been classified as carcinogenic. However,
Carcinogenicity
antimony trioxide is carcinogenic in animal experiments and is
regarded as 'possibly carcinogenic to humans'.
Reproductive Low: There is a lack of conclusive information in the literature about

toxicity reproductive toxicity of antimony, hence this impact is rated as low.
Gross exposure to antimony compounds over long periods, usually the sulfide (SbS3) or
Workplace
the oxide (Sb2O3) has occurred in antimony miners and in antimony process workers
health & safety
overseas, although rarely studied. No specific information exists for Australian antimony
impacts
mining and related waste, which is limited.
Antimony has been implicated in the cause of cot deaths, or Sudden Infant Death
2
Syndrome (SIDS) by Richardson in 1990 . It was claimed that antimony compounds used
Population in fireproofing cot furnishings amongst other additives was primarily responsible for SIDS
scale impacts due to the action of a fungus (Scopulariopsis brevicaulis) growing on polyvinyl chloride cot
mattress covers. This causal role of antimony in SIDS was ultimately refuted due to lack of
3
evidence .
Little information is available on the transformations and transport of

Potential antimony in. air, water and soil. The mobility of antimony in soils is
environment Overview not clearly understood. Some studies indicate that antimony is highly
impacts mobile, while others conclude that it strongly adsorbs to soil. In
water, it usually adheres to sediments.

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
Acute ecotoxicity Low: May be toxic to aquatic organisms.
Chronic Medium: May cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic

ecotoxicity, environment. Most antimony compounds show little or no tendency
Persistence & to accumulate in aquatic life. Some plants, mosses, lichens and fungi
bioaccumulation are able to accumulate antimony compounds.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? Medium Moderate Moderate Moderate N/A Low
A former antimony processing plant in Urunga NSW, which operated between 1969 and
1974, was abandoned in 1974 without clean up or remedial work. Tailings and mill waste
water were discharged onto the wetland foreshore area during the plant operations. The
Has anything
tailings and adjoining environment are contaminated by a range of heavy metals,
happened
particularly arsenic, antimony and mercury. A belt of dead Melaleuca trees characterises
before in
the periphery of the tailings deposit. The tailings area is devoid of vegetation, and is
Australia?
periodically inundated by flood water and/or surface runoff. Preliminary works on the long-
anticipated remediation of the contaminated antimony site at Urunga commenced in
December 2014.
Mining or manufacturing companies likely to use or produce

Industry –
antimony compounds are licensed by environmental regulators to
systematic
control industrial processes and equipment so as to limit
controls
environmental emissions of pollutants like antimony.
What control
Potential industrial sources of arsenic waste have strict emissions
measures are Industry –
control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters and
in place to exposure
electrostatic precipitators. Additionally at-risk workers wear
manage risks controls
posed by this
waste?

Fact Sheet – Antimony and compounds. Accessed March 14, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/antimony-and-compounds
2. Richardson BA. Cot mattress biodeterioration and SIDS. Lancet. 1990;335:670.
3. SIDS and Kids. National Scientific Advisory Group (NSAG) (2005). Information
References
Statement: Speculation concerning toxic gas from mattresses. Accessed March 14, 2015
from: http://www.sidsandkids.org/wp-
content/uploads/SIDS_SafeSleeping_A4_IS_ToxicGasesLR1web1.pdf
4. GHD (2012). Former Antimony Processing Plant- Urunga NSW Detailed Investigation
Report for NSW Catchment and Lands- Crown Lands. Accessed March 10, 2015 from:
http://www.lpma.nsw.gov.au/about_crown_land/publications/exhibition_and_

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
information/information2/?a=197582
5. Sigma Aldrich (2015). Antimony Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed April 13, 2015
from: http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/DisplayMSDSPage.do?
country=AU&language=en&productNumber=266329&brand=
ALDRICH&PageToGoToURL=https%3A%2F%2Ffanyv88.com%3A443%2Fhttp%2Fwww.sigmaaldrich.com%2
Fcatalog%2Fproduct%2Faldrich%2F266329%3Flang%3Den

3.27 Tellurium; tellurium compounds

Basel waste
code: A1010,
Tellurium; tellurium compounds category:Y28 D250
A1020
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8
Tellurium is a brittle and rare, silver-white metalloid which looks

similar to tin and has similar chemistry to selenium. Tellurium is
typically present in industrial applications and mineralogy as salts of
tellurium, such as tellurides.
Tellurium is used in in steel and copper alloys to improve
machinability, and increasingly in solar panels (as cadmium telluride)
and as a semiconductor material.
Description of Tellurium and tellurium compounds are considered to be mildly toxic
the waste and need to be handled with care, although acute poisoning is rare.
Its primary hazard is ecotoxicity in the aquatic environment.
Tellurium can be found in anode sludges produced during the
electrolytic refining of blister copper and also as a component of
What is it? dusts from blast furnace refining of lead. In Australia, these sludges
and dusts are how tellurium is likely to present currently as
hazardous waste, although their concentrations will likely be lower
than other metals of concern, such as lead.
Waste form Solid and sludge
When crystalline, tellurium is silvery-white and when it is in pure

state it has a metallic lustre which resists oxidation and is non-
volatile. Tellurium is one of the rarest stable solid elements in the
Earth's crust – three times rarer than gold. It is sometimes found in
Physical/ its native form, but is more often found as the tellurides of gold such
chemical as calaverite and krennerite.
description Cadmium telluride from solar panels is one of the most likely forms
of tellurium for human health or environmental exposure. It has very
low solubility in water and is very stable at high temperatures.
Consequently cadmium telluride is reported as having much lower
environmental mobility and toxicity than other forms of cadmium.
Why is it
hazardous? Substances or wastes which, if they are

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
Main likely chemical contaminants Heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Cu and Zn.
Literature quotes a number of industrial sources. Those applicable in

Australia include various types of metal smelters and refineries, steel
manufacturing and foundry industries.
No tellurium wastes are reported in Australian hazardous waste
generation data. This may be due to the fact that tellurium-
containing wastes are likely to be classified according to other more
Where does it
Main sources dominant species present, such as copper, lead, zinc or cadmium.
come from?
Perhaps the biggest issue with tellurium is a future one. The rapid
rise of solar panels has excellent upside from a clean energy
generation perspective, but presents a potential waste challenge in
the years ahead when a critical mass of solar panels reach end of
life. Tellurium’s rarity may drive recycling efforts, which are not
prevalent at present.
Likely to be chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard,

How is it
Main fates then the stabilised material would be disposed of in hazardous waste
managed?
landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) Not reported
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 0 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 0
Tellurium and tellurium compounds are considered to be mildly toxic

and need to be handled with care, although acute poisoning is rare.
Overview Tellurium poisoning is particularly difficult to treat as many chelation
agents used in the treatment of metal toxicities will increase the
toxicity of tellurium. Tellurium is not reported to be carcinogenic.
Low: Harmful by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.
Potential health Humans exposed to even small concentrations in air exude a foul
1
Acute toxicity garlic-like odour known as "tellurium breath.” Tellurium is
impacts
metabolized by the body to dimethyl telluride, (CH3)2Te, a volatile
compound with a highly pungent garlic-like smell.
Chronic toxicity None known
Carcinogenicity None known
Reproductive
None known
toxicity
Workplace Inhalation of dusts from metal refining operations is a possible source of workplace
health & safety exposure to tellurium compounds. Such exposure has been linked to the ‘garlic breath’

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
impacts phenomenon, which is reported as a good indicator of tellurium ‘poisoning’, even at mild
2
levels.
Should a future recycling industry emerge for dealing with end of life solar panels, there
may be a new issue of potential exposure. While the cadmium telluride chemical structure
found in solar panels would appear to be a relatively safe way to ‘contain’ cadmium toxicity
(see ‘Physical/ chemical description’), highly concentrated H2SO4 and H2O2 are needed to
extract and recover Cd and Te in the recycling process. Not only are these strong acids
and their wastes hazardous, toxic hydrogen telluride gas and cadmium salts would be
formed, which would need to be carefully managed.
Population
No population scale impacts identified.
scale impacts
Tellurium and compounds must be rated as strongly toxic to the

aquatic environment, based on hazard criteria associated with
cadmium telluride. However, there is a suggestion in the literature
3
that this is overly cautious , based on the toxicities exhibited by
cadmium salts generally, rather than actual toxicity of cadmium
Overview telluride, the most likely form of tellurium to impact the environment.
Recent aquatic toxicity testing showed no effects (lethal or sublethal)
from cadmium telluride at aquatic saturation for zebrafish over 96
Potential 4
hours.
environment
impacts The environmental impacts from tellurium compounds are only
recently beginning to be investigated.

Persistence Low.
Bioaccumulation Low: Not known to be bioaccumulative.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? Low Low N/A Low N/A Low
There was no evidence found of an Australian environmental incident relating to tellurium.

Has anything However, in the gold rush of 1893, diggers in Kalgoorlie discarded a pyritic material which
happened got in their way as they searched for pure gold. The Kalgoorlie waste was thus used to fill
before in in potholes or as part of sidewalks. Three years passed before it was realized that this
Australia? waste was calaverite, a mineral form of gold telluride (AuTe2). This led to a second gold
5
rush in 1896 which included mining the streets.
What control
Industry – Companies that handle tellurium containing wastes are licensed by
measures are
systematic environmental regulators to control industrial processes and
in place to
controls equipment so as to limit environmental emissions of these pollutants.
manage risks

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
posed by this Potential industrial sources of waste tellurium or its compounds have
waste? strict emissions control equipment in place, as required by workplace
Industry –
health and safety and environmental regulators. Additionally at-risk
exposure
workers wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE),
controls
particularly relating to restricting exposure to airborne sources of
tellurium.

1. Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca
Raton (FL): CRC Press.
2. Lightfoot N (2012). Laurentian University, Sudbury, Canada. Occupational tellurium
exposure and garlic odour. Occupational Medicine (Impact Factor: 1.47). 12/2010;
61(2):132-5.
3. Surawut C, Manaskorn R, Thantip P, Chanathip P, Chulalak C, Pongkiatkul P (2012).
Review of Environmental, Health and Safety of CdTe Photovoltaic Installations throughout
References Their Life-Cycle. Accessed on 16 April, 2015 from: http://www.pv-thin.org/wp-
content/uploads/2013/09/CdTe-peer-review_-Thailand.pdf
4. Kaczmar, S., Evaluating the read-across approach on CdTe toxicity for CdTe
photovoltaics, SETAC North America 32nd Annual Meeting, Boston, November 2011.
5. America 32nd Annual Meeting, Boston, November 2011.Fortey, Richard (2004). The
Earth: An Intimate History. Harper Perennial. p. 230.
6. Crystran Ltd (2012). MSDS for cadmium telluride. Accessed on 16 April 2015 from:
http://www.crystran.co.uk/userfiles/files/cadmium-telluride-cdte-msds.pdf

3.28 Mercury; mercury compounds

Basel waste
code: A1010,
Mercury; mercury compounds category:Y29 D120
A1030
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8
Mercury is used in its pure form in thermometers and barometers,

some batteries, fluorescent lighting, as a catalyst in the chemical
manufacturing industry, in thermostats, dental amalgams and. It is
also used in the mining industry to extract gold and silver ores.
Mercuric chloride is used in the manufacture of disinfectants, as a
Description of
catalyst, in photography and embalming. Mercury salts are
the waste
sometimes used in skin lightening creams and as antiseptic creams
and ointments.
Wastes of mercury compounds in Australia include end of life
fluorescent light tubes and healthcare sources, as well as spent
What is it? catalysts from chemical, petrochemical and mining industries.
Mercury combines with other elements, such as chlorine, sulfur, or

oxygen, to form inorganic mercury compounds or salts, which are
usually white powders or crystals. Mercury also combines with
carbon to make organic mercury compounds, the most hazardous
Physical/ form of mercury. The most common one, methylmercury, is
chemical produced mainly by microscopic organisms in the water and soil.
description More mercury in the environment can increase the amounts of
methylmercury that these small organisms make.
Metallic mercury is a dense liquid that vaporizes easily at room
temperature. Mercury vapours are colourless and odourless, though
they can be seen with the aid of an ultraviolet light.

Primary hazard

hazard
Main likely chemical contaminants Other heavy metals
Mercury containing lamps from targeted collection programs are a

Where does it key source of mercury waste. Industrial sources include electricity
Main sources
come from? generation, chemical manufacturing, petroleum refining, mining and
public utilities such as hospitals, research institutions and rail

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1030
infrastructure.
Mercury recycling exists in Australia, for separation and recycling of

metallic mercury from all sources. However, the majority end of life
mercury-containing lighting finds in way into municipal solid waste
How is it landfill, from disposal within the general waste stream.
Main fates
managed? Mercury may also be present at low levels in other hazardous waste,
which will undergo chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the
hazard, then the stabilised material will be disposed of in hazardous
waste landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.03%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 51 Qld: 324 SA: 28
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 45 WA: 43
Eating fish contaminated with mercury has caused poisoning in

humans. Organic forms of mercury are subject to bioaccumulation
and bioconcentration in the food chain and higher aquatic organisms
may contain significant amounts of mercury.
Overview
Organic mercury compounds are more toxic than inorganic mercury
compounds. Methylmercury can cross biological membranes,
especially in the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and the
placenta with foetuses appearing to be at higher risk than adults.
High: Very toxic by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed.

Acute mercury poisoning is usually caused by soluble inorganic
Acute toxicity
salts. High levels of mercury vapour are extremely irritating to the
lung and may cause erosive bronchitis, bronchiolitis or pneumonia.
Potential health
impacts High: Danger of cumulative effect. Chronic mercury toxicity is more
frequently seen than acute toxicity, due to its cumulative nature.
Tremors, mental disturbances and gingivitis (inflammation of the
Chronic toxicity
mucous membranes surrounding the teeth) have been reported
following occupational exposure. Both metallic mercury and mercury
compounds have given rise to contact dermatitis.
Carcinogenicity Negligible. Mercury is not a human carcinogen.
High: May cause harm to the unborn child.

Delayed achievement of developmental milestones, and a history of
Reproductive
seizures and abnormal reflexes were seen in infants born to women
toxicity
affected in an Iraqi poisoning episode where methylmercury treated
wheat was eaten.

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1030
Workplace environments presenting the largest potential sources of occupational exposure
Workplace
to mercury include chlorine-alkali production facilities, mining and processing operations
health & safety
and the manufacture and use of instruments containing liquid mercury. Occupational
impacts
exposure is mainly via inhalation of vapour.
Potential sources of mercury exposure for the general population include inhalation from
ambient air, ingestion in water and foodstuffs, and dental and medical treatments. Of
these, dietary exposure is the major source of non-occupational exposure, often through
eating fish or shellfish contaminated with methylmercury. The next most likely source of
mercury exposure to the general population is via in-mouth releases and ingestion from
Population
dental fillings. Increased breath levels of mercury ranging from 0.1 to 16.2 ng/L (mean 8.2)
scale impacts
were detected in 167 people with dental restoration as compared to 0.008 to 0.1 ng/L
1
(mean 0.06) in five people with no amalgams.
There is transfer of inorganic mercury from blood to breast milk and a Swedish study
suggested that exposure of infants to mercury from this source was mainly from the
2
mother's amalgam fillings.
Both mercury and its compounds have high acute (short-term) and
have high chronic (long-term) toxicity on aquatic life. There is
insufficient data to determine the acute toxicity of mercury and its
Overview compounds on plants, birds or land animals. Mercury and its
compounds are highly persistent in water and the environment and
will concentrate in the tissues of fish. These concentrations will be
Potential
considerably higher than the water from which the fish is taken.
environment
impacts Acute ecotoxicity High: Toxic to aquatic organisms.

Bioaccumulation Extreme: Strongly bioaccumulative, especially in shellfish and fish.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? Medium Moderate Moderate Moderate Medium Low
Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Kumamoto prefecture, Japan,
in 1956, when the local populace ate shellfish and fish containing bioaccumulated mercury.
Famously, it was caused by the release of methylmercury in industrial wastewater from the
Has anything Chisso Corporation's chemical factory, which continued from 1932 to 1968.
happened In Australia
before in Orica’s Port Botany chemical plant in Sydney released mercury vapour into the
Australia? atmosphere in September 2011, breaching environmental standards for nine hours. The
mercury vapour was associated with mercury which had polluted the soil on the Orica site,
due to leaking pipes.
In December 2011, Orica suffered another mercury leak at Port Botany. In a series of

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1030
samples of air, the EPA recorded a mercury level of 0.0049 grams per cubic metre; more
than double the regulatory limit of 0.002 grams per cubic metre. The site of the breach was
the thermal desorption stack at the company's waste remediation plant, which was actually
closed when the breach occurred.
Product stewardship is taking shared responsibility for reducing the

environmental, health and safety footprint of manufactured goods
and materials across the life cycle of a product.
3
FluoroCycle is an Australian Government accredited voluntary
Industry –
product stewardship scheme that seeks to increase the national
systematic
recycling rate of waste mercury-containing lamps. It is administered
controls
by Lighting Council Australia The scheme targets the commercial
and industrial sectors where the bulk of waste lamps are generated.
Mercury-containing lamps are recycled to recover the mercury, as
well as the glass, plastic and phosphor powder, they contain.
Potential industrial sources of waste mercury or its compounds have

strict emissions control equipment in place, as required by workplace
Industry –
health and safety and environmental regulators. Additionally at-risk
exposure
workers wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE),
controls
particularly relating to restricting exposure to airborne sources of
mercury.
What control State and territory governments regulate the management of

measures are hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
in place to place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
manage risks disposal of all hazardous wastes, including this waste, through
posed by this licensing, tracking and transport accreditation requirements.
4
waste? The Minamata Convention on is a global treaty to protect human
health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury,
Government
agreed in 2013. The Convention includes a ban on new mercury
mines, the phase-out of existing ones, control measures on air
emissions and the international regulation of the informal sector for
artisanal and small-scale gold mining.
5
The Food Standards Code prescribes limits for total mercury in
foods of 0.5 ppm for fish and shellfish, and 0.03 ppm for all other
foods.
Mercury is a potent neurotoxin and exposure should be avoided. The

short-term nature of the potential exposure to mercury from a broken
CFL or fluorescent tube – particularly after effective clean-up of lamp
material – does not constitute a significant health risk to exposed
Community adults, pregnant women or children. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency provides a suggested procedure
for cleaning up a broken CFL at: http://www2.epa.gov/cfl/cleaning-
broken-cfl.
Several states have household chemical collection programs and/or

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1030
drop-off points that accept domestic quantities of CFLs and
fluorescent tubes for recycling. Planet Ark's Recycling Near You
hotline on 1300 733 712 or their website at
www.recyclingnearyou.com.au shows where CFLs and other
mercury-containing lamps can be recycled.
1. Queensland Government Queensland Health (2002). Public Health Guidance Note:

Mercury. Accessed April 16, 2015 from:
http://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/Documents/ehu/2666.pdf
2. Oskarsson A, Schutz A, Skerfving S, Hallen IP, Ohlin B, Lagerkvist BJ. Total and
inorganic mercury in breast milk and blood in relation to fish consumption and amalgam
fillings in lactating women. Archives of Environmental Health 1996; 51: 234- 241.
3. Lighting Council of Australia. FluoroCycle product stewardship scheme. Accessed April
16, 2015 from: http://www.fluorocycle.org.au/index.php
4. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2013). Minamata Convention on
Mercury. Accessed on April 16, 2015 from: http://www.mercuryconvention.org/Convention
References
5. Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Food Standards Code. Accessed on 16 April
2015 from: http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/code/Pages/default.aspx
Human Services (1993). Toxicological Profile for Mercury. Accessed April 15, 2015 from:
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/substances/toxsubstance.asp?toxid=24
Fact Sheet – Mercury and compounds. Accessed April 16, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/mercury-compounds

3.29 Thallium; thallium compounds

Basel waste
code: A1010,
Thallium; thallium compounds category:Y30 D180
A1030
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 0 – 2.5
Thallium and thallium compounds are used in products and in the

manufacturing of electronics and infrared optical lenses. It also has
uses in medicine in nuclear cardiography. It was previously used as a
pesticide for rats and ants however the use of this is now prohibited
Description of 1
in most developed nations .
the waste
Thallium is generated as a by-product from the mining and industries
What is it? of other minerals, namely from the smelting of copper, lead or zinc
and through coal power generation where it is a trace contaminant of
2
the raw material .
Thallium is a soft and malleable silvery-white metal which is found in

trace amounts in the natural environment (<0.7 ppm). When exposed
Physical/
to air for short periods of time, thallium will develop a blue-grey tinge.
chemical
If left in air it will develop a heavy oxide and in the presence of water
description
will form hydroxide. Thallium and thallium compounds are
3
radioactive .
Primary hazard

Secondary
hazardous? H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
hazard
Thallium is likely to be a contaminant of

other metals.
Australia does not mine thallium directly however it is produced as a

Where does it by-product of ore smelting. Small amounts of thallium waste are likely
Main sources
come from? to be present in electronics and commercial medical imaging
2
equipment .
No data is kept on the generation or fate of thallium waste. Waste

How is it
Main fates should be treated to immobilise the hazard before being disposed of
managed?
in hazardous waste landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

How much is

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1030
0%

Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 0 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 0
The most common route of thallium exposure occurs through

inhalation or ingestion of dust particles or through water and food
contamination. In its pure form, thallium is tasteless and odourless.
Short and long-term exposure can result in a variety of adverse
Overview
health effects, mainly involving the central nervous system, gastro-
intestinal system and major organs. Thallium is more toxic to humans
than mercury, cadmium, lead, copper or zinc and has been
4
responsible for many accidental and occupational poisonings .
High: Very harmful if inhaled or swallowed. Ingesting thallium over a

Potential health
Acute toxicity can result in issues with the gastro-intestinal system, nervous
impacts 1 5
system, lungs, heart, liver and kidneys . It can also cause death .
High: Long-term exposure to thallium can result in issues with the

Chronic toxicity nervous system, such as numbness of extremities, joint pain and
fatigue.
Low: There is insufficient evidence to suggest that thallium is

Carcinogenicity
carcinogenic to humans.
Reproductive Low: There is insufficient evidence to suggest that thallium causes

toxicity reproductive or birth defects to humans.
Occupational exposure to high levels of thallium can result in harmful effects. A study in
1986 on cement plant workers found that they exhibited numbness and tingling in fingers
6
and toes and muscle cramps as a result of inhaling thallium .
Workplace
Another study in 1998 found that a worker who handled thallium-containing raw materials
health & safety
for glass manufacturing over a period of four years suffered from alopecia, abdominal pain,
impacts
diarrhoea and numbness and tingling in hands and feet. Thallium levels in hair samples
were considered to be very high and it was concluded that the worker had suffered from
7
chronic poisoning due to the occupational exposure to thallium dust .
Areas around cement plants, ore smelters, coal burning power plants and brick works are
8
likely to contain high levels of atmospheric deposition of thallium . Studies in the 1980’s
found that populations living near cement factories in Germany had increased
concentrations of thallium in urine and hair. In this example, the major route for the intake
Population
of thallium was through the consumption vegetables and fruit grown in private gardens
scale impacts
contaminated with dust fall from emissions of a cement plant which contained thallium.
Nervous system paralysis, sleep disorders, headaches and fatigue were found to be major
health effects associated with thallium levels in urine and hair when compared with a
9
control population .

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1030
Thallium and thallium compounds can transfer from soils to crops and will accumulate in
4
food crops .
Thallium was previously used as a pesticide in rat bait as it is highly

toxic. It is also toxic and bioaccumulative in aquatic organisms. While
Overview Thallium is a natural element it is only found in trace amounts and is
released to the environment through smelting and coal-burning. It
1, 5
remains in the air, water and soil and is not readily broken down .
10, 11
Potential Acute ecotoxicity High: Toxic to aquatic organisms and land animals
environment
Chronic High: Long-term exposure leads to reduced growth rates in aquatic
impacts 12
ecotoxicity organisms .
Extreme: It is persistent in air, water and soil and does not break
Persistence 1
down .
Moderate: Accumulates in aquatic organisms, land animals and

Bioaccumulation
plants.
risks of impacts
Has anything
happened
No specific Australian incidents have been identified.
before in
Australia?
Higher risk workplaces like smelters and coal burning power plants,
where worker exposure to thallium or other airborne pollutants may
be possible, routinely monitor at-risk staff via blood or urine-based
Industry – testing. Thallium concentrations must be below specified risk
systematic guidelines to ensure the worker is safe to continue working in the
13
controls exposed environment .
What control industrial processes and equipment so as to limit environmental
measures are in emissions of pollutants like thallium.
place to
Potential industrial sources of thallium waste are have strict
manage risks
emissions control equipment in place. Additionally at-risk workers
posed by this
wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
waste?
Industry – Australia also has national standards in place regarding the exposure
exposure limits for atmospheric contaminants in the occupational environment.
controls These relate to average atmospheric contaminants over an eight
hour day and apply to a 40 hour week. The current limits for thallium
3
and thallium compounds are 0.1 mg/m of air. This limit acts as a
national guideline and may vary between states and territories.
Government State and territory governments regulate the management of

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1030
1. United States Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry (2013). Toxic Substances Portal – Thallium. Accessed April 15, 2015
from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=308&tid=49
2. Royal Australian Chemical Institute (2011). Thallium. Accessed April 15, 2015 from:
https://www.raci.org.au/document/item/492
3. Lenntech (2015). Thallium – Tl. Accessed April 15, 2015 from:
http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/tl.htm
4. John Peter AL and Viraraghavan T (2005). Thallium: a review of public health and
environmental concerns. Environmental International, 31(4): 493–501.
5. Strem Chemicals Inc. (2011). Material Safety Data Sheet – Thallium. Accessed April 15,
2015 from: http://www.strem.com/catalog/msds/81-8200
6. Ludolph A, Elger CE, Sennhenn R and Bertram HP (1986). Chronic thallium exposure in
cement plant workers: Clinical and electrophysiological data. Trace Elements in Medicine
3:121–125.
7. Hirata M, Taoda A, Ono-Ogasawara M, Takaya M and Hisanaga N (1998). A probable
case of chronic occupational thallium poisoning in a glass factory. Industrial Health, 36(3):
References 300–303.
8. Kazantzis G (2000). Thallium in the Environment and Health Effects. Environmental
Geochemistry and Health, 22(4): 275–280.
9. Brockhaus A, Dolgner R, Ewers U, Kramer U, Soddermann H and Wiegand H (1981).
Intake and health effects of thallium among population living in the vicinity of a cement
plant emitting thallium containing dust. International Archives of Occupational and
Environmental Health, 48(4): 375–389.
10. Zitko V, Carson WV and Carson WG (1975). Thallium: Occurrence in the environment
and toxicity to fish. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 13(1):22–30.
11. Lan C-H and Lin T-S (2005). Acute toxicity of trivalent thallium compounds to Daphnia
magna. Exotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 61(3): 432–435.
12. Borgmann U, Cheam V, Norwood WP and Lechner J (1998). Toxicity and
bioaccumulation of thallium in Hyalella azteca, with comparison to other metals and
prediction of environmental impact. Environmental Pollution, 99(1): 105–114.
13. Safe Work Australia (2013). Thallium – Hazardous Chemicals Requiring Health
Monitoring. Accessed April 15, 2015 from:
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/swa/about/publications/pages/hm-thallium

3.30 Lead; lead compounds

Basel waste
code: A1010,
Lead; lead compounds category:Y31 D220
A1020
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8
Lead and lead compounds are used in a wide variety of products and
manufacturing processes. Lead is used in the production of batteries,
metal products such as fishing weights, electronics and alloys and
devices to shield x-rays. Lead compounds are used in the
manufacturing of a range of products including electronic parts,
plastics, rubbers and metals. Lead is also used in pigments, dyes,
paints and coatings.
Description of the
Lead occurs naturally in mineral form, usually with Zinc and Silver.
waste
According to Geoscience Australia, Australia has the world’s largest
deposits of both lead and zinc and as a result, both are mined and
1
What is it? used locally and exported .
A significant component of lead waste in Australia is from lead acid
batteries. Leaded glass is another wastestream that has emerged
from the e-waste recycling industry, where cathode ray television/
monitor (CRT) glass contains large quantities of lead.
Lead is a soft bluish-white silvery grey metallic solid that occurs

naturally in mineral form. It tarnishes on exposure to air. It is very soft
Physical/ and malleable, easily melted, cast, rolled and extruded. It reacts with
chemical hot nitric acid, boiling sulfuric or hydrochloric acids and can be
description attacked by pure water and weak organic acids in the presence of
oxygen. The physical and chemical properties of lead compounds are
2
varied .

Primary hazard

hazardous? Secondary hazard H12: Ecotoxic delayed adverse impacts to the environment
Main likely chemical contaminants Other heavy metals could be present
Lead, silver, copper and zinc mining and refining, lead acid battery
Where does it recycling and recovery, e-waste collection and recycling. metal
Main sources
come from? recycling, iron and steel manufacturing,
Lead and lead compounds are used in the production of consumer

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
products such as batteries, electronics, metal products and devices to
2
shield X-rays .
Lead was previously present in petroleum, paints, ceramics, caulking
and pipe solder.
Recycling of lead batteries or leaded CRT glass through smelting and

reclamation.
How is it Less economical quantities and waste forms containing lead will
Main fates
managed? undergo chemical/ physical treatment to immobilise the hazard, then
the stabilised material is usually disposed of in hazardous waste
landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2012-13) 1.85%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 410 Qld: 23,876 SA: 9,259
2012-13 (tonnes)
Tas: 10,413 Vic: 20,120 WA: 4,697
The most common route of lead exposure occurs through inhalation

or ingestion of lead dust, particles or exhaust. Lead can act as an
irritant when it comes in contact with skin or eyes.
Overview Long-term exposure to lead can result in a variety of adverse health
effects, mainly involving the central nervous system, major organs
and effects on unborn babies. Health consequences from exposure
2
are more significant in children aged 5 years or younger .
Low: Slightly hazardous in cases of skin or eye contact (irritant),

Acute toxicity 3
through inhalation or ingestion .
Extreme: Lead mostly affects the nervous system however can

impact upon almost every organic in the body. Exposure may cause
Potential
paralysis in fingers, wrists or ankles as well increases in blood
health Chronic toxicity
pressure. It may cause anaemia, malnutrition, abdominal pain and
impacts
colic. High levels of exposure can severely damage the brain and
2
kidneys and may cause death in adults .
Low: Inorganic lead is likely to be carcinogenic to humans. There is

Carcinogenicity insufficient evidence to suggest that organic lead is carcinogenic to
humans.
High: Unborn children can be exposed through their mothers and

harmful effects may include: premature birth, smaller babies,
Reproductive decreased mental ability, learning difficulties and reduced growth.
toxicity Some effects may persist beyond childhood. Exposure to high levels
of lead may cause miscarriage in pregnant women. In men, exposure
2
may affect sperm production .

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
Occupational exposure studies have been carried out on adults working in lead smelters
4
over a prolonged period of time. In 1992, Gerhardsson et al carried out a study to compare
kidney function of a group of lead smelter workers with one that had no occupational
Workplace exposure to lead. It was found that the group of smelter workers had significantly higher
health & concentrations of blood and urine lead however were not experiencing significant
safety differences in kidney function. While this study did not find a causal link between lead
impacts exposure and kidney function, other studies have found that long-term adult exposure
resulting in high blood lead concentrations can result in decreased nerve conduction, gastro-
intestinal issues, anaemia, cognitive impairment, psychological dysfunction and behaviour
5
changes .
In many developed countries, background levels of lead are seen to be unavoidable

however these are often at low enough quantities to not cause any associated health issues.
The accumulation of lead in soils, dust, air and water is more concentrated around cities and
towns where lead mining or smelting occurs. Communities in Port Pirie, Mount Isa, Broken
Hill and Lake Macquarie (among others) have increased levels accumulated lead as a result
5
of mining or smelting activities . The accumulation of lead was found to be a significant
Population
contributor to increased levels of blood lead found in children from Port Pirie, South
scale impacts
Australia. The town has been the site of a lead smelter for over 100 years and the
accumulation of lead materials was seen to be the pathway for a variety of health issues
associated with children born and raised in the town. This resulted in the establishment of
the Port Pirie Lead Implementation Program and an Environmental Health Centre to help to
reduce the amount of Lead that children were adsorbing and therefore the associated health
6
issues .
Lead occurs naturally in the environment and does not decompose.

Lead compounds are changed by sunlight, air and water and their
Overview toxicity is dependent on the compound. Lead is persistent and
bioaccumulative and can exhibit long term toxic effects in plants, birds
and land animals.
Low: In soft water it is highly poisonous to plants, birds or land

Acute ecotoxicity
animals.
Potential
Extreme: Lead has long term effects on animal life leading to
environment
Chronic decreased lifespan, reproductive problems, lower fertility and changes
impacts
ecotoxicity in appearance and behaviour. Can also result in low growth rate in
plants.
Extreme: Very persistent in the environment. Most lead released to

Persistence air, water or sediment will strongly attach to other particles and may
remain for many years.
Extreme: Can accumulate in living tissue of land animals, birds and

Bioaccumulation
fish.
risks of
impacts most High Medium Medium Moderate N/A Low

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
likely?
The lead smelter in Port Pirie South Australia, in the northern Spencer Gulf, has a long
history of operation. It has historically been a large sources of lead and other heavy metal
emissions the surrounding air, water and land environment. The northern Spencer Gulf
Has anything
region has a substantial legacy of heavy metal pollution. Studies conducted over a number
happened
of decades have shown elevated levels of metals in the upper section of the gulf, particularly
before in 10
in Germein Bay near Port Pirie.
Australia?
However, practices at the smelter have been vastly improved in recent years and this has
helped to reduce the amount of heavy metals entering the marine environment. Slowing or
reversing the effects of historical practices in the region will take many years.
Higher risk workplaces like lead smelters and mines, where worker
exposure to lead or other airborne pollutants may be possible,
routinely monitor at-risk staff via blood or urine-based testing. Lead
Industry –
concentrations must be below specified risk guidelines to ensure the
systematic 7
worker is safe to continue working in the exposed environment .
controls
emissions of pollutants like lead.
Potential industrial sources of lead waste have strict emissions control

measures in place through the use of plant equipment such as
engineering controls (extraction ventilation) and isolation of
processes. Additionally at-risk workers should wear appropriate
7
What control personal protective equipment (PPE) .
measures are Australia also has national standards in place regarding the exposure
in place to Industry – limits for atmospheric contaminants in the occupational environment.
manage risks exposure controls These relate to average atmospheric contaminants over an eight hour
posed by this day and apply to a 40 hour week. The current limits for lead and lead
3 3
waste? substances are: 0.15 mg/m of air for tetramethyl lead, 0.1 mg/m of
3 3
air for tetraethyl lead, 0.15 mg/m of air for lead arsenate, 0.15 mg/m
3
of air for lead dust and fumes and 0.05 mg/m of air for lead
8
chromate . These limits act as a national guideline and may vary
between states and territories.

Government
Australian drinking water guidelines set a maximum level of lead at
0.01mg/L. Australian drinking water monitoring shows results typically
9
range from less than 0.005 mg/L to 0.01 mg/L .
1. Geoscience Australia (2015). Zinc-Lead-Silver. Accessed April 14, 2015 from

References http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/minerals/mineral-resources/aimr/zinc-lead-silver

Basel permit
code: A1010,
A1020
Sheet – Lead and compounds. Accessed April 14, 2015 from
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/lead-compounds
3. Science Lab (2013). Material Safety Data Sheet – Lead MSDS. Accessed April 14, 2015
from http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927204
4. Gerhardsson L, Chettle DR, Englyst V, Nordberg GF, Nyhlin H, Scott MC, Todd AC and
Vesterberg O (1992). Kidney effects in long term exposed lead smelter workers. British
Journal of Industrial Medicine, 49: 186–192.
5. Armstrong A, Anderson L, Synnot A, Burford B, Waters E, Bao Le L, Weightman A,
Morgan H, Turley R and Steele E (2014). Evaluation of evidence related to exposure to lead.
Accessed April 15, 2015 from
https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/file/your_health/lead/evaluation_of_
evidence_related_to_exposure_to_lead_140716.pdf
6. Body PE, Inglis G, Dolan PR, Mulcahy DE (1991). Environmental lead: A review. Critical
Reviews in Environmental Control, 20(5-6): 299–310.
7. Victorian WorkCover Authority (2000). Code of Practice for Lead. Accessed March 14,
2015 from:
https://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/12488/COP26_lead.pdf
8. Safe Work Australia (1995). Adopted National Exposure Standards For Atmospheric
Contaminants In The Occupation Environment [NOHSC: 1003 (1995)]. Accessed March 14,
2015 from: http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/
Documents/237/AdoptedNationalExposureStandardsAtmosphericContaminants
_NOHSC1003-1995_PDF.pdf
9. Australian Government National Health and Medical Research Council (2015). National
Water Quality Management Strategy: Australian Drinking Waste Guideline 6 version 3.1
updated March 2015. Accessed April 14, 2015 from:
https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/
publications/attachments/eh52_australian_drinking_water_guidelines_150413.pdf
C
10. EPA South Australia (2005). Heavy metal contamination in the northern Spencer Gulf—a
community summary. Accessed 27 April 2015 from:
http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/xstd_files/Water/Report/heavy_metal.pdf

3.31 Inorganic fluorine compounds excluding calcium fluoride
Waste name:
Inorganic fluorine compounds category:Y32 code: A2020 D110
excluding calcium fluoride
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8
Inorganic fluorine compounds are used in a variety of industrial and

manufacturing processes. The primary source of waste is from
industries that use compounds in production and these may include the
aluminium industry, oil drilling and refining (petroleum) industry, the
chemical and plastic industries, agricultural and pesticide manufacturers
and manufacturers of metal parts. Emissions from these industries will
Description of the
generally be to the air. Other emissions to the soil and water may occur
waste
from metal cleaning operations, glass and enamel manufacturing and
glazing and fluoride enhanced water. Fluorine compounds are also
present in consumer products such as toothpaste, pesticides and
1
ceramic and glass polishing, etching and frosting materials .
What is it? Spent pot liner waste (SPL) from aluminium smelting contains leachable
fluorides and cyanides (see Y33).
Elemental fluorine is a naturally occurring element in the earth however

it is unlikely to be found in nature as it is too reactive. Fluorine is likely to
be found in nature as part of the mineral fluorspar (or calcium fluoride),
which is excluded from this category.
Physical/ chemical Inorganic fluorine compounds include a wide range of chemical

description compounds with fluorine as the base element. These may include
compounds formed with hydrogen, metals, non-metals and noble gases.
An example of a compound of fluorine is hydrogen fluoride, a colourless
gas with a strong irritating odour. Hydrogen fluoride is used to
manufacture other fluorine based chemicals and will dissolve in water to
1
make hydrofluoric acid .
Primary hazard H12: Ecotoxic adverse impacts to the environment by means
of bioaccumulation and/or toxic effects upon
biotic systems.

hazardous? H11: Toxic (delayed or inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Secondary hazard
Other inorganic salts such as chlorides and

sulphates.
Where does it Main sources Aluminium smelting, chemical and plastics industries, oil drilling and

Waste name:
come from? refining (petroleum), coal-fired electricity generation, metal, glass and
enamel manufacturing.
SPL recycling is in its infancy and, large stockpiles currently exist.

How is it
Main fates Other fluorine containing wastes will likely be managed by hazardous
managed?
waste landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.18%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 988 SA: 7
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 96 Vic: 5,892 WA: 10
The most common hazards of human exposure to inorganic fluorine

compounds are:
Overview
• irritation of skin, eyes, mouth, throat and lungs.
• chronic poisoning of the central nervous system and major organs
High: Toxic by inhalation, ingestion and touch. Contact with skin or eyes
Potential Acute toxicity can result in severe burns and eye damage. Inhalation or ingestion will
2
health result in irritation to nose, throat and lungs .
impacts High: Chronic poisoning due to exposure to fluorine compounds is
Chronic toxicity characterised by issues with the central nervous system and major
2
organs such as the heart, lungs or kidney .
Carcinogenicity Moderate: Some fluorine compounds may have carcinogenic effects.
Reproductive Low: There is insufficient evidence to suggest that inorganic fluorine

toxicity causes reproductive or birth defects to humans.
A number of occupational exposure studies have been conducted on adults working in

industries with high levels of exposure to inorganic fluorine compounds. These studies have
Workplace established definitive links between inorganic fluorine compounds and incidences of acute and
health & chronic diseases. A long-term seven year study carried out to evaluate the respiratory effects
safety of fluorine compounds on exposed workers at an enamel enterprise found a significant
impacts correlation between exposure and incidence of chronic bronchitis and other chronic respiratory
3
diseases . Other studies have found that occupational asthma in the aluminium industry is
4, 5
primarily due to gaseous or particulate fluorine compounds .
Elevated fluorine concentrations in the atmosphere and in drinking water are likely to occur in
1
Population close proximity to production and processing facilities that use fluorine compounds . However,
scale impacts little recent information is available to suggest that fluorine compounds have resulted in larger,
population scale impacts.
Potential Fluorine compounds exhibit long-term toxic effects on the environment

Overview
environment as well as being persistent. Industrial production and processing are the

Waste name:
impacts largest emission contributor to environmental fluorine compounds and
areas surrounding plants often display higher fluorine concentrations.
Low: Insufficient evidence is available to determine the acute toxicity of

Acute ecotoxicity fluorine compounds to plants or animals but the effects are thought to
be low.
Extreme: Large quantities of fluorine compounds can lower the pH of

Chronic ecosystems for extended periods of time. Concentrated compounds,
ecotoxicity such as hydrogen fluoride, are very corrosive and would significantly
burn plants and animals exposed to it.
Extreme: Fluorine compounds are highly persistent and will take the
Persistence form of a gas, liquid or solid in a variety of ecosystems. Industrial
emissions can produce elevated concentrations in the atmosphere.
Bioaccumulation Limited evidence of bioaccumulation.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
Has anything
A large number of hydrofluoric acid workplace incidents and accidents in recent decades in
happened
Australia are reported in Appendix C of NICNAS’s Hydrofluoric Acid (HF) Priority Existing
before in 9
Chemical Assessment Report No.19,
Australia?
Higher risk workplaces like the aluminium industry, where worker

exposure to fluorine compounds may be possible, routinely monitor at-
Industry –
risk staff via blood or urine-based testing.
systematic
controls
emissions of pollutants like lead.
What control Potential industrial sources of fluorine compound waste have strict
measures are emissions control measures in place through the use of plant equipment
in place to such as engineering controls (extraction ventilation). Additionally at-risk
manage risks workers are required to wear appropriate personal protective equipment
posed by this (PPE). Emergency facilities to manage the exposure of staff, such as
6
waste? eye wash stations, should also be readily available .
Industry –
Australia also has national standards in place regarding the exposure
exposure controls
limits for atmospheric contaminants in the occupational environment.
These relate to average atmospheric contaminants over an eight hour
day and apply to a 40 hour week. The current limits for fluorine
3 3
compounds are 1.6 mg/m of air for fluorine and 2.5 mg/m of air for
fluoride. These limits act as a national guideline and may vary between
7
states and territories .

Waste name:
State and territory governments regulate the management of hazardous
waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These place strict
controls on the methods of transport, treatment and disposal of all
hazardous wastes, including this waste, through licensing, tracking and
Government
transport accreditation requirements.
Australian drinking water guidelines set a maximum level of fluoride at
1.5mg/L. Australian drinking water monitoring shows results typically
8
range from less than 0.05 mg/L to 1.5 mg/L .

Sheet – Fluoride compounds. Accessed April 16, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/fluoride-compounds-sources-emissions
2. New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services (2004). Hazardous substance fact
sheet – Potassium fluoride. Accessed April 16, 2015 from
http://nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/1565.pdf
3. Viragh E, Viragh H, Laczka J and Coldea V (2006). Health effects of occupational exposure
to fluorine and its compounds in a small-scale enterprise. Industrial Health, 44(1): 64–68.
4. Fritschi L, Sim MR, Forbes A, Abramson MJ, Benke G, Musk WA and de Klerk NH (2003).
Respiratory symptons and lung-function changes with exposure to five substances in aluminum
smelters. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 76(2): 103–110.
5. O’Donnell TV (1995). Asthma and respiratory problems – a review. The Science of the Total
Environment, 163(1-3): 137–145.
6. Australian Government National Occupation Health and Safety Commission (1989).
References
Hydrogen Fluoride. Accessed April 16, 2015 from: http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/
sites/SWA/about/Publications/Documents/155/HydrogenFluoride_1989pdf.pdf
Contaminants In The Occupation Environment [NOHSC: 1003 (1995)]. Accessed March 14,
2015 from: http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/
Documents/237/AdoptedNationalExposureStandardsAtmosphericContaminants
_NOHSC1003-1995_PDF.pdf
Water Quality Management Strategy: Australian Drinking Waste Guideline 6 version 3.1
updated March 2015. Accessed April 14, 2015 from: https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/
_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/eh52_australian_drinking_water_guidelines_150413.pdf
9. National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (2001). Hydrofluoric
Acid (HF) Priority Existing Chemical Assessment Report No.19. Accessed April 27 2015 from :
http://www.nicnas.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/4380/PEC_19_Hydrofluoric-
Acid_Full_Report_PDF.pdf

3.32 Inorganic cyanides
Inorganic cyanides category:Y33 code: A4050 A130
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9
Solutions of sodium and potassium cyanides are used in processes

Description of
that do not result in their complete transformation or destruction and
the waste
they are present in wastes from such processes.
What is it?
Since they are water soluble and used as solutions, the wastes
Physical/
present as solutions containing cyanides and may also contain metal
chemical
species derived from other components of the applications that
description
employed the cyanide.

Primary hazard

Secondary
Why is it hazard
hazardous? effects upon biotic systems.

H4.1: Flammable
Other hazard(s) conditions encountered in transport are
solids
Main likely chemical contaminants Sodium and potassium cyanide, metals.
Sodium and potassium cyanides are used in mining in the recovery

of gold (mainly) and silver by circulating a cyanide solution through
piles of crushed rock. Gold and silver cyanide salts are adsorbed
Where does it from this solution by activated carbon which is further processed to
Main sources
come from? release gold and silver.
The same cyanides are used in electroplating and finishing of metals
such as chromium and nickel. Cyanides remain in solution after
much of the metal has been removed.
When concentrations of gold (or less often, silver) in the circulating

solution falls below economic levels the solid, which still contains
cyanide, is transferred to a tailings dam. In some cases the
How is it
Main fates concentration of cyanide is allowed to decrease as natural processes
managed?
take effect, but increasingly the cyanide in the waste stream is
destroyed by treatment with Caro’s acid (sulphuric acid plus
hydrogen peroxide).

Cyanide remaining in the plating bath is destroyed by treatment with
hypochlorite before the liquid is discharged to sewer as trade waste.
Before final disposal the remaining metals are precipitated and the
resulting sludge may be treated to recover metals or transferred as
hazardous waste to secure landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.001%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 15 SA: 13
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 26 WA: 52
These water-soluble cyanides are extremely toxic to humans, and

toxic effects can also be experienced from fume or mist containing
Overview
cyanides and gaseous hydrogen cyanide that might exist in
equilibrium with the dissolved species.
Extreme: Ingestion of small quantities of cyanide leads to failure of

Acute toxicity
Potential health the central nervous and respiratory systems and rapid death.
impacts
Low- medium: Long-term exposure to lower concentrations of
Chronic toxicity
cyanide can affect many body functions.
Carcinogenicity Cyanides are not known to be carcinogenic.
Reproductive
Cyanides do not exhibit reproductive toxicity.
toxicity
Good ventilation of the workplace and implementation of safe working practices is

Workplace
essential where cyanides are handled. Codes of conduct exist for transport of cyanides
health & safety
used in the mining industry. Provision of personal protective equipment may be necessary
impacts
where spills or leaks occur.
Population
There are no impacts on the wider community from these industrial chemicals.
scale impacts
Overview Cyanides are toxic to all animal species.
Extreme: Acute effects can be observed when animals have access

to tailings dams in which cyanide-containing material is concerned.
Acute ecotoxicity
Fences can restrict access of many species but birds may still be at
Potential risk.
environment
Chronic
impacts High: Cyanides exhibit high long-term chronic toxicity to aquatic life.
ecotoxicity
Low: Cyanides are destroyed in the environment, mainly by

Persistence
oxidation, and so are not persistent.
Bioaccumulation Cyanides are not bioaccumulative.

Where are the
risks of
impacts most
High concentrations of cyanide in a tailings dam in central NSW led to the deaths of
several thousand birds in 1995. Many birds were killed in 2003 when containers of sodium
Has anything cyanide on a truck travelling to a WA mine cracked and released cyanide. Sodium cyanide
happened was released to the harbour from production facility in Gladstone Qld in 2012. In the period
before in 1990-2015 Australia has experienced release of cyanide due to transport accidents on
Australia? three occasions. Several thousand litres of cyanide solution spilled in Northern Territory in
2002, poisoning birds and dingoes. Solid cyanide was released after a train derailment in
1992 in NSW (100 tonnes) and a truck accident in Northern Territory in 2007.
Industry –
The mining industry subscribes to a Cyanide Code of Practice that
systematic
provides detailed specification of industry practice.
controls
Workplace controls involve education of the workforce, provision of

personal protective equipment, and regular monitoring of the work
Industry –
environment. Controls over the content of an access to tailings
exposure
dams are increasingly stringent. For example, at the Cowal mine in
controls
central NSW, the dam is surrounded by two-metre high wire mesh
fence, buried 0.5 metres deep and also an electrified fence.
What control
measures are Safe Work Australia provides guidance to the use of dangerous
in place to chemicals in the electroplating industry and advocates a six-point
manage risks plan for elimination of hazards: elimination, substitution, isolation,
posed by this engineering controls, administrative controls, personal protective
waste? equipment.,
Government
Mining operations are conducted under license from state and
territory governments. Licenses increasingly require lower levels of
cyanide in tailings dams and/or complete destruction of cyanide
before discharge. Legislation also applies to transport to hazardous
good such as cyanide.
Some mines have community consultative bodies that contribute to

Community best practice management of many aspects of the mining and
treatment operations including cyanide management.
1. Guidance note: controlling hazards in the electroplating industry:

www.commerce.wa.gov.au/sites/default/files/atoms/files/guide_electroplating.pdf.
References 2. Pollution Prevention and Control. Technologies for Plating Operations:

www.nmfrac.org/bluebook/sec623.htm.
3. Cyanide management (Leading practice Sustainable Development program for the
Mining Industry, 2008): www.industry.gov.au/resource/Documents/LDSDP/LPSDP-

CyanideHandbook.pdf.
4. www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/safety-and-prevention/health-and-safety-topics/dangerous-
goods.

3.33 Acidic solutions or acids in solid form
Waste name:
Acidic solutions or acids in solid category:Y34 code: A4090 B100
form
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0
Acidic solutions and acid solid waste can take a large variety of forms
including, but not limited to: sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid,
phosphoric acid, chromic acid, hydrofluoric acid, mixed inorganic and
1
organic acids . As a result, waste materials can originate from a range of
Description of the
sources with the most common being manufacturing of other chemicals,
waste
fertilisers, electronics and metal.
Most acidic solutions and solids do not occur freely in nature. Some are
found in active volcanic areas while others, like phosphoric acid, can be
2, 3, 4, 5
found in soft drinks, human and animal food and cleaning agents .

What is it?
As this category of is so broad, the chemical and physical description is
not the same across different types. A sample of acid solutions or solids
are described below:
• Nitric acid – is corrosive, transparent (colourless or slightly yellow) and
has an acrid, pungent odour. It is a highly reactive with organic plastics
4
and many metals and will fume in moist air .
Physical/ chemical
• Phosphoric acid – is a non-combustible, colourless, odourless and
description
hygroscopic crystal. Commercial phosphoric acid is a viscous solution in
water. It is corrosive to ferrous metals and alloys and will readily react
3
with metals to form flammable hydrogen gas .
• Sulfuric acid: is a clear, colourless, oily liquid which is very reactive and
corrosive. It is soluble in water and ethyl alcohol and due to its strong
2
reactivity it may ignite organic materials if mixed together .

Primary hazard H8: Corrosives
leakage, will materially damage, or even
transport; they may also cause other hazards.

Why is it death or serious injury or to harm human
hazardous? Secondary hazard H6.1: Poisonous (acute)
health if swallowed or inhaled or by skin
contact.
H10: Liberation of toxic Substances or wastes which, by interaction

Other hazard(s) gases in contact with air with air or water, are liable to give off toxic
or water gases in dangerous quantities.
Likely to be found with a variety of other

chemicals.

Waste name:
form
Where does Metal coating and finishing; metal refining; primary metal and metal
it come Main sources product manufacturing and coal mining, plus a range of manufacturing
from? activities.

Main fates
managed? Some liquid wastes are discharged to sewer, after neutralisation, under
regulatory agreements.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
How much tonnes in 2013) 0.56%
is generated
in TOTAL: 40,464 ACT: 0 NSW: 14,522
Australia? Waste arising in
NT: 33 Qld: 14,092 SA: 718
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 32 Vic: 7,173 WA: 3,894
The potential health impacts of acidic solutions and solids are widely
varied. As a result, a range has been described for the potential impacts.
While it is difficult to draw conclusions for all substances in the category,
exposure generally results in high to extreme acute and chronic toxicity
Overview in the form of severe skin burns and irritation to the eyes, nose, throat
and lungs. Exposure to concentrated forms may lead to death. Repeated
exposure may cause permanent damage to internal organs. Some (but
not all) have been found to have severe carcinogenic effects on
2, 3, 4, 5
humans .
High – Extreme
Most will result in severe corrosive burns when contacted with skin or
Potential Acute toxicity ingested. Irritating to eyes, nose, throat and lungs if inhaled. Exposure to
health concentrated forms can cause circulatory collapse which may lead to
impacts death.
Medium – High
Repeated exposures may cause permanent damage to the lungs,
Chronic toxicity
circulatory system and teeth. Long-term skin exposure may cause
dermatitis.
Low – Extreme
Carcinogenicity Sulfuric acid was found to be carcinogenic to humans through
7
occupational exposure .
Low - Medium
Reproductive
There is little evidence to suggest that acidic solutions or solids have
toxicity
large effects on reproduction.
Workplace The majority of exposure incidences around acid solutions and solids occur in the workplace
health & where the chemicals are used in production, manufacturing or cleaning. Exposure is often due to

Waste name:
form
safety chemical spills resulting in severe skin or eye chemical burns.
impacts Gases emitted by acid solutions also present an occupational exposure risk. In a study of
workers from a zinc galvanising plant who were exposed to hydrochloric acid fumes through
8
processes within the plant, 90% were found to have dental erosion of the incisor teeth . Other
studies have concluded that occupational exposure to acid fumes are strongly associated with
9
tooth surface loss .
The general public may be exposed to small quantities of some acidic solutions or solids through
the consumption of food and soft drinks or through the use of cleaning agents in the home.
Population
Some acids may also be present in small quantities in the atmosphere, especially around
scale
industries producing or using such substances. As a result of this, the population scale impacts
impacts
of acidic solutions or solids are likely to be small. Such exposure incidents are likely to be as a
result of accidental contact with the skin or through ingestion.
The potential environmental impacts of acidic solutions and solids are

widely varied. As a result, a range has been described for the potential
impacts. While it is difficult to draw conclusions for all substances in the
category, exposure generally results in acute impacts such as plants or
Overview animals. Some substances are also corrosive to other minerals such as
carbonates (like limestone) and all aluminosilicates (such as clay and
igneous rock). The Impacts felt by a particular ecosystem will be
dependent on the concentration of the substance in water, soil or the air
2, 3, 4, 5
.
Low
Exposure to some acids will result in chemical burns to plants or animals.
Acute ecotoxicity
Some may also corrode other minerals such as limestone, clay and
Potential
igneous rock.
environment
impacts Low
Chronic Larger quantities of some acids can lower the pH of aquatic
ecotoxicity environments for extended periods of time, posing a potential risk to
aquatic organisms.
Low – Medium
Some acids may result in acid rain. For example when sulfuric or
Persistence hydrochloric acid enters the atmosphere it reacts with other chemicals to
form salts. The acid particles then dissolve in clouds, fog, rain or snow
forming dilute acidic solutions. This then falls to the soil as acid rain.
Low – Medium
Bioaccumulation Most acids do not bioaccumulate in the environment because of their
highly reactive nature.
Where are
the risks of
impacts
most likely? High Moderate Moderate Medium N/A Low

Waste name:
form
At Kingston, south of Brisbane, a former gold mine was used to dispose of acid sludge, cyanide
and oil processing wastes and finally municipal waste in the period from 1936–1967. Residential
and commercial development on, and adjacent to, these areas occurred in subsequent decades.
In 1982 high levels of acid in the soil were found. In 986 residents started to notice black sludge
beginning to seep into their gardens and began to complain of health problems. Surrounding
Has soils and ground-water were also found to be contaminated.
anything A community organisation called RATS (Residents Against Toxic Substances) was formed, who
happened claimed increased leukaemia and other diseases were being diagnosed in Kingston, and began
before in a self-funded civil action.
Australia? The State Government responded by ordering a review of all scientific and medical evidence,
offered full health tests for residents and announced the government would rehabilitate the site
and pay for families to be moved away. After thorough investigation, more than 20 houses were
required to be relocated to allow for the affected areas to be capped and sealed. This was
completed in 1991. The total cost of this operation to date, including relocating infrastructure, the
engineering required to seal the site and on-going monitoring, is approximately $8 million.
Each acidic solution or solid has different routine procedures in place to

prevent negative health effects of exposure. Some higher risk
Industry –
workplaces, where worker exposure to acidic solutions or solids may be
systematic
possible, routinely monitor at risk staff. Exposure standards for at risk
controls
workers must be below specified risk guideline to ensure the worker is
safe to continue working in the exposed environment.
Each acidic solution or solid has different exposure controls in place to

prevent negative health effects of exposure.
What Potential industrial sources of acidic waste have strict emissions control
control measures in place through the use of plant equipment such as
measures engineering controls (extraction ventilation) and isolation of processes.
are in place Additionally, for most acids, at-risk workers should wear appropriate
to manage personal protective equipment (PPE) .
10
risks posed
Australia also has national standards in place regarding the exposure
by this Industry – limits for atmospheric contaminants in the occupational environment.
waste? exposure controls These relate to average atmospheric contaminants over an eight hour
11
day and apply to a 40 hour week . For example, the current limits for
vapour from some acidic solutions include:
3
• Nitric Acid – 5.2 mg/m of air
3
• Phosphoric Acid – 1 mg/m of air
3
• Sulfuric Acid – 1 mg/m of air
These limits act as a national guideline and may vary between states
and territories.

Waste name:
form
State and territory governments regulate the management of hazardous

waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These place strict
controls on the methods of transport, treatment and disposal of all
hazardous wastes, including this waste, through licensing, tracking and
transport accreditation requirements.
Some acidic solutions and salts have guidelines for fresh and marine
water quality. For example, the guideline states that phosphate (derived
Government from phosphoric acid) should not exceed 10 to 100 micrograms per litre.
There is also a general range for the pH of fresh water from 6.5 to 9.
Many acidic solutions have the ability to greatly impact the pH level of
aquatic ecosystems beyond this range and so their release should be
12
regulated .
Australian drinking water guidelines state that sulfuric acid and
hydrochloric acid can be used to correct pH and to reduce corrosive
properties of Australian drinking water. There are no limit levels for
13
contaminants for other acidic solutions .
1. New South Wales Environment Protection Authority (2013). Waste codes & descriptions.
Accessed April 16, 2015 from: http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/owt/wclist.htm
Sheet – Sulfuric acid. Accessed April 16, 2015 from: http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/sulfuric-acid
Sheet – Phosphoric acid. Accessed April 16, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/phosphoric-acid
Sheet – Nitric acid. Accessed April 16, 2015 from: http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/nitric-acid
Sheet – Hydrochloric acid. Accessed April 16, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/hydrochloric-acid
6. United States Geological Survey (1993). Storage, transportation, handling and disposal of
Hydrochloric Acid. Accessed April 16, 2015 from:
References http://water.usgs.gov/admin/memo/policy/wrdpolicy94.006.html
7. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Occupational exposures to mists and
vapors form sulfuric acid and other strong inorganic acids. Accessed April 16, 2015 from:
http://www.inchem.org/documents/iarc/vol54/01-mists.html
8. Remun B, Koster P, Houthuu D, Boleij J, Willems H, Brunekreef B and Van Loveren C (1982).
Zinc chloride, zinc oxide, hydrochloric acid exposure and dental erosion in a zinc galvanizing
plant in the Netherlands. The Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 25(3): 229–307.
9. Tuominen ML, Tuominen RJ, Fubusa F and Mgalula N (2006). Tooth surface loss and
exposure to organic and inorganic acid fumes in workplace air. Community Dentistry and Oral
Epidemoilogy, 19(4): 217–220.
10. Queensland Government (2011). Safe Handling & Storage of Hydrochloric Acid. Accessed
Contaminants In The Occupation Environment [NOHSC: 1003 (1995)]. Accessed April 16, 2015
from: http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/SWA/about/Publications/
Documents/237/AdoptedNationalExposureStandardsAtmosphericContaminants _NOHSC1003-

Waste name:
form
1995_PDF.pdf
12. Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (2000). Australian and
New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality. Accessed April 16, 2015 from:
http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/53cda9ea-7ec2-49d4-af29-
d1dde09e96ef/files/nwqms-guidelines-4-vol1.pdf
Water Quality Management Strategy: Australian Drinking Waste Guideline 6 version 3.1 updated
March 2015. Accessed April 14, 2015 from: https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/
_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/eh52_australian_drinking_water_guidelines_150413.pdf
14. Queensland Government. Regulatory Impact Statement for SL 2000 No. 178. Accessed 27
April 2015 from:
https://www.legislation.qld.gov.au/LEGISLTN/SLS/RIS_EN/2000/00SL178R2.pdf

3.34 Basic solutions or bases in solid form
Waste name: Basic solutions or Basel waste Basel permit NEPM code:
bases in solid form category:Y35 code: A4090 C100
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0
Basic solutions and base solid waste can take a large variety of
forms including, but not limited to: alkaline cleaners, potash, caustic
soda, ammonium hydroxide, waste lime and cement and caustic
Description of 1
neutralised waste . As a result, waste materials can originate from a
the waste
range of sources with the most common being cleaning agents, the
manufacturing of other chemicals, fertilisers and metal treatment.
Most basic solutions and solids do not occur freely in nature.
What is it? Waste form Solid and liquid
As the category of basic solutions and solids is so broad, the

chemical and physical description is not the same across different
types. A sample of basic solutions or solids are described below:
• Ammonium hydroxide – is a solution of ammonia in water. It is
Physical/
alkaline and corrosive and is highly reactive with oxidisers, acids and
chemical 2
halogens .
description
• Potash – refers to potassium compounds and potassium-bearing
materials. It occurs as either a solid or as a solution is clear liquid. It
is caustic and highly alkaline and will react vigorously with acids and
3
acid salts .

hazards.
Why is it Substances or wastes liable to cause either

hazardous? Secondary H6.1: Poisonous death or serious injury or to harm human
hazard (acute) health if swallowed or inhaled or by skin
contact.
H10: Liberation of Substances or wastes which, by interaction

Other hazard(s) toxic gases in contact with air or water, are liable to give off toxic
with air or water gases in dangerous quantities.
Likely to be found with a variety of other

chemicals.
Household and industrial cleaners, bleaching agents, disinfectants,

Where does it the manufacturing of synthetic fibres, plastics, explosives, human
Main sources
come from? and veterinary medicines, fertilisers, chemical compounds, metal
2
treating operations, refrigeration and in the petroleum industry .

Major industrial sources in Australia are petroleum and gas
extraction (particularly coal seam gas), aluminium smelting, cement
and lime manufacturing, metal coating and finishing, fast food and
food manufacturing (cleaning wastes), other manufacturing
industries and potential alumina refining, through red mud.

Main fates
managed? Some liquid wastes are discharged to sewer, after neutralisation,
under regulatory agreements.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 4.88%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 303 Qld: 223,589 SA: 27,674
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 1 Vic: 6,497 WA: 88,333
The main impacts of basic solutions or solids occur in an acute

manner as a result of exposure to concentrated solutions. Exposure
Overview
can result in severe burns to the skin, mouth, throat or eyes
depending on the exposed area.
Extreme: Exposure to high concentrations of some basic solutions

can cause skin irritation and burns. Swallowing concentrated
Acute toxicity solutions can cause burns in the mouth, throat and stomach and
Potential health could lead death. Splashes of liquid solution to the eyes can cause
2, 4
impacts burns and blindness .
Low: There is little evidence to suggest that repeated exposure to

Chronic toxicity
basic solutions will cause chronic long-term damage.
Low: There is little evidence to suggest that basic solutions or solids

Carcinogenicity
have carcinogenetic effects.
Reproductive Low: There is little evidence to suggest that basic solutions or solids
toxicity have reproductive effects.
The majority of exposure incidences around basic solutions and solids occur in the
Workplace
workplace where the chemicals are used in production, manufacturing or cleaning or in
health & safety
transportation. Exposure is often due to chemical spills resulting in severe skin or eye
impacts 2
chemical burns .
Some bases may be present in small quantities in the atmosphere, especially around
Population industries producing or using such substances. As a result of this, the population scale
scale impacts impacts of basic solutions or solids are likely to be small. Such exposure incidents are
likely to be as a result of accidental contact with the skin or through ingestion.
Potential The main environmental impacts of basic solutions or solids occur in

Overview
environment an acute manner as a result of exposure to concentrated solutions.

2
impacts Exposure can lead to impacts upon birds, fish and plants .
High: At high concentrations, some basic solutions and solids can

Acute ecotoxicity have acute impacts upon birds, fish and plants resulting in reduced
growth rate and death.
Low: Some basic solutions and solids may result in long-term

Chronic
impacts upon aquatic organisms, reducing their lifespan, lowering
ecotoxicity
fertility and causing reproductive problems.

Persistence
are persistent in the natural environment.

Bioaccumulation
are bioaccumulative.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
Has anything As much as 1.7 ML of sodium hydroxide solution overflowed from a refinery tank as a ship
happened was unloading at Alcoa’s Kwinana jetty, in WA in June 2004. The spill was contained in an
before in earthen spill compound. It cost the company $366,000 to clean up after the incident and
Australia? they were fined $11,000.
Each basic solution or solid has different routine procedures in place

to prevent negative health effects of exposure. Some higher risk
Industry –
workplaces, where worker exposure to acidic solutions or solids may
systematic
be possible, routinely monitor at risk staff. Exposure standards for at
controls
risk workers must be below specified risk guideline to ensure the
worker is safe to continue working in the exposed environment.
Each basic solution or solid has different exposure controls in place

to prevent negative health effects of exposure.
Industry – Potential industrial sources of basic waste have strict emissions
What control
exposure control measures in place through the use of plant equipment such
measures are
controls as engineering controls (extraction ventilation) and isolation of
in place to
processes. Additionally, for most bases, at-risk workers should wear
manage risks
posed by this
waste? State and territory governments regulate the management of
Government
Some basic solutions and solids have guidelines for fresh and
marine water quality. For example, there is a general range for the
pH of fresh water from 6.5 to 9. Many basic solutions have the ability
to greatly impact the pH level of aquatic ecosystems beyond this
5
range and so their release should be regulated .

1. New South Wales Environment Protection Authority (2013). Waste codes &
descriptions. Accessed April 16, 2015 from: http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/owt/wclist.htm
Fact Sheet – Ammonia (total). Accessed April 16, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/ammonia-total
3. Milestone (2012). Material Safety Data Sheet – Caustic Potash 28%. Accessed April 16,
2015 from: http://www.msdsonline.com.au/msds/msdsview.asp?Std=1&ID=05b48cf0-
62e8-40f6-bba3-7ec2a0a7d2d4
4. Japan Soda Industry Association (2006). Safe Handling of Caustic Soda (Sodium
References Hydroxide). Accessed April 16, 2015 from: http://www.jsia.gr.jp/data/handling_01e.pdf
5. Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (2000). Australian
and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality. Accessed April 16, 2015
from: http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/53cda9ea-7ec2-49d4-af29-
d1dde09e96ef/files/nwqms-guidelines-4-vol1.pdf
6. Department of Consumer and Employment Protection, Government of Western
Australia. Dangerous Goods Incident Logs, 2004. Accessed 27 April, 2015 from:
http://www.dmp.wa.gov.au/documents/Reports/DG_IncidentLogs2004.pdf
7. Article from High Beam Research, April 12, 2015. Accessed 27 April 2015 from:
http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-131389172.html

3.35 Asbestos (dust and fibres)
Asbestos (dust and fibres) category:Y36 code: A2050 N220
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0
Asbestos is the name given to a group of naturally occurring minerals

found in rock formations. Three types of asbestos were mined in
Australia: white (chrysotile), blue (crocidolite) and brown (amosite)
asbestos. Asbestos mining was completely stopped in Australia
by1983 but it is still mined in large quantities at many locations
worldwide. Mined asbestos only represented a small proportion of the
asbestos used in Australia (about 5%) with the bulk imported. The
majority of asbestos (90%) used throughout the world, including
Australia, was white asbestos.
Australia banned the use or import of blue and brown asbestos or
asbestos products in the mid-1980s, and banned all manufacture or
import of white asbestos products in December 2003.
Asbestos-containing building products are classified as either ‘friable’
Description of (soft, crumbly) or ‘bonded’ (solid, rigid, non-friable). Friable asbestos
the waste products may be as much as 100% asbestos fibres and can become
airborne and inhalable very easily. Bonded products such as
asbestos cement sheet (otherwise known as ‘fibro’) contain
approximately 15% asbestos fibres, bonded with cement and do not
normally release fibres into the air when in good condition.
What is it?
Houses built before the mid-1980s are highly likely to have asbestos-
containing products, between mid-1980s and 1990 likely, and after
1990 unlikely.
Asbestos is one of the largest flows of hazardous waste in Australia
and poses significant health risks. Asbestos waste includes both end
of life asbestos-containing building materials as well as soil that has
been tested to demonstrate asbestos contamination. Since the latter
may involve very low asbestos fibre concentrations and very high soil
volumes, this greatly contributes to reported asbestos waste volumes.
Waste form Solid.
Asbestos fibres are strong, heat resistant and have insulating

properties. Clumps of mined asbestos can be broken down into loose
fibres or fibre bundles, and can be mixed with other materials, such
as cement, to produce a variety of building products. Up to 90% of the
Physical/ asbestos produced in or imported into Australia was used for the
chemical manufacture of building products, especially asbestos cement
description materials.
Asbestos fibres are not visible to the naked eye but, they are very
light, remain airborne for a long time, and can be carried by wind and
air currents over large distances. They are generally not broken down
to other compounds and remain virtually unchanged over long

periods.

H11: Toxic
inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Primary hazard (delayed or
chronic)
Why is it Secondary N/A N/A
hazardous? hazard
Other inorganic and organic pollutants, in the

case of asbestos-containing contaminated soil.
State-based waste data collection and tracking systems do not

differentiate between waste asbestos-containing products and
asbestos-containing contaminated soil.
Where does it Sources of either waste are: non-residential building construction,
Main sources
come from? demolition contractors, commercial and residential asbestos removal
services, property development services, hospitals, Defence and
other numerous sectors involved in asbestos removal from their
buildings.
How is it Asbestos waste is disposed of at landfills licensed by environmental

Main fates
managed? regulators to receive asbestos waste.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 11.00%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 4,973 Qld: 115,323 SA: 18,934
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 10,597 Vic: 57,733 WA: 52,031
Asbestos only poses a risk to health when asbestos fibres are

breathed in. Inhaling asbestos fibres may cause asbestos-related
disease and death.
When asbestos fibres are breathed in, they may remain deep within
the lungs. They can lodge in lung tissue and cause inflammation,
scarring and some more serious asbestos- related diseases, which
Potential usually take many years, if not decades, to develop.
Overview
health impacts The four major asbestos-related diseases, in increasing order of
severity, are:
• Pleural plaques: areas of white, smooth, raised scar tissue on
the outer lining of the lung, internal chest wall and diaphragm.
May be the earliest sign of asbestos exposure.
• Asbestosis: a chronic condition caused by inflammation or
scarring in the lungs that causes shortness of breath, coughing

and permanent lung damage. May be caused by heavy,
prolonged exposure to asbestos.
• Lung cancer: risk of developing lung cancer is increased in
people who also smoke or have a pre-existing lung disease.
• Mesothelioma: a rare form of cancer of the tissue that lines the
body cavities, particularly the chest and abdominal cavities. In
Australia, about 90% of all mesothelioma patients have a
confirmed history of significant asbestos exposure.
Acute toxicity High: Toxic by inhalation.
Extreme: Danger of serious damage to health by prolonged

Chronic toxicity
exposure.
Extreme: Crocidolite (blue asbestos), amosite (brown asbestos) and

Carcinogenicity chrysotile (white asbestos), as fibres respectively, are all known to be
human carcinogens via inhalation risk.
Reproductive
There are no reproductive toxicity impacts from exposure to asbestos.
toxicity
The risk factors for contracting asbestos-related disease are simply the total number of
fibres breathed in over a lifetime. Most people who develop asbestos-related diseases
have worked on jobs where they frequently breathed in large amounts of asbestos fibres.
Workplace For example, in the past, construction workers using unsafe practices may have frequently
health & safety encountered asbestos fibre levels well above background levels. The current regulated
impacts workplace limit (over an eight-hour period) is 100 fibres per litre of air (which is between
500 and 10 000 times background levels). In the past, workers in asbestos milling or mining
often encountered fibre concentrations a million times higher than background levels (see
‘Has anything happened before in Australia?’ – Wittenoom).
We are all exposed to low levels of asbestos in the air we breathe every day. Ambient or
background air usually contains between 10 and 200 asbestos fibres in every 1000 litres
(or cubic metre) of air (equivalent to 0.01 to 0.20 fibres per litre of air). However, most
people do not become ill from this exposure, because the levels of asbestos present in the
environment are very low. Most people are also exposed to higher levels of asbestos at
Population
some time in their lives; for example, in their workplace, community or home. However, for
scale impacts
most people, this kind of infrequent exposure is also unlikely to result in any ill effects.
A very small number of asbestos-related disease cases occur each year in people who
have not worked with asbestos products. The low number of cases makes it difficult to
determine the exact cause of the disease or the likely exposure event, but unsafe handling
of asbestos materials in the home may have contributed to some of these cases.
The risks posed by asbestos are predominantly related to human

health. However, the same risks apply to animals in the vicinity of
Potential sources of asbestos fibres, both pets and wild animals.
environment Overview When asbestos is released into the environment it contaminates the
impacts air, water and soil. Asbestos can travel for long distances in the air
before it settles into water or on land, thus contaminating areas far
away from its source. Fibres sit on top of the soil, where it can easily

be disturbed and redistributed into the air.
Chronic
Low.
ecotoxicity
Persistence High.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? High Medium Moderate N/A N/A Low
Wittenoom, WA
Wittenoom is an area in the Pilbara region of Western Australia that carried out asbestos
mining during the 1930's up until 1966, which produced tailings that contain varying
amounts of residual blue asbestos fibres (crocidolite). The stockpiles of tailings have been
eroded and dispersed over the years since the mining operations have ceased and now
extend for several kilometres downstream from the actual mine sites. Tailings were also
historically removed from the stockpiles and used on roads and around the town site as fill.
The 1990 Midnight Oil song ‘Blue Sky Mine’ was inspired by Wittenoom and its deadly
mining industry. It’s estimated that more than 20,000 people lived at Wittenoom before the
mine closed in 1966. Asbestos-related diseases have killed more than 2000 former workers
and family members of Wittenoom, a death toll that continues to rise.
In 2007, the state government withdrew Wittenoom’s town status—disconnecting services
like water and electricity—but a small group of residents stayed. Today they number just
three.
Has anything
Remnants of blue asbestos (the most deadly of all types of asbestos) are still present
happened
throughout the Wittenoom Asbestos Contaminated Area, presenting a serious risk to
before in
human health. The Department of Environment and Conservation has classified the town
Australia?
and gorge as contaminated and "not suitable for any form of human occupation” and that
1
access to the area “should be prevented.”
Mr Fluffy, Canberra ACT

From the 1950s to the 1970s the most refined form of brown and blue asbestos was
pumped into the roof cavities of more than 1,000 Canberra and NSW homes as insulation.
Loose raw asbestos was touted as cheap and effective insulation. The product was called
asbestosfluf, and the company that installed it became known as Mr Fluffy.
Twenty-seven Canberra families have now left their homes, which have been deemed
unsafe to live in, despite an extensive Commonwealth Government asbestos removal
program in the 1980s. Recent assessment reports show that if there are fine cracks around
cornices or halls, in wardrobes, ceiling fibres are being released into living areas.
The ACT Government has recently decided to borrow $1 billion from the Commonwealth
Government to facilitate a buyback and demolition of every single Mr Fluffy house in the
ACT – a decision which has now also been replicated in NSW.

Practices and controls for the management of asbestos exposure in
the workplace are detailed in Safe Work Australia’s Model Code of
Practice - How to Manage and Control Asbestos in the Workplace,
Industry controls
2011, available at:
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/swa/about/publications/pag
es/manage-control-asbestos-cop.
The Australian Parliament passed legislation in June 2013 to

establish an independent statutory authority, the Asbestos Safety and
Eradication Agency (the Agency). The Agency began operations on 1
July 2013 and will provide a focus on issues which go beyond work
health and safety to encompass transport, environmental (including
storage and disposal) and public health issues and ensure asbestos
issues receive the attention and focus needed to drive change across
all levels of government.
The broad functions of the Agency include advocating, coordinating,
monitoring and reporting on the implementation of the National
Strategic Plan for Asbestos Awareness and Management (Plan)
which has been developed in consultation with Commonwealth, state
Government and territory and local governments and a range of non-governmental
stakeholders. The Plan can be found on the Agency’s website at:
What control
www.asbestossafety.gov.au.
measures are
in place to Various Work Health and Safety (WHS) or Occupational Health and
manage risks Safety (OHS) acts, regulations, codes of practice, certification
posed by this requirements and other legislation and guidance exist in each state
waste? and territory and at the national level to regulate the workplace risks
of asbestos.
Asbestos is all around us at home and at work, so knowledge of the

risks is important for everyone.
• Know where asbestos-containing products could be in your home.
If in doubt, get products tested, or for safety’s sake, assume it is
asbestos.
• Maintain asbestos-containing products in good condition, such as
Community through use of paint or other surface finishes, enclosures and
capping.
• Replace asbestos cement materials if they are damaged or are
being temporarily dismantled for any reason. Ensure all friable
asbestos is removed only by a licensed asbestos removalist.
• Get advice from your local government environmental health
officer, or state or territory government, on safe handling and

disposal of asbestos-containing products, and on the use of
appropriate protective equipment.
• Engage a licensed asbestos removalist when undertaking major
home renovations or demolitions where asbestos may be present.
In some states, homeowners also require a licence for removal of
asbestos-containing materials.
• Ordinary dust masks are not effective in preventing the inhalation
of asbestos fibres and dust. You should wear either a half-face
filter respirator fitted with a class P1 or P2 filter cartridge, or a
class P1 or P2 disposable respirator appropriate for asbestos.
1. The West Australian newspaper, article March 5, 2013: Wittenoom closure nears.
Accessed 24 April 2015 from:
https://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/regional/north-west/a/16300082/wittenoom-closure-
nears/
2. The West Australian newspaper, article July 15, 2013: The last people standing.
https://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/a/18007972/the-last-people-standing/
3. ABC Radio National, 10 August 2014. Background Briefing: Asbestos: The Mr Fluffy
fiasco. Accessed 24 April 2015 from:
http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/backgroundbriefing/2014-08-10/5649508
4. The Canberra Times newspaper, article January 2, 2015: Andrew Kefford, the ACT
bureaucrat combating Mr Fluffy. Accessed 24 April, 2015 from:
http://www.canberratimes.com.au/act-news/andrew-kefford-the-act-bureaucrat-combating-
mr-fluffy-20150102-12d5gp.html
5. Environmental Health Standing Committee (enHealth), Asbestos: A guide for
householders and the general public, Australian Health Protection Principal Committee,
Canberra, 2013. Accessed 24 April 2015 from:
References http://www.health.gov.au/internet/publications/publishing.nsf/Content/asbestos-
toc/$FILE/asbestos-feb13.pdf
6. Safe Work Australia. Hazardous Substances Information System (HSIS). Accessed April
7. Safe Work Australia. Model Code of Practice - How to Manage and Control Asbestos in
the Workplace, 2011.Accessed 24 April 2015 from:
http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/sites/swa/about/publications/pages/manage-control-
asbestos-cop.
8. Work Safe Victoria. Compliance Code – Removing asbestos in workplaces. Edition No.1,
September 2008. Accessed 24 April, 2015 from:
https://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/9234/cc_asbestos_remove.pd
f
9. Government of Western Australia Department of Lands. Wittenoom: Asbestos
contamination and management. Accessed 24 April 2015 from:
http://www.lands.wa.gov.au/Wittenoom

3.36 Organic phosphorus compounds
Organic phosphorus compounds category:Y37 code: A3130 H110
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9
Description of Esters of phosphoric acid and thiophosphoric acid involving a range

the waste of organic groups are used in industrial and agricultural applications.

What is it? Triphenyl and tricresyl phosphates are used as lubricants and
plasticizers. These substances as well as halogenated derivatives
Physical/ are used as flame retardant additives for plastics. All such esters
chemical are high-boiling liquids.
description Esters and thioesters of thiophosphoric acid are used as pesticides.
These are liquids or low-melting solids normally used in solution in
organic solvents are as aqueous emulsions.

Primary hazard

Why is it Secondary
hazardous? hazard
Triaryl phosphate esters. Phosphate esters

Main likely chemical contaminants such as Diazinon, Azinphos-methyl,
Chlorpyrifos and Dichlorvos.
Triaryl phosphates are blended with plastic materials to make them

less brittle and to provide flame retardancy.
The organophosphate pesticides are used in spray applications in
Where does it orchards and horticulture, in disinfection of buildings and equipment,
Main sources
come from? and in dipping and jetting of animals for pest control. In spray
applications some of the pesticide attaches to non-target species
and soil. Dipping solutions may be spilled during handling and
overspray can occur with jetting.
Triaryl phosphate esters are minor components of the plastic waste

How is it stream.
Main fates
managed? Spent dip wash is held in a bunded area to allow slow degradation
by natural process in soils.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

How much is

0.01%

Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 51 SA: 54
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 13 WA: 550
Triaryl phosphates have low toxicity but may be absorbed through

the skin.
The organophosphate pesticides are inhibitors of the enzyme acetyl
Overview
cholinesterase and act by inducing muscle paralysis. They may be
absorbed through the skin and are dangerous by inhalation or
ingestion.
Low: Triaryl phosphates have low acute toxicity.

Extreme: The organophosphate pesticides are acutely toxic,
Acute toxicity
inducing symptoms salivation, lachrymation, vomiting and laboured
breathing.
Low: Triaryl phosphates have low chronic toxicity but see below for
reproductive effects.
Potential health
impacts Medium: Chronic effects of longer term exposure to
organophosphate pesticides are of the same type as the acute
Chronic toxicity effects and result from decreased levels of the relevant enzyme
causing reduced muscular control. Such effects may be induced by
slow-release formulations of the organophosphate pesticides that
are designed to maintain very low concentrations of the substances
in indoor environments.
Neither the triaryl phosphates nor the organophosphate pesticides

Carcinogenicity
are carcinogenic
Medium: Triaryl phosphates have reproductive toxicity, the

Reproductive mechanism of which is unknown.
toxicity The organophosphate pesticides do not pose a reproductive risk to
humans.
Workplace Workplace exposure must be avoided to the maximum extent possible. Spray and jetting
health & safety applications pose particular risks and require the use of face masks. Periodic testing of
impacts workers is recommended by Safe Work Australia.
Permitted residue levels for organophosphate pesticides on grains and other vegetable
Population
products are typically a few mg per kilogram on treated product and withholding intervals
scale impacts
of typically 7 days after treatment.
Potential No significant data are available on the environmental impacts of

environment Overview triaryl phosphates.
impacts Organophosphate pesticides are toxic to animal species.

Extreme: As for humans, the toxicity consists of muscle impacts
Acute ecotoxicity
caused by enzyme inhibition. Very toxic in aquatic environments.
Extreme: As for humans, continued exposure results in low level

Chronic
impacts of the same kind as acute poisoning. May cause long term
ecotoxicity
adverse impacts in the aquatic environment.
Low: Triaryl phosphates are slowly degraded in the environment and

so are not persistent.
Persistence
Organophosphate pesticides are not persistent in the environment,
but some degradation products are toxic and have longer lifetimes.
Low: Triaryl phosphates are slowly degraded in the environment and

in living systems so bioaccumulation is not expected.
Bioaccumulation
Organophosphate pesticides are destroyed in the body and so are
not bioaccumulative.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
Has anything
happened Workplace exposures with poisoning of various extents are reported to state poisons
before in centres.
Australia?
There are no controls over uses of triaryl phosphates but

organophosphate pesticides are highly regulated. Their use requires
the approval of the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines
Authority (APVMA) which reviews their status from time to time as
Industry –
new evidence emerges. A number have been deregistered in recent
systematic
years but there are still approximately 20 such compounds in use.
controls
APVMA has set the maximum daily intake of Dichlorvos, for
example, at 0.0001 mg/kg body weight/day. Dichlorvos-containing
What control
products are listed under Schedules 5-7 depending on
measures are
concentration.
in place to
manage risks Industry – An enzyme-based product developed by CSIRO and Orica and
posed by this exposure marketed as Landmark
TM
is available for destruction of
waste? controls organophosphate residues in water and soils.
State and territory regulations govern uses of organophosphate

Government pesticides. National oversight is maintained by the government
agency APVMA.
Community may be exposed through spray drift or from

Community inappropriate use of domestic products containing organophosphate
pesticides.
References 1. Dichlorvos Chemical review: http://apvma.gov.au/node/12491.

2. G.W. Levot, ‘Effective Remediation of Diazinon from Spent Sheep Dip Wash by
Disposal on Land’, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 47(1) (2007), 13-16.
3. Organophosphates:: Health Surveillance. Guide for Employers.
www.commerce.wa.gov.au/sites/dedfault/files/atoms/files/organophosphates_hs.pdf.
4. Landmark: www.csiropedia.csiro.au/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=426045.
5. For triphenyl phosphate:
http://pubchem.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/compound/triphenyl_phosphate#section=Related-
substances.

3.37 Organic cyanides
Organic cyanides category:Y38 code: A4050 M210
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0
-
‘Organic cyanides’ is a misnomer since the cyanide ion (CN ) that
characterises inorganic cyanides and is the source of their toxicity is
not involved. These substances are correctly described as nitriles in
which the cyano group (-CN) is covalently bonded to carbon and
Description of cannot be detached as cyanide ion.
the waste Acetonitrile (CH3CN) is used as a solvent and acrylonitrile (CH2=CH-
What is it?
CN) is used as a monomer for polymer production in Australia.
Ethanedinitrile (NC-CN), also known as cyanogen, is a fumigant that
is available to replace methyl bromide (an ozone-depleting
substance) in some uses in Australia.
Waste form Liquid and gas

o
Physical/ Acetonitrile is a liquid with boiling point 82 C; acrylonitrile is a liquid
o o
chemical with boiling point 79 C; ethanedinitrile, boiling point -21 C, is
description available as a gas.

Primary hazard
contact.

Why is it suspension (for example, paints, varnishes,
hazardous? Secondary H3: Flammable
hazard liquids
Main likely chemical contaminants Acetonitrile, acrylonitrile, ethanedinitrile.
Acetonitrile is used as a solvent in a range of applications, and the

national Pollutant Inventory reveals emissions to air over the past
five years averaging 570 kg/year. About 400 kg/year of acrylonitrile
Where does it is used in the polymer (plastics) industry. The homopolymer,
Main sources
come from? polyacrylonitrile, is used in fabrics. In Australia the main use is
copolymerization with other monomers. The copolymer (ABS) is
formed from acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene. No information is
available about usage of the new fumigant ethandinitrile.

The extremely small quantities of this waste that are generated in
How is it
Main fates Australia are likely to be sent for thermal destruction or energy
managed?
recovery.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.0002%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 9 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 2
Nitriles can be inhaled as vapour or absorbed through skin. While

some of their toxicity resembles that of inorganic cyanides, there is
Overview
no chemical or biological pathway producing cyanide ions from the
nitriles and commentaries to that effect are in error
Extreme: Inhalation of acetonitrile affects mucous membranes and

can produce cyanosis as oxygen in the blood is consumed. Higher
concentrations affect the central nervous system producing
Acute toxicity headaches, numbness and tremors. Absorption through the skin
Potential health
may be a significant exposure route.
impacts
Acrylonitrile irritates the skin and eyes and acts as a central nervous
system depressant and respiratory irritant.
Extreme: Kidney and thyroid damage ensues after prolonged

Chronic toxicity
exposure to acetonitrile.
Carcinogenicity Acetonitrile is not carcinogenic.
Reproductive
Acetonitrile does not affect reproduction.
toxicity
3
Workplace The time weighted exposure limit for acetonitrile is 40 ppm (= 67 mg/m ), with short term
3
health & safety exposure permitted up to 60 ppm (= 101 mg/m ). That for acrylonitrile is 2 ppm (4.3
3
impacts mg/m ).
Population
There were no population-scale impacts identified.
scale impacts
Acetonitrile and acrylonitrile released to air are minor components of

the suite of Volatile Organic Compounds. Both are miscible with
water and when released to the aqueous medium are transported
Overview
Potential widely and rapidly diluted below levels of concern. Ethane dinitrile is
environment intended for use in closed systems such as those employed for
impacts fumigation of logs.
Low: Acetonitrile exhibits slight acute toxicity to aquatic organisms.

Acute ecotoxicity Acrylonitrile is highly toxic to aquatic organisms but data on its
impacts on other lifeforms are lacking.

Chronic
Low: Acetonitrile exhibits slight chronic toxicity to aquatic organisms
ecotoxicity
Low: Acetonitrile and acrylonitrile have half-lives of a few days in the

Persistence
environment.
Bioaccumulation Neither acetonitrile nor acrylonitrile is bioaccumulative.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
Has anything
happened
No incidents in Australia have been identified.
before in
Australia?
Industry –
Health concerns are higher for acrylonitrile and ethane dinitrile on
systematic
account of their toxicity than for acetonitrile.
controls
What control
measures are Industry – Acetonitrile and acrylonitrile are generally used in closed systems so
in place to exposure workers are not directly exposed during normal operations.
manage risks controls Regulatory limits (see above) apply.
posed by this
Workplace health and safety limits are promulgated by government
waste? Government
agencies in States and Territories.
Since these are industrial chemicals with relatively small emissions

Community
to air, the exposure of the general public is slight.
1. Public Release Summary on the Evaluation of the new Active Constituent Ethanedinitrile
in the product Sterigas 1000 Fumigant (2013):
http://archive.apvma.gov.au/registration/assessment/docs/prs_ethane-dinitrile.pdf.
References 2. Acetonitrile: http://pubchem.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/compound/acetonitrile#section=Top.
3. Toxic Substances Portal – Acrylonitrile (2013):
www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id=4478ctid=78.

3.38 Phenols; phenol compounds including chlorophenols
Waste name:
Phenols; phenol compounds category:Y39 code: A3070 M150
including chlorophenols
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8
Phenol is an industrial chemical that is used in the manufacture of

resins, plastics, fibres, adhesives, iron, steel, aluminium, leather, and
rubber. Chlorophenols are a small group of chemicals that substitute
one or more hydrogen atoms in the aromatic ring structure with one
or more chlorine atoms.
Phenol is used in a variety of indoor products. It is used in general
disinfectants and as a biocide in paints. It is also used in medicinal
preparations such as mouth washes, throat lozenges, and shave
creams. The largest single use of phenol is as an intermediate in the
production of phenolic resins, which are low-cost, versatile,
Description of thermoset resins used in the plywood adhesive, construction,
the waste automotive, and appliance industries.
What is it? Chlorophenols are commonly used in disinfectants as well as
pesticides and herbicides. Pentachlorophenol (PCP), perhaps the
most toxic of the chlorophenols, may have been used in wood
preservation in Australia in decades past, but it is not currently
approved for use as an agricultural or veterinary chemical in
Australia.
Phenol-containing wastes in Australia are usually spent materials
from steel, other metal and other manufacturing industries. Phenols
are also likely to be present in coal tars and other wastes from
petroleum refining and processing industries.
Phenol is a white crystalline mass which turns red or pink if exposed

Physical/
to air or light. It has a burning taste and a distinct aromatic, acrid
chemical
odour. Phenol is combustible when exposed to heat, flame, or
description
oxidizers and emits toxic fumes when heated.

hazardous? Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the

Waste name:
While some waste phenols come from chemical manufacturing, the
major source of phenolic wastes in Australia is in spent foundry
Where does it sands from ferrous and non-ferrous casting and foundries. This is
Main sources
come from? due to the decomposition of phenolic resin binders during the metal
pouring process.
Some phenolic waste comes from fossil fuel electricity supply.
How is it The small quantity of phenolic wastes generated in Australia are

Main fates
managed? treated by thermal destruction.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.02%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 955 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 8 WA: 2
Phenols can cause acute toxicity through contact with skin and
mucous membranes. Since phenol is absorbed through the skin
Overview
relatively quickly, systemic poisoning can occur in addition to the
local caustic burns.
High: Harmful if swallowed, in contact with skin or if inhaled. Causes

skin and eye irritation dur to a protein-degenerating effect.
Acute toxicity Pentachlorophenol (PCP), one of the most toxic phenolic
compounds, can be fatal if inhaled or through skin contact. However,
Potential health
PCP has not been used in Australia for many decades.
impacts
High: Chronic exposure to phenol could cause vertigo, digestive
Chronic toxicity
difficulties, skin eruptions, nervous problems and headaches.
Low: PCP is suspected of causing cancer but exposure in Australia

Carcinogenicity is unlikely. Other phenolic compounds are not classified as human
carcinogens.
Reproductive
Low: Suspected of causing genetic effects.
toxicity
Occupational exposure to phenolic compounds may occur during the production of phenol
and its products, during the application of phenolic resins (wood and iron/steel industry)
Workplace and during a number of other industrial activities. The highest concentration (up to 88
3
health & safety mg/m ) was reported for workers in the ex-USSR quenching coke with phenol-containing
impacts waste water.
In Australia the most likely worker exposure is to the acrid fumes of decomposed phenolic
resin binders, used on foundry sands in moulding and casting processes.
Population For the general population, cigarette smoke and smoked food products are the most

Waste name:
scale impacts important sources of phenol exposure. Exposure by way of drinking-water and
inadvertently contaminated food products is expected to be low; phenol has an
objectionable smell and taste, which is not likely to be acceptable to the consumer.
Phenols are very toxic in the environment. Acute toxic effects may
include the death of animals, birds, or fish, and death or low growth
Overview rate in plants. Longer term effects may include shortened lifespan,
reproductive problems, lower fertility, and changes in appearance or
behaviour.
Potential
environment Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Very toxic to aquatic life.
impacts
Chronic
Extreme: Toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects.
ecotoxicity
Persistence Low: Limited ability to persist in the environment.
Bioaccumulation High: Will accumulate to some extent in fish and sediments.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
A worker was killed when a pipe burst and sprayed him with molten phenol in a horrific
Has anything
workplace accident in Melbourne’s west in May 2011. The man was working on pipes
happened
outside the Nufarm herbicide manufacturing facility in Laverton North when one exploded,
before in
dousing him in phenol which he also probably ingested. The man suffered a cardiac arrest
Australia?
in the decontamination shower and was unable to be revived.
Companies that handle phenolic compounds and their wastes are

Industry –
systematic
controls
pollutants.
Potential industrial sources of phenol based wastes have strict

exposure to airborne sources of wastes such as fumes, which may
manage risks have an acrid stench.
posed by this
Regulatory levels are set by state and territory government agencies
waste?
for exposure of workers to a range of volatile organic substances.
Government

seldom identified.
References 1. Australian Government Department of the Environment. National Pollutant Inventory

Waste name:
Fact Sheet – phenol. Accessed March 24, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/phenol
2 Guidechem MSDS for 4-Chlorophenol. Accessed 24 April, 2015 from:
http://www.guidechem.com/msds/106-48-9.html
3. Sigma Aldrich (2015). 2- Chlorophenol Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed April 24,
2015 from:
79%3Flang%3Den
4. US Department of Transportation. Federal Highway Administration. User Guidelines for
Waste and Byproduct Materials in Pavement Construction – Foundry Sand. Publication
number: FHWA-RD-97-148. Accessed 24 April 2015 from:
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/97148/fs1.cfm
5. EPA South Australia (2014). Licensing Guidelines: Environmental management of
foundries. Accessed 24 April 2015 from:
http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/xstd_files/Air/Guideline/guide_foundries.pdf
6. The Age newspaper, May 19, 2011. Man dies after chemical pipe bursts. Accessed 24
April, 2015 from:
http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/man-dies-after-chemical-pipe-bursts-20110519-
1eu2g.html

3.39 Ethers
Ethers category:Y40 code: A3080 G100
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 0 – 2.5
Ethers are excellent organic solvents (see Y42), liquid organic

chemicals that have the ability to dissolve other substances. Ethers
are classified separately to both organic solvents and halogenated
organic solvents (Y41), probably because of their particularly high
flammability (linked to their high volatility and auto-oxidation
potential) and their low environmental impact compared to petroleum
based solvents.
As well as a solvent, ethyl ether is used as a volatile starting fluid for
Description of
diesel engines and petrol engines in cold weather. Dimethyl ether is
the waste
used as a spray propellant and refrigerant. Methyl tert-butyl ether
(MTBE) is a petrol additive that boosts the octane number and
reduces the amount of nitrogen-oxide pollutants in the exhaust. The
ethers of ethylene glycol are used as solvents and plasticizers.
Ethers are also important in medicine and pharmacology, especially
What is it? for use as anaesthetics.
Ethers present as wastes in Australia in small quantities from very
industry-specific applications.
Waste form Volatile liquid
Ethers are a class of organic compounds characterized by an

oxygen atom bonded to two hydrocarbon groups, similar in structure
to water; an oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms.
At room temperature, ethers are colourless liquids that tend to
characterised by their strong odour – ranging from pleasant to ‘sickly
Physical/ sweet’ to unpleasant. They are relatively unreactive, and as a result
chemical they are useful as solvents for fats, oils, waxes, perfumes, resins,
description dyes, gums, and hydrocarbons.
Ethers, like alcohols, are relatively soluble in water compared to
other organic solvents. They are highly flammable and can auto-
oxidise to form organic peroxides such as diethyl ether peroxide -
opened bottles of diethyl ether can build up dangerous levels of
these peroxides in months.

Why is it H3: Flammable
Primary hazard suspension (for example, paints, varnishes,
hazardous? liquids



yielding another yielding another material. In the case of
Other hazard(s) hazard or hazardous some ethers, they can form explosive
material organic peroxides in contact with light, heat
and oxygen in shelf-life timeframes.
Other organic chemicals, as ethyl is a very

effective solvent.
Where does it Printing industry, pathology and diagnostic imagery services,

Main sources
come from? scientific research services and higher education.
Waste solvents are often subject to reclamation, but due to the high
How is it
Main fates flammability of ethers this will either be blended into a waste derived
managed?
fuel for energy recovery or incinerated.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.02%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 145 SA: 6
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 1,295 WA: 17
Ethers are extremely flammable liquids and vapours. They may also
be prone to auto-oxidise to dangerous organic peroxides, diethyl
ether peroxide, which are thermally unstable. Consequently ethers
must be used stored and handled and disposed of with extreme
care.
MTBE gives water an unpleasant taste at very low concentrations,
Overview and thus can render large quantities of groundwater non-potable.
MTBE is often introduced into water-supply aquifers by leaking
Potential health
underground storage tanks (USTs) at gasoline stations or by
impacts
gasoline containing MTBE spilled onto the ground. The higher water
solubility and persistence of MTBE cause it to travel faster and
farther than many other components of gasoline when released into
an aquifer.[
Medium – high: Harmful if swallowed. Causes serious eye irritation

Acute toxicity
and may cause drowsiness or dizziness.
Chronic toxicity Low: Prolonged exposures may result in headache, drowsiness,

excitation, and psychic disturbances.
Low: MTBE and similar ethers are not classified as carcinogenic,

Carcinogenicity due to limited evidence in human or animal studies. But according to
the US EPA, MTBE is a potential human carcinogen at high doses.
Reproductive Low- medium: Teratogenic effects (ability to disturb the

toxicity development of an embryo or foetus) are possible.
Though MTBE has been used as a fuel additive since 1979, there have been no long-term
Workplace studies of the ability of MTBE to cause cancer or other long term effects in workers
health & safety exposed to high concentrations. People who might have been exposed to MTBE at work
impacts often have also been exposed to a number of other chemicals, which makes studying this
issue difficult.
MTBE and other ethers are not a significant from an ecotoxicity point
of view, but MTBE gives water an unpleasant taste at very low
concentrations, which can render large quantities of groundwater
non-potable. MTBE is often introduced into water-supply aquifers by
Overview leaking underground storage tanks (USTs) at petrol stations or by
fuels containing MTBE spilled onto the ground. The higher water
solubility and persistence of MTBE cause it to travel faster and
Potential farther than many other components of petrol when released into an
environment aquifer.
impacts
Acute ecotoxicity Low: Negligible to low toxicity to aquatic life.
Chronic
Low: Negligible to low toxicity to aquatic life.
ecotoxicity
Extreme: MTBE in particular does not break down easily making it

Persistence
problematic to clean up once contamination occurs.
Bioaccumulation Ethers do not bioaccumulate in the aquatic environment.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? High Medium Medium Moderate High Low
While no ether related incidents were identified in Australia, MTBE in particular has been
implicated in explosions and groundwater contamination elsewhere in the world:
Tanker explosion Saudi Arabia

The chemical tanker Stolt Valor was carrying a cargo of methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)
Has anything 1
when it exploded in the Persian Gulf in March 2012 killing one crew member . MTBE was
happened
also the same cargo that exploded on the Bow Mariner in 2004, an incident that sparked a
before in
series of initiatives aimed at ending often catastrophic explosions on chemical tankers.
Australia?
MTBE in groundwater USA
MTBE emerged as a significant issue for water utilities in the US in 1996 when it was
detected in groundwater supplies for the city of Santa Monica only two years after it was
2
introduced into fuel supplies in California . The contamination was traced to leaking

underground fuel storage tanks. Groundwater pollution involving MTBE in the US has
ballooned since that time.
The cost to oil companies to clean up the MTBE in wells in Santa Monica was ultimately
2
$423 million, settled in May 2008.

Industry –
pollutants.
systematic
The printing industry, a significant generator of solvent wastes,
controls
established a code of practice in Victoria in 1996, aimed at reducing
solvent emissions to the atmosphere. In 2004 this was replaced with
3
an EPA Victoria information bulletin.

Industry –
exposure
controls
What control
their wastes.
measures are
in place to Regulatory levels are set by state and territory government agencies
manage risks for exposure of workers to a range of volatile organic substances.
posed by this Similar controls for emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
waste? exist on companies through environmental licensing regimes.
The Fuel Quality Standards Act 2000 provides a legislative
framework for setting national fuel quality and fuel quality information
4
Government standards for Australia . These standards include a restriction on
MTBE use in Australian fuel to 1% by volume, which compares to 3-
5
7% usage in imported fuel and as high as 10-15% in the US prior to
6
its ban in a number of states from 2000 onwards. Prior to national
action, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia had
already put in place bans on MTBE in petrol in response to
perceived environmental risks.

seldom identified.
1. Falck website article. Explosion on the chemical tanker Stolt Valor. Accessed April 24,
2015 from :
https://www.falck.com/en/timeline-events/2012_2
2. Los Angeles Times article, 8 May, 2008: $423-million MTBE settlement is offered.
References http://articles.latimes.com/2008/may/08/local/me-mtbe08
3. EPA Victoria information bulletin, publication 940, February 2004. Minimising VOC
emissions form the printing industry. Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/940.pdf
4. Australian Government Department of the Environment. Petrol fuel quality standard.

http://www.environment.gov.au/topics/environment-protection/fuel-quality/standards/petrol
5. Energy Information Administration. Status and Impact of State MTBE Bans. Accessed
24 April 2015 from:
http://www.eia.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/mtbeban/table1.html
6. CRC Australia. MTBE Debate for Australia. Health Stream, Public Health Newsletter of
the CRC for Water Quality and Treatment, Issue 23, September 2001.
7. Ethyl ether MSDS (1997). Accessed 24 April, 2015 from:
http://hazard.com/msds/mf/baker/baker/files/e2340.htm
8. Sigma Aldrich (2015). Diethyl ether Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed April 24, 2015
from:
84%3Flang%3Den

3.40 Halogenated organic solvents
Halogenated organic solvents category:Y41 code: A3150 G150
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9
Halogenated organic solvents specifically describe those organic
solvents that include the halogens, mainly fluorine, chlorine and
bromine, in their chemical structure.
Description of Solvents have three principal areas of use; as cleaning agents, as a

the waste raw material or feedstock in the production and manufacture of other
substances, and as a carrying and/or dispersion medium in chemical
synthetic processes.
Wastes deriving from solvents and their use may be either:
What is it?
synthesis/manufacture of other substances.
Waste form Liquid

display a very wide range of properties and characteristics. Many are
flammable, some highly flammable, many are volatile and evaporate
quite rapidly to give off vapours. Such vapours may be toxic or
Physical/ flammable - flammable vapours in confined spaces can be explosive.
chemical Halogenated organic solvents include chloroform, dichloromethane,
description carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene (known
as perchloroethylene or ‘perc’), 1,1,1- trichloroethane and
chlorobenzene.
Halogenated organic solvents tend to be more of a health and
environmental concern than non-halogenated organic solvents.

H3: Flammable
Primary hazard lacquers, etc, but not including substances
Why is it liquids
hazardous? their dangerous characteristics) which give
Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed Substances or wastes which, if they are

hazard or chronic) inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the


Where does it Dry cleaning, pharmaceutical product manufacturing, aerospace

Main sources
come from? industries, fertiliser manufacturing

How is it
Main fates sent to energy recovery processes such as incineration or hazardous
managed?
waste landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.02%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 2 Qld: 391 SA: 93
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 202 Vic: 178 WA: 178
Halogenated organic solvents generally more toxic than non-

halogenated organics.
Given that more than one organic solvent may be present in a waste
(e.g. paint thinners may contain toluene, xylene, ethylbenzene,
Overview
methyl ethyl ketone and acetone) there is potential for additive or
synergistic effects.
should be handled.
Potential health High: Toxic if swallowed. Irritating to eyes; irritating to skin. May
Acute toxicity
impacts cause an allergic skin reaction.
High: Chlorinated organic solvents, such dichloromethane and

trichloroethane are noted for their harmful effects on the heart.
Chronic toxicity
Chloroform and carbon tetrachloride are toxic to the liver and some
chlorinated solvents may damage the kidneys.
High: May cause cancer. Dichloromethane and tetrachloroethylene

Carcinogenicity
are classified as possible human carcinogens.

Workplace As organic solvents are volatile (i.e. tend to evaporate), inhalational exposure is an
health & safety important exposure pathway to be considered when assessing the health hazards that

impacts solvents may present.
Dry cleaning workers may have increased potential risk of developing chronic conditions
from inhlation of halogenated organic solvents due to the quantities of ‘perc’ used in the
industry.
Organic solvents are highly toxic to aquatic environments. The risk of

Overview subsequent fire in the environment from a spill of this waste would

environment
impacts
Persistence Low.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
Groundwater contamination in Sydney

Remediation began in 2005 after production of chlorinated solvents by ICI (now Orica)
over many years resulted in significant contamination of the Botany aquifer, a high quality
sand aquifer located below the eastern suburbs of Sydney, New South Wales. The main
chemical contaminant found in groundwater around the site was 1,2-dichloroethane, a
persistent organic pollutant and by-product of the manufacture of PVC. Orica has built a
Has anything A$167 million Groundwater Treatment Plant (GTP) to achieve containment of this
happened contamination and provide high quality industrial water to Botany Industrial Park.
before in
Water produced by Orica's GTP saves Sydney's potable water supply around 5 megalitres
Australia?
per day (approx 0.5% of Sydney's water demand). Residents in the area are banned from
accessing the groundwater.
Chemical drums wash ashore in Victoria

On Victoria’s Bass Coast, a large number of toxic drums containing 1,2-Dichlorobenzene
xylenol, a substance very toxic to aquatic creatures washed up on beaches during May
2009 presumably fallen off a passing container ship.
What control
measures are Industry –
in place to systematic
manage risks controls
pollutants.
posed by this

waste?
Industry –
exposure
controls
their wastes.

Government

seldom identified.
2. Solvents Australia Pty Ltd (2010). Trichloroethylene Material Safety Data Sheet.
Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.solvents.net.au/index_htm_files/Trichloroethylene.pdf
3. Solvents Australia Pty Ltd (2010). Perchloroethylene Material Safety Data Sheet.
Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.solvents.net.au/index_htm_files/Perchloroethylene.pdf
References 4. National Occupational Health and Safety Commission (1990). Australian Government.
5. The Age newspaper article, May 21, 2009. Mass decontamination as toxic drums
continue to wash ashore. Accessed 23 April 2015 from:
http://www.theage.com.au/national/mass-decontamination-as-toxic-drums-continue-to-
wash-ashore-20090520-bfpn.html
6. Queensland Government Queensland Health. Public Health Guidance Note – Organic
Solvents. Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.health.qld.gov.au/ph/Documents/ehu/2688.pdf

3.41 Organic solvents excluding halogenated solvents
Waste name:
Organic solvents excluding category:Y42 code: A3140 G110
halogenated solvents
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.9 – 4.9
Solvents have three principal areas of use; as cleaning agents, as a
raw material or feedstock in the production and manufacture of other
Description of substances, and as a carrying and/or dispersion medium in chemical
the waste synthetic processes.
Wastes deriving from solvents and their use may be either:
What is it? synthesis/manufacture of other substances.
Waste form Liquid

display a very wide range of properties and characteristics. Many are
flammable, some highly flammable, many are volatile and evaporate
quite rapidly to give off vapours. Such vapours may be toxic or
flammable - flammable vapours in confined spaces can be explosive.
Physical/
Organic solvents include aliphatic hydrocarbons such as naphtha
chemical
solvents, aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and xylenes,
description
alcohols, glycols, epoxides, ketones and aldehydes. This category
does not include those solvents and their wastes that contain
halogens in their structure, such as fluorine, chlorine and bromine, as
these compounds may have different toxicity characteristics.
Halogenated organic solvents and their wastes are described by Y41.
The word ‘flammable’ has the same meaning

as ‘inflammable’. Flammable liquids are
liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or liquids
containing solids in solution or suspension
(for example, paints, varnishes, lacquers, etc,
H3: Flammable
Primary hazard but not including substances or wastes
liquids
Why is it otherwise classified on account of their
hazardous? dangerous characteristics) which give off
flammable vapour at temperatures of not

Secondary H11: Toxic (delayed
inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
hazard or chronic)

Waste name:

Other hazard(s) H12: Ecotoxic adverse impacts to the environment by
means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic
Other solvents, organic chemicals, petroleum

residues, heavy metals, greases, dirt.
Organic chemical manufacturing, coal seam gas extraction, petroleum

Where does it
Main sources refining, motor vehicle manufacturing, printing, food manufacturing,
come from?
aerospace industries, hospitals, research facilities.

How is it
Main fates sent to energy recovery processes such as incineration or hazardous
managed?
waste landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.21%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 17 Qld: 2,000 SA: 279
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 3,334 WA: 4,649
Some organic solvents (such as benzene) have been replaced with

other substances due to their carcinogenic properties, which is a
primary health concern for these types of wastes Other toxic
Overview properties can be varied, and include being narcotic and possibly
mutagenic or teratogenic.
should be handled.
Low - medium: Harmful if swallowed – may cause lung damage.

Vapours may cause drowsiness and dizziness. Acute effects may also
Potential
Acute toxicity range from an alcohol-like intoxication to narcosis (stupor or
health impacts
insensibility) which may lead to unconsciousness.
May be irritating to skin.
Low - medium: Both short and long term exposure to certain organic
solvents has been found to be harmful to the kidney. Petroleum
Chronic toxicity
distillates, for example, gasoline, jet fuel and turpentine, are among
the most toxic.
High: Some organic solvents may cause cancer and heritable genetic
Carcinogenicity damage. Benzene is the main organic solvent which has definitively
been proven to cause cancer in humans from industrial use – the

Waste name:
main cancer being leukaemia.

Workplace
Inhalation is usually the most significant route of entry by which organic solvents enter the
health &
human body at work. Poor hygiene practices could result in skin absorption.
safety impacts
Most non-industrial applications of benzene, a natural constituent of crude oil and one of the
most elementary petrochemicals, have been limited by benzene’s carcinogenicity.
However, significant primary exposure occurs routinely in everyday activities, particularly
relating to petrol (gasoline) or other fossil fuel use. These include petrol vapour exposure at
Population fuel outlets, burning coal and oil, motor vehicle exhaust, cigarette smoke, wood burning
scale impacts fires, some adhesives and low concentrations in ambient air from all of these sources.
Population exposure studies from any particular exposure pathway have proved difficult to
ascribe health effects to a particular source/ activity due to the range of confounding
variables. However, epidemiologic studies provide clear evidence of a causal association
between exposure to benzene and a number of forms of leukaemia.
Organic solvents are highly toxic to aquatic environments. The risk of

Overview subsequent fire in the environment from a spill of this waste would

environment
impacts
Persistence Low.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
The contaminated site industry in Australia, in terms of identification, testing, classifying and
Has anything remediating legacy waste impacts to land, was borne out of ground pollution from organic
happened solvents or, more particularly, petroleum fuel leakages from underground storage tanks.
before in Thousands of contaminated sites have been registered by environmental regulators across
Australia? Australia and are in various stages of identification, quantification, remediation and clean
up.
What control
Industry – Companies that handle organic solvents and their wastes are licensed
measures are
systematic by environmental regulators to control industrial processes and
in place to
controls equipment so as to limit environmental emissions of these pollutants.
manage risks

Waste name:
posed by this Potential industrial sources of organic solvent waste have strict
waste? emissions control and chemical handling equipment and systems in
Industry –
exposure
controls
their wastes.

Government

seldom identified.
2. Shell Trading International Ltd (2011). Naphtha (petroleum), solvent-refined light Material
Safety Data Sheet. Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.shell.com/content/dam/shell-new/local/corporate/trading-shipping/downloads
References /msds/in-country/uk-stasco/mogas-naphtha-petroleum-solvent-refined-light-cas-64741-
84-0---stil---en.pdf
3. National Occupational Health and Safety Commission (1990). Australian Government.
4. US EPA. TEACH Chemical Summary – Benzene. Accessed March 21, 2015 from:
http://www.epa.gov/teach/chem_summ/BENZ_summary.pdf

3.42 Any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-furan
Waste name:
Any congener of polychlorinated category:Y43 code: A4110 M170
dibenzo-furan
Hazard score
(0 – 6) <5.0
This waste category shares virtually identical characteristics to Y44.

Polychlorinated dibenzofurans are not manufactured as commercial
Description of products but are generated in manufacture of some chemicals. They
the waste are also produced in combustion processes and released to the
environment, usually as particulate matter, from there they are taken
What is it?
up by biota and bioaccumulated.
In polychlorinated dibenzofurans, all or some of the eight hydrogen

Physical/ atoms on the dibenzofuran skeleton are replaced by chlorine atoms.
chemical There are 135 members of this family (known as congeners), having
description different arrangements of chlorine atoms. They are solids with
appreciable vapour pressures.
Primary hazard

hazard
Main likely chemical contaminants polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans are formed in combustion of most

fuels – that is, under oxidative conditions – from carbon, hydrogen
and chlorine atoms present in the fuels. Smouldering rather than
outright burning is a major source of polychlorinated dibenzofurans,
but in high-temperature processes they are known to form during the
cool-down of combustion gases. They are also produced in forest
Where does it fires. They are also produced during metal smelting and refining
Main sources
come from? operations and in chemical processes involving the chlorination of
organic substances. Some products of such processes are
contaminated with polychlorinated dibenzofurans.
In terms of solid or liquid wastes (rather than gaseous emissions) no
reporting occurred in Australia in 2013, although it is possible that
these pollutants may be present in extremely low concentrations in
other wastes.
How is it Main fates Inadvertent production of polychlorinated dibenzofurans is minimised

Waste name:
dibenzo-furan
managed? by control of fuel mixtures and by rapid cool-down of flue gases.
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans can be separated from chemical
products such as 2,4-dichlorophenol and destroyed together with
other chlorinated wastes in plasma arc facilities.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 0 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 0
All polychlorinated dibenzofurans exhibit toxicity. The congener are

assigned relative toxicities <1 relative to 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-
Overview
dibenzodioxin and a total equivalent toxicity (TEQ) is computed for a
mixture based on analytical determination of the congener content.
High: The major symptom of poisoning is chloracne, a persistent

Acute toxicity
Potential health skin rash.
impacts
Extreme: Chronic effects of exposure to these substances include
Chronic toxicity
hormonal changes and liver damage.
Carcinogenicity Extreme: Polychlorinated dibenzofurans are human carcinogens.
Reproductive High: Exposure to polychlorinated dibenzofurans can cause

toxicity miscarriages and birth defects.
Workplace The polychlorinated dibenzofurans are not generally regarded as workplace hazards
health & safety except in cases of chemical manufacture where they may be present in a small number of
impacts products and wastes in Australia.
Levels of polychlorinated dibenzofurans and dibenzodioxins in the blood of Australians are

Population low by international standards and lower than those of New Zealand. Mean values from a
scale impacts 2004 study were 10.9 pg TEQ g-1 lipid. The main sources are fatty foods in which the
chlorinated substances have been bioaccumulated.
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans are widely disseminated around the

Overview globe and are listed as persistent organic pollutants under the
Stockholm Convention.
Potential Low – medium: Polychlorinated dibenzofurans are toxic to animals,

Acute ecotoxicity
environment but the toxicity varies with species.
impacts Chronic Medium: Polychlorinated dibenzofurans cause reproductive effects
ecotoxicity in animals.
High: Polychlorinated dibenzofurans are persistent in the

Persistence
environment.

Waste name:
dibenzo-furan
Extreme: Polychlorinated dibenzofurans are bioaccumulated
Bioaccumulation especially in marine species and birds where they are found in fatty
tissues.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
No poisoning by polychlorodibenzodioxins has been reported in Australia.

However, dioxins and furans contaminated Sydney Harbour in the 1950s and 1960s,
3
leaving a pollution legacy that will last for decades to come . This was largely from an
industrial site (eventually owned by Union Carbide) at Homebush Bay. From 1928 until its
closure in 1986, the site was used for the manufacture of a wide range of chemicals,
including timber preservatives, herbicides, pesticides and plastics. From 1949 until 1976,
the site was used to manufacture the herbicides 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D, the ingredients for
Agent Orange that was used as a defoliant in the Vietnam War.
To expand the area available for industrial use, extensive reclamation and dredging of
Homebush Bay commenced in 1939 and continued up until 1970. As a result of both
chemical manufacturing and the use of contaminated fill for reclamation, soil and
groundwater on the site were contaminated by various chemicals, including dioxins. This
occurred until about 1970, when site management was improved to comply with the Clean
Waters Act 1970 (NSW). In 1987, the then NSW State Pollution Control Commission
served Union Carbide with a notice under the Environmentally Hazardous Chemicals Act
1985 (NSW) to remediate part of the site. Extensive remediation of the site has since been
Has anything carried out.
happened Dioxins from the site have spread throughout the sediments at the bottom of Sydney
before in Harbour and Port Jackson. Dioxins formed as a by-product of the manufacture of timber
Australia? preservatives and 2,4,5-T at the site have been linked by a characteristic chemical profile
to the dioxin contamination in other parts of Sydney Harbour, and the site appears to be
the major source of these contaminants in the harbour.
Given the bioaccumulative nature of dioxins, the only practicable means to ‘remove’ the
contaminants from the marine food chain is to allow other, clean sediments to cover the
contaminants. For much of the harbour, this process will take decades.
Fishing bans have been in place around Homebush Bay since 1989, and were extended to
parts of the Parramatta River in 1990. The extent of contamination from the site was not
recognised until 2006, when all commercial fishing was banned in Sydney Harbour after
tests revealed elevated levels of dioxin in fish and crustaceans in the harbour.
Recreational fishing in the Harbour has not been banned but, based on advice from an
expert panel, the NSW government recommends that no fish or crustaceans caught west
of the Sydney Harbour Bridge should be eaten. For fish caught east of the Sydney Harbour
Bridge, there are also restrictions suggested.
A study by the then NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
suggested that much of Sydney Harbour remains contaminated by dioxins at levels that
will make eating fish from much of the harbour unsafe for decades.

Waste name:
dibenzo-furan
Control of fuel composition and appropriate management of flue
gases has seen annual emissions of polychlorinated dibenzofurans
and dibenzodioxins in Australia fall steadily from 0.11 kg in
Industry – 2009/2010 to 0.049 kg in 2013/2014.
systematic Companies that combust significant quantities of fossil fuels in
controls boilers and high temperature equipment are licensed by
environmental regulators to control industrial processes and
What control
equipment so as to tightly limit environmental emissions of these
measures are
pollutants.
in place to
manage risks Industry – Industry exposure is limited to a small number of facilities operating
posed by this exposure chlorination processes and managing exposure to polychlorinated
waste? controls dibenzofurans.
The National Dioxins Programme conducted during the first decade

of this century surveyed polychlorinated dibenzofuran and
Government
dibenzodioxin content of Australian soils, foods, wildlife and human
milk and blood.
There is no explicit community action but declining levels of

Community
emissions will reduce impact on the community.
1. National Dioxin Programme: www.environment.gov.au/protection/chemicals-

management/dioxins
2. A. Mudhoo et al., ‘Dioxins and Furans: sources, impacts and rmediation’, in E.
Lichtfouse, J. Schwarzbauer and D. Robert, eds., Pollutant diseases, remediation and
References recycling (Springer, Wien, 2013).

3.43 Any congener of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin
Waste name:
dibenzo-p-dioxin
Hazard score
(0 – 6) <5.0
This waste category shares virtually identical characteristics to Y43.

Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins are not manufactured as commercial
Description of products but are generated in manufacture of some chemicals. They
the waste are also produced in combustion processes and released to the
environment, usually as particulate matter, from there they are taken
What is it?
up by biota and bioaccumulated
In polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, all or some of the eight hydrogen

Physical/ atoms on the dibenzodioxin skeleton are replaced by chlorine atoms.
chemical There are 75 members of this family (known as congeners), having
description different arrangements of chlorine atoms. They are solids with
appreciable vapour pressures.
Primary hazard

hazard
Main likely chemical contaminants polychlorinated dibenzo-furans
Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins are formed in combustion of most

fuels – that is, under oxidative conditions – from carbon, hydrogen
and chlorine atoms present in the fuels. Smouldering rather than
outright burning is a major source of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins,
but in high-temperature processes they are known to form during the
cool-down of combustion gases. They are also produced in forest
Where does it fires. They are also produced during metal smelting and refining
Main sources
come from? operations and in chemical processes involving the chlorination of
organic substances. Some products of such processes are
contaminated with polychlorinated dibenzodioxins.
In terms of solid or liquid wastes (rather than gaseous emissions) no
reporting occurred in Australia in 2013, although it is possible that
these pollutants may be present in extremely low concentrations in
other wastes.
How is it Main fates Inadvertent production of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins is

Waste name:
dibenzo-p-dioxin
managed? minimised by control of fuel mixtures and by rapid cool-down of flue
gases. Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins can be separated from
chemical products such as 2,4-dichlorophenol and destroyed
together with other chlorinated wastes in plasma arc facilities.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 0 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 0 WA: 0
The 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro congener is the most toxic: other congeners

are assigned relative toxicities <1 and a total equivalent toxicity
Overview
(TEQ) is computed for a mixture based on analytical determination of
the congener content.
High: The major symptom of poisoning is chloracne, a persistent

Acute toxicity
Potential health skin rash.
impacts
Extreme: Chronic effects of exposure to these substances include
Chronic toxicity
hormonal changes and liver damage.
Carcinogenicity Extreme: Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins are human carcinogens.
Reproductive High: Exposure to polychlorinated dibenzofurans can cause

toxicity miscarriages and birth defects.
Workplace The polychlorinated dibenzodioxins are not generally regarded as workplace hazards
health & safety except in cases of chemical manufacture where they may be present in a small number of
impacts products and wastes in Australia.
Levels of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans in the blood of Australians are

Population low by international standards and lower than those of New Zealand. Mean values from a
scale impacts 2004 study were 10.9 pg TEQ g-1 lipid. The main sources are fatty foods in which the
chlorinated substances have bioaccumulated.
Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins are widely disseminated around the

Overview globe and are listed as persistent organic pollutants under the
Stockholm Convention.
Potential Low – medium: Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins are toxic to animals,

Acute ecotoxicity
environment but the toxicity varies with species.
impacts Chronic Medium: Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins cause reproductive effects
ecotoxicity in animals.
High: Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins are persistent in the

Persistence
environment.

Waste name:
dibenzo-p-dioxin
Extreme: Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins are bioaccumulated
Bioaccumulation especially in marine species and birds where they are found in fatty
tissues.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
No poisoning by polychlorodibenzodioxins has been reported in Australia.

However, dioxins and furans contaminated Sydney Harbour in the 1950s and 1960s,
3
leaving a pollution legacy that will last for decades to come . This was largely from an
industrial site (eventually owned by Union Carbide) at Homebush Bay. From 1928 until its
closure in 1986, the site was used for the manufacture of a wide range of chemicals,
including timber preservatives, herbicides, pesticides and plastics. From 1949 until 1976,
the site was used to manufacture the herbicides 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D, the ingredients for
Agent Orange that was used as a defoliant in the Vietnam War.
To expand the area available for industrial use, extensive reclamation and dredging of
Homebush Bay commenced in 1939 and continued up until 1970. As a result of both
chemical manufacturing and the use of contaminated fill for reclamation, soil and
groundwater on the site were contaminated by various chemicals, including dioxins. This
occurred until about 1970, when site management was improved to comply with the Clean
Waters Act 1970 (NSW). In 1987, the then NSW State Pollution Control Commission
served Union Carbide with a notice under the Environmentally Hazardous Chemicals Act
1985 (NSW) to remediate part of the site. Extensive remediation of the site has since been
Has anything carried out.
happened Dioxins from the site have spread throughout the sediments at the bottom of Sydney
before in Harbour and Port Jackson. Dioxins formed as a by-product of the manufacture of timber
Australia? preservatives and 2,4,5-T at the site have been linked by a characteristic chemical profile
to the dioxin contamination in other parts of Sydney Harbour, and the site appears to be
the major source of these contaminants in the harbour.
Given the bioaccumulative nature of dioxins, the only practicable means to ‘remove’ the
contaminants from the marine food chain is to allow other, clean sediments to cover the
contaminants. For much of the harbour, this process will take decades.
Fishing bans have been in place around Homebush Bay since 1989, and were extended to
parts of the Parramatta River in 1990. The extent of contamination from the site was not
recognised until 2006, when all commercial fishing was banned in Sydney Harbour after
tests revealed elevated levels of dioxin in fish and crustaceans in the harbour.
Recreational fishing in the Harbour has not been banned but, based on advice from an
expert panel, the NSW government recommends that no fish or crustaceans caught west
of the Sydney Harbour Bridge should be eaten. For fish caught east of the Sydney Harbour
Bridge, there are also restrictions suggested.
A study by the then NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
suggested that much of Sydney Harbour remains contaminated by dioxins at levels that
will make eating fish from much of the harbour unsafe for decades.

Waste name:
dibenzo-p-dioxin
Control of fuel composition and appropriate management of flue

Industry –
gases has seen annual emissions of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
systematic
and dibenzofurans in Australia fall steadily from 0.11 kg in
controls
2009/2010 to 0.049 kg in 2013/2014.
What control
Industry – Industry exposure is limited to a small number of facilities operating
measures are
exposure chlorination processes and managing exposure to polychlorinated
in place to
controls dibenzodioxins.
manage risks
posed by this The National Dioxins Programme conducted during the first decade
waste? of this century surveyed polychlorinated dibenzodioxin and
Government
dibenzofuran content of Australian soils, foods, wildlife and human
milk blood.
There is no explicit community action but declining levels of

Community
emissions will reduce impact on the community.
1. National Dioxin Programme: www.environment.gov.au/protection/chemicals-

management/dioxins.
2. A. Mudhoo et al., ‘Dioxins and Furans: sources, impacts and rmediation’, in E.
Lichtfouse, J. Schwarzbauer and D. Robert, eds., Pollutant diseases, remediation and
References recycling (Springer, Wien, 2013).

3.44 Organohalogen compounds other than substances referred to in this list
(e.g. Y39, Y41, Y42, Y43, Y44)
Organohalogen compounds other Basel waste code: various NEPM code:
than substances referred to in this list category:Y45 – depends on M160
(e.g. Y39, Y41, Y42, Y43, Y44) substance
Hazard score
(0 – 6) <5.0
The common property of this waste type is that it contains organic

chemicals that contain halogen elements (usually fluorine, chlorine,
bromine) as significant components in their structure. This waste type
shares commonality with other waste types such as chlorophenols
(Y39), halogenated solvents (Y41), dioxins and furans (Y43 and Y44),
PCB-like compounds (Y10) and organochlorine pesticides (within Y4).
The presence of the halogen species is usually the reason for the
property of interest – and the reason for the toxicity. Examples of
1
organohalogen active ingredients are the Stockholm Convention listed
pollutants; the brominated flame retardants (BFR) polybrominated
diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), and
perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). (While not part of this category,
many of the organochlorine pesticides are also listed on the
convention)
Banned since 2004, PBDEs have been historically added at
Description of the percentage levels to ABS plastics in a range of products including
waste electrical and electronic equipment (EEE), furniture upholstery,
What is it? automobile interiors, mattresses and carpet underlay. HBCD has been
added to extruded and expanded polystyrene foams used in building
insulation and PFOS, a fluorinated surfactant, has been primarily as a
dispersant in firefighting foams.
These substances, when present in wastes such as end of life
products presenting for disposal, are not technically regarded as
hazardous wastes in Australia at present. E-waste is a good example
of such a potentially PBDE-containing waste. This is because Australia
is still undertaking its assessment processes to determine whether to
ratify these new additions to the Stockholm Convention.
Another waste that could be described by this category is
hexachlorobenzene (HCB), a substantial and intractable stored
quantity of which has been under close management by Orica at its
Port Botany site for the last couple of decades. It is noted that HCB
waste could equally be classified under code Y4.
Varies with each substance. Common feature is a large degree of

Physical/
halogenation in the chemical structure; for example PFOS is
chemical
C8F17SO3H.
description
Wastes may be solids (product type wastes), liquid (neat chemicals or

concentrates) or sludges (‘wet’ biosolids or industrial process sludges).
Primary hazard H12: Ecotoxic adverse impacts to the environment by
means of bioaccumulation and/or toxic

H11: Toxic (delayed or inhaled or ingested or if they penetrate the
Why is it Secondary hazard
Wastes containing organohalogen chemicals

may also contain other substances of
Main likely chemical contaminants concern at trace levels, such as e-waste
which includes circuitry with low levels of
heavy metals.
Current waste volumes reported by jurisdictional tracking systems are

very small, and come from organic and inorganic chemicals
manufacturing, fossil fuel electricity supply and scientific research
services. There is also some mis-coded halogenated organic solvents
(Y41) amongst the data.
Where does it Of greater importance is the waste that could reside in this category if
Main sources
come from? Australia ratifies the new addition chemicals (PBDEs, HBCD and
PFOS) to the Stockholm Convention. Should this occur then a range of
wastes could emerge – e-waste bound for disposal, biosolids
contaminated with of these 3 pollutants, end of life building insulation
panels and firefighting foam concentrates and washwaters, for
example.
Stockholm listed chemicals, outside of specific exemption scenarios,

must be destroyed or managed in an environmentally sound manner.
How is it
Main fates At present this is predominantly through a limited number of thermal
managed?
destruction technology plants, with any process residues (very small
quantities) sent to hazardous waste landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.0003%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 15 SA: 0
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 4 Vic: 1 WA: 0

Health impacts vary greatly with individual substances, as this category
is a catch-all for a wide range of wastes. Consequently the health
impact summaries below err on the side of worst case substances.
Also, the health and environmental impacts of some of these
Overview chemicals are only very recently becoming understood. Some of the
information below is assumed based on animal studies rather than
strong human-based evidence.
However the emerging Stockholm chemical wastes have common
properties relating to health, generally relating to chronic toxicity.
Medium - High: Likely to be toxic if swallowed and contact may cause

Acute toxicity
Potential health skin and eye irritation.
impacts
High: Repeated ingestion of some of these substances/ wastes may
Chronic toxicity cause liver and thyroid toxicity, based on definitive evidence in animal
studies.
Medium: Most of the evidence is speculative, due to limited human

Carcinogenicity studies, but many of the chemicals classified in this category are listed
as possible human carcinogens.
Medium: Studies on animals and humans have shown that some

Reproductive PBDEs can act as endocrine system disruptors and may even be
toxicity teratogenetic (able to disturb the growth and development of an
embryo or foetus).
Wide scale consumer product use at work, such as of computers and office furniture, could
result in low levels of exposure to organohalogen substances or wastes in the workplace,
Workplace
although their containment within the product will limit this potential. An exception to this is
health & safety
the e-waste dismantling industry, where there may be excessive handling or breakage of
impacts
plastic components that contain BFR chemicals. Also, firefighting has historically involved the
handling of PFOS in concentrate form.
The concentrations of PBDEs in human blood, breast milk, and body fat indicate that most
Population people are exposed to low levels of PBDEs, and many of these chemicals are known to be
scale impacts highly persistent and bioaccumulative. More significant impacts appear to occur in the
environment than directly on human health.
Environmental impacts vary with individual substances, as this

category is a catch-all for a wide range of wastes. Consequently the
environmental impact summaries below err on the side of worst case
Potential substances. However highly halogenated organic compounds such as
environment Overview the PBDEs, PFOS and HBCD all demonstrate significant aquatic
impacts toxicity and persistence in the environment, as well as tending towards
biomagnification (increasing accumulation along the food chain). Many
of the more recent listings on the Stockholm Convention have occurred
due to these pernicious environmental (more so than health) impacts.

Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Very toxic to aquatic organisms
Chronic
Extreme: Very toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects
ecotoxicity
Extreme: Highly persistent in the environment. For PBDEs,

Persistence compounds with less bromine atoms in their structure are more
persistent in the environment than higher brominated congeners.
Extreme: For PBDEs, compounds with less bromine atoms in their

Bioaccumulation structure tend to bioaccumulate more than higher brominated
congeners.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
Fiskville fire training facility - PFOS

The Victorian Country Fire Authority’s (CFA) Fiskville Training College has been used as a
training facility by CFA since the 1970’s. Activities undertaken at the site include the storage
and handling of chemicals used in fire training, live fire training and the storage, treatment
and disposal of water resulting from live fire training. PFOS was used in firefighting foams
used at the site until 2007.
Concerns were raised about the site in 2011 in connection with rates of cancer amongst site
workers. Monash University released a study in January 2015 which examined cancer and
death rates among 606 people who worked at the site between 1971 and 1999 and showed
there were 69 cancer cases that resulted in 16 deaths. When compared to the Victorian
population there was found to be a significantly higher risk of cancer for the nearly 100 full-
time workers at the site.
Has anything In March 2015, the CFA permanently closed the facility, after PFOS was found in water tanks
happened used for firefighter training, and in other locations on the site, at levels higher significantly
before in higher than recommended in drinking water, in addition to the chemical’s detection in nearby
Australia? Lake Fiskville and in fish specimens taken from the lake. At the time of writing, a state
Parliamentary Inquiry continues to examine the history of the site, the lessons to be learned
and consider compensation.
Dumping of chemical warfare agents at sea

In 1983 a vessel trawling east of Brisbane trawled a 1 tonne cylinder of mustard gas,
Mustard gas, bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide, was a chemical warfare agent (CWA) used in World
War II capable of severe skin, eye and mucosal pain and irritation (chemical burns) and is
highly mutagenic and carcinogenic.
It appears at least 21,000 tons of Chemical Warfare munitions were dumped into Australian
seas at the end of World War II by the United States Army and the defence forces of
Australia. The sea dumping of all significant amounts of CWA war stocks had occurred by the
end of 1946, aside from the dumping of 1,634 tons of CWA off Victoria during
August/September 1948. Records indicate there have been two ad-hoc dumping episodes

since then, one in 1965 and another in 1970.
Mustard gas leaking at a slow rate through corroded containers will hydrolyse and should
break down close to the dump positions. At worst, leaking mustard gas should only pose a
threat to biota living on or near the discarded drums and artillery shells. The hydrolysis
products are thought not to have a significant effect on fish and the dump sites do not
correlate with designated marine sensitive environments.
The production of octaBDE and pentaBDE in the United States ceased

at the end of 2004 after the voluntary phase-out of these chemicals by
the only U.S. manufacturer. In addition, the two U.S. producers and the
Industry – main U.S. importer of decaBDE phased out the compound by the end
systematic of 2013, even though it is not yet listed on the Stockholm convention.
controls While PFOS’s addition to the Stockholm Convention has not yet been
ratified by Australia, Australian firefighting authorities have largely
discontinued its use, and are progressively sending remaining
stockpiles of the concentrated chemical for thermal destruction.
Strict handling and personal protective equipment requirements apply,

Industry –
in accordance with Material Safety Data Sheets, to any workplace
exposure controls
handling of chemicals in this category.
What control In August 2010, nine new chemicals were added to the Stockholm
measures are Convention's annexes. These are the first chemicals to be added to
in place to the annexes since Australia signed up to the Convention in 2004. For
manage risks Australia, an amendment to the annexes takes effect upon ratification
posed by this Government of that amendment. Accordingly, Australia is now considering
waste? ratification, and to do so must undertake a domestic treaty making
process.
Australia supported the addition of the new POPs to the Convention
following stakeholder consultation in early 2009.
Flame retardants such as the PBDEs are examples of substances in

this waste category with the most potential to impact the wider
community, through the use and disposal of common consumer
products like plastic computer and peripheral equipment casings and
polyurethane foam found in furniture and car seat foams. However, the
Community
two PBDEs of concern, penta-BDE and octa-BDE, are two of
approximately 70 substances used for flame retardancy in these
products in the past. Similarly, these two PBDEs have not been used
in any product applications since the mid-2000s, and possibly not
since the late 1990s.
1. UNEP. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Accessed

References http://chm.pops.int/TheConvention/Overview/TextoftheConvention/tabid/2232/Default.aspx
Human Services. Toxicological Fact Sheet for Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (2004).

Accessed April 21, 2015 from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=900&tid=94
3. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Technical Fact Sheet - Polybrominated
Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) and Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBBs) (2004). Accessed April 21,
2015 from: http://www2.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-
03/documents/ffrrofactsheet_contaminant_perchlorate_january2014_final_0.pdf
4. Public Health England (2009). PFOS and PFOA General Information. Accessed April 21,
2015 from:
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/317725/PFOS
_and_PFOA_properties_incident_management_toxicology.pdf
5. Chemical Book (2007). Penta-BDE Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed April 21, 2015
from:
http://us.chemicalbook.com/ChemicalProductProperty_US_CB2138583.aspx
6. Sigma Aldrich (2015). Hexabromocyclododecane Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed
%3Flang%3Den
7. The Age newspaper, March 3, 2015. CFA closes Fiskville training facility after chemical
find. Accessed April 21, 2015 from: http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/cfa-closes-fiskville-
training-facility-after-chemical-find-20150302-13t68t.html
8. Premier of Victoria, Media Release 26 March 2015. Fiskville Shut Forever. Accessed April
21, 2015 from: http://www.premier.vic.gov.au/fiskville-shut-forever
9. Plunkett G. Australian Government Department of Defence (2003). Chemical Warfare
Agent Sea Dumping off Australia. (http://www.mustardgas.org/Chemical-Warfare-Agent-Sea-
Dumping-off-Australia.pdf)
10. Australian Government Department of the Environment. Stockholm Convention on
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Accessed April 21, 2015 from:
http://www.environment.gov.au/protection/chemicals-management/pops

3.45 Other metal compounds (such as compounds of barium, cobalt, nickel
and vanadium)
Waste name:
NEPM code:
Other metal compounds (such as Basel waste Basel permit
category:Y+1 code: N/A D200, D210,
compounds of barium, cobalt, nickel
D270, D290
and vanadium)
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 2.6 – 3.0

Measure, but not reflected in any Basel Y codes. The NEPM wastes
are:
• D200 Cobalt compounds
• D210 Nickel compounds
• D270 Vanadium compounds
• D290 Barium compounds (excluding barium sulphate).
Nickel, cobalt and vanadium are metallic elements that are all heavily
used as additives in steel and a wide range of alloys. Cobalt is also
used to make artificial body parts such as hip and knee joints.
Description of Barium is different again – a metallic alkaline earth element that is
the waste never found in nature in its pure form, its high reactivity causes it to
What is it?
oxidise rapidly in air.
Nickel and nickel compounds are used for nickel electroplating, to
colour ceramics, to make batteries, for permanent magnet materials,
and as catalysts. Cobalt and compounds are used in ceramics
(cobalt carbonate), in electroplating (cobalt chloride and cobalt
sulfate) and in semi-conductors, pigments and paints (cobalt oxide
and sulfate). Barium is not an extensively used element, although its
compounds are used by the oil and gas industries to make drilling
mud, as a green colorant in fireworks and in making paint, tiles and
rubber.
Wastes of these metals and their compounds are small in quantity in
Australia, and usually quite industry or process-specific.
Physical/
chemical Variable for each metal and their many compounds.
description

Primary hazard
Why is it or chronic) skin, may involve delayed or chronic effects,
Secondary Substances or wastes which if released

H12: Ecotoxic
hazard present or may present immediate or

Waste name:
NEPM code:
D200, D210,
compounds of barium, cobalt, nickel category:Y+1 code: N/A
D270, D290
and vanadium)
delayed adverse impacts to the environment
Main likely chemical contaminants Other metals
Ni
Motor vehicle manufacturing, glass manufacturing, aluminium
smelting, metal coating and finishing,
Co
Aluminium smelting
Where does it
Main sources Ba
come from?
Fabricated metal product manufacturing, explosives manufacturing,
polymer product manufacturing, aircraft manufacturing and
maintenance, scientific testing services.
V
None identified.

How is it
managed?
Some metal recycling and recovery may occur.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.02%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 183 SA: 813
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 0 Vic: 81 WA: 97
Cobalt is part of vitamin B-12, and may be used in the treatment of

anaemia. Similarly a small amount of dietary nickel is probably
essential for humans, although it is not usually identified as a trace
element for health.
Overview Equally though, too much cobalt or nickel (more so than barium) can
Potential health be harmful and can cause chronic health problems.
impacts Unlike their heavy metal counterparts such as lead, mercury and
cadmium, these metals generally exhibit quite low human health
impacts.
Acute toxicity Low.
Chronic toxicity High:

Waste name:
NEPM code:
D200, D210,
D270, D290
and vanadium)
Carcinogenicity These metals are not known or suspected to be carcinogenic.
Reproductive
Low.
toxicity
Workplace Occupational exposure to high level of these metals may occur when breathing metallic
health & safety dust or fumes at industrial sites such as smelters, galvanising facilities or metal
impacts manufacturing plants.
Nickel in particular has high acute and chronic toxicity to aquatic life,
with cobalt similar and barium low. Insufficient data are available to
evaluate or predict the effects of these metals and their compounds
Overview
to plants, birds, or land animals. It is noted that very small amounts
of nickel have been shown to be essential for normal growth and
reproduction in some species of animals.
Potential
Acute ecotoxicity Extreme: Could be very toxic to aquatic life.
environment
impacts Chronic
High: May cause long term toxic effects in the aquatic environment.
ecotoxicity
Extreme: Metals in this group will not break down in the

Persistence
environment.
Medium: Varies between low (nickel) and medium (cobalt) potential

Bioaccumulation
to bioaccumulate, depending on the metal.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? Medium Moderate Low Moderate N/A Low
Has anything
happened
No specific incidents identified.
before in
Australia?
What control
measures are
Industry – processing industries, where worker exposure to metals and their
in place to
systematic compounds wastes may be possible, are licensed by environmental
manage risks
controls regulators to control industrial processes and equipment so as to
posed by this
limit environmental emissions of these types of pollutants.
waste?

Waste name:
NEPM code:
D200, D210,
D270, D290
and vanadium)
Potential industrial sources of these wastes have strict emissions

control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters, dust extraction
Industry –
exposure
controls
restricting exposure to airborne sources of metal dusts and powders.


Fact Sheets for: nickel and cobalt, and compounds. Accessed March 22, 2015 from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/nickel-compounds and
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/cobalt-and-compounds respectively.
2. Sigma Aldrich (2013). Nickel powder Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed April 22,
2015 from:
References %3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaaldrich.com%2Fcatalog%2Fproduct%2Faldrich%2F2669
73%3Flang%3Den
3. Chemical Book. Nickel (II) acetate tetrahydrate MSDS. Accessed 22 April, 2015 from:
http://www.chemicalbook.com/ChemicalProductProperty_US_CB5378827.aspx
4. Royal Society of Chemistry Periodic Table – Vanadium. Accessed 22 April, 2015 from:
http://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/23/vanadium

3.46 Other inorganic chemicals (such as inorganic sulfides, boron
compounds, phosphorus compounds and non-toxic salts)
Waste name:
Other inorganic chemicals (such as NEPM code:
inorganic sulfides, boron category:Y+2 code: N/A D300, D310,
compounds, phosphorus compounds D330, D360
and non-toxic salts)
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8

are:
• D300 Non-toxic salts
• D310 Boron compounds
• D330 Inorganic sulfides
• D360 Phosphorus compound excluding mineral phosphates.
Description of The vast majority of wastes in this category by tonnage is non-toxic
the waste
What is it? salts, a waste category heavily dominated by the Coal Seam Gas
(CSG) extraction industry, most commonly found in Queensland and
New South Wales.
CSG consists almost entirely of methane and is currently being
extracted from coal seams in the Bowen and Surat Basins in
Queensland, as well as in NSW. CSG in Queensland is usually
liquefied to allow easier transport, such as by ship.
Wastes of the other inorganic chemicals listed and their compounds
are small in quantity in Australia, and usually quite industry or
process-specific.
Physical/
chemical Variable for each chemical waste group
description

Why is it transport; they may also cause other
hazardous? hazards.


Waste name:
H4.1: Flammable
conditions encountered in transport are
solids
Other hazard(s) contribute to fire through friction.

hazard or hazardous which possesses any of the characteristics
material listed above.
Main likely chemical contaminants Other inorganic salts.
98% of this waste category is made up of D300 Non-toxic salts.

Where does it
Main sources These are almost exclusively from Coal Seam Gas (CSG) mining
come from?
and extraction.

Main fates
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 1.29%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 0 Qld: 56,372 SA: 505
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 3,780 Vic: 1,088 WA: 11,071
Common table salt is an edible product. However, even something

so apparently benign can be harmful, especially by ingestion, at high
levels over a period of time.
Overview Most of these inorganic chemicals show moderate to high health
effects, with inorganic sulfides being the most acutely and chronically
toxic. This is especially so if sulfides are present in acidic conditions
and hydrogen sulfide gas is formed.
Potential health High- extreme: Inhalation of high concentrations of Hydrogen

impacts Sulfide can cause dizziness, headache, and nausea. Exposure to
higher concentrations can result in respiratory arrest, coma, or
Acute toxicity
unconsciousness. Exposure for more than 30 minutes at
concentrations of greater than 600 ppm have been fatal.
Direct contact with liquid hydrogen sulfide may cause frostbite.
High: Continuous inhalation of low concentrations of hydrogen

Chronic toxicity sulfide may cause olfactory fatigue, so that the odour (usually
distinctive ‘”rotten egg” gas) is no longer an effective warning of its

Waste name:
presence. Severe exposures which do not result in death may cause
long-term symptoms such as memory loss, paralysis of facial
muscles, or nerve tissue damage.
Carcinogenicity These metals are not known or suspected to be carcinogenic.
Medium: High levels of ingestion of sodium chloride over long

Reproductive
periods of time can cause adverse reproductive effects in humans
toxicity
(fetotoxicity, abortion).
Workplace
Occupational exposure to high level of these compounds may occur when breathing dust
health & safety
or fumes at industrial sites.
impacts
The main environmental issue with these chemicals are inorganic

Overview forms of sulfur, which can be acutely toxic in the aquatic
environment.
High: Generally low toxicity except for hydrogen sulfide, which is

Acute ecotoxicity
acutely toxic to aquatic organisms.
Potential
Chronic
environment Medium: Generally low, except for boron
ecotoxicity
impacts
Low: These chemicals are generally not persistent in the
Persistence environment, except for phosphorus compounds, which can persist if
they are discharged into waters of low alkalinity.
These compounds do not bioaccumulate in the aquatic environment.

Bioaccumulation
However, boron is essential to plants where it does accumulate.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
The Coal Seam Gas industry is a contentious one for many stakeholders, including
communities located close the mining operations.
For example, this website has been set up expressly to chronicle incidents within the
Has anything
sector in Australia: http://coalseamgasnews.org/wp-
happened
content/uploads/2012/10/Contaminated-sites-and-accidents-related-specifically-to-CSG-in-
before in
Australia.pdf.
Australia?
A good discussion of the potential human health and environmental impacts of CSG
extraction,, rather than the non-toxic salts waste itself, can be found here:
http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2012/04/16/qa-csiro-scientist-discusses-impacts-csg.

Waste name:
Higher risk workplaces like inorganic chemical industries, where

Industry – worker exposure to metals and their compounds wastes may be
systematic possible, are licensed by environmental regulators to control
controls industrial processes and equipment so as to limit environmental
emissions of these types of pollutants.
What control
measures are
control equipment in place, such as baghouse filters, dust extraction
in place to Industry –
manage risks exposure
posed by this controls
waste?
restricting exposure to airborne sources of metal dusts and powders.


Fact Sheets for: boron and compounds and phosphoric acid. Accessed March 22, 2015
from:
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/boron-and-compounds and
http://www.npi.gov.au/resource/phosphoric-acid respectively.
2. Chemwatch MSDS AMC Sodium Chloride (2010). Accessed 22 April, 2015 from:
http://www.aplng.com.au/pdf/factsheets/msds/AMC-Sodium-Chloride-MSDS.pdf
References 3. Sciencelab.com Inc. MSDS for Sodium Chloride. Accessed 22 April, 2015 from:
http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927593
4. SBS News, 27 February 2015. Q&A: CSIRO scientist discusses impacts of CSG.
http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2012/04/16/qa-csiro-scientist-discusses-impacts-csg

3.47 Other organic chemicals
NEPM code:
Waste name: Basel waste Basel permit
category:Y+3 code: N/A M220, M230,
Other organic chemicals
M250, M260
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8

are:
• M220 Isocyanate compounds
• M230 Triethylamine catalysts for setting foundry sands
• M250 Surface active agents (surfactants), containing principally
organic constituents and which may contain metals and inorganic
Description of materials
the waste • M260 Highly odorous organic chemicals (including mercaptans
What is it?
and acrylates).
The majority of wastes in this category by tonnage is surfactants.
The next highest contributor is triethylamine catalysts for setting
foundry sands, generated in the foundry and steel machining
industries. For nearly two decades, triethylamine and
dimethylethylamine have been used as catalysts for phenolic
urethane cold box binders in the foundry industry.
Wastes of the other organic chemicals listed are small in quantity in
Australia, and usually quite industry or process-specific.
Physical/
chemical Variable for each chemical waste group
description

Primary hazard

Why is it
hazardous?
Secondary H3: Flammable suspension (for example, paints, varnishes,
hazard liquids lacquers, etc, but not including substances

NEPM code:
M250, M260

Other organic chemicals and solvents,

metals.
Surfactants (75%):
Organic and inorganic chemical manufacturing, aviation services,
ports, shipyards, firefighting services, Defence, mining and mine
processing, soap and detergent manufacturing.
Triethylamine catalysts (20%):
Where does it
Main sources
come from? Machine tool and parts manufacturing, foundries.
Isocyanate compounds
Polyurethane foam manufacturing
Mercaptans and acrylates
Non-specified manufacturing.

How is it
managed?
Some of these wastes undergo by thermal destruction.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
tonnes in 2013) 0.20%
How much is
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 28 Qld: 857 SA: 2,431
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 6 Vic: 616 WA: 648
The most toxic chemicals in this group are the triethylamine

catalysts, which are both acutely and chronically toxic. Isocyanates
are also quite toxic but the highest volume in the category are the
least toxic - typically – surfactants, although this depend on the types
of surfactants used.
Potential health The mercaptans and acrylates are volatile and sometimes gaseous
Overview
impacts substances known for their putrid garlic-like odour, detectable at very
low air concentrations. Because this odour acts as a warning, it is
unlikely to be present at high enough levels to cause extreme acute
toxicity. Despite this, methyl mercaptan has been implicated in the
accidental death of four employees and the hospitalization of a fifth
at a DuPont facility in La Porte, Texas, near Houston, on 15

NEPM code:
M250, M260
1
November 2014.
High: Triethylamine catalysts are extremely flammable and vapours

may form an explosive mixture with air. Toxic in contact with skin.
Acute toxicity
Causes chemical burns to the respiratory tract (inhalation),
gastrointestinal tract (ingestion), skin and eyes.
Medium: Triethylamine catalysts and isocyanate compounds exhibit

Chronic toxicity chronic health effects. Surfactants and the majority of odorous
compounds used or produced in Australia show low chronic toxicity.
Low: Some mercaptans and acrylates and the isocyanates show a

possible risk of irreversible effects but information is insufficient to
Carcinogenicity
make conclusive judgement. Triethylamine catalysts and most
surfactants used do not indicate carcinogenicity.
Low: Some mercaptans and acrylates and the isocyanates show a

Reproductive
possible risk of reproductive effects. Triethylamine catalysts and
toxicity
most surfactants used do not indicate reproductive impacts..
Workplace Occupational exposure to high level of these compounds may occur when breathing fumes
health & safety at industrial sites such as polyurethane foam blowers (in the case of isocyanates) and skin
impacts contact with surfactants, such as formulating from concentrates without sufficient PPE.
Between two-thirds and three-quarters of the surfactants used in

Australia are made from non-ionic surfactants. Original anionic
surfactants proved resistant to degradation by bacteria at sewage
Overview
treatment works causing rivers to suffer from foam. Anionics and
non-ionics used today have better environmental performance
although there are still potential impacts on waterways.
High: Some surfactants and triethylamines are acutely toxic to

Acute ecotoxicity
Potential aquatic life.
environment
High: Some surfactants, triethylamines and mercaptans and
impacts Chronic
acrylates may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic
ecotoxicity
environment.
High: Mercaptans and acrylates are the only organic chemicals in

Persistence
this category that are highly persistent in the environment.
High: Mercaptans and acrylates are the only organic chemicals in

Bioaccumulation this category that are highly bioaccumulative in aquatic biosystems,
although the triethylamines exhibits some of these properties.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? High Medium Medium Medium N/A Low
Has anything Approximately 1080kg of ethyl acrylate was discharged onto the ground while a container
happened ship was being unloaded by DP World stevedores at the Port of Melbourne in September

NEPM code:
M250, M260
before in 2007. The odours from the spill affected dock workers, emergency response officers and
Australia? members of the public. More than 60 odour reports were received by EPA Victoria as a
result of the incident, including calls from as far away as Essendon and Ascot Vale. Ethyl
acrylate is used in fibreglass, adhesives and plastics.
This was a major pollution incident that lasted three days and affected air quality over a
wide area of Melbourne. The company was ordered to pay $80,000 towards the
construction of a community garden at Docklands, plus $10,000 in court costs.
Companies that handle organic chemicals and their wastes are

Industry –
systematic
controls
pollutants.
Potential industrial sources of organic chemicals emissions and

waste have strict emissions control and chemical handling
equipment and systems in place. Additionally at-risk workers wear
appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), particularly
relating to restricting exposure to airborne sources of, and skin
manage risks
contact with, solvents and their wastes.
posed by this
waste? Regulatory levels are set by state and territory government agencies
Government

seldom identified.
1. Reuters news article, 15 November 2015, Workers die after chemical leak at DuPont
plant near Houston. Accessed 23 April, 2015 from:
http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/11/16/us-usa-chemicals-death-
idUSKCN0J001B20141116
2. Warren D and Selchan D (2010). An Industrial Hygiene Appraisal of Triethylamine and
Dimethylethylamine Exposure Limits in the Foundry Industry. American Industrial Hygiene
Association Journal, Volume 49, Issue 12, 1988.
3. Chemical Book. N,N-Dimethylethylamine Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed 23 April
References 2015 from: http://www.chemicalbook.com/ProductMSDSDetailCB5236897_EN.htm
4. Sigma Aldrich (2013). Nickel powder Material Safety Data Sheet. Accessed April 22,
2015 from:
15%3Flang%3Den

3.48 Controlled putrescible/ organic waste
NEPM code:
category:Y+4 code: N/A K100, K110,
Controlled putrescible/ organic waste
K140, K190
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 3.1 – 3.8

are:
• K100 Animal effluent and residues (abattoir effluent, poultry and
fish processing wastes)
• K110 Grease trap waste
• K140 Tannery wastes (including leather dust, ash, sludges and
flours)
• K190 Wool scouring wastes
These wastes are ‘organic’ in the sense that they are derived from
living matter and are collectively called ‘putrescible’ because they are
subject to putrefaction or biological decay. ‘Controlled’ means that
Description of they are subject to close management under Controlled Waste

the waste NEPM, as a result of their potential for adverse human health or
environmental impact. This distinguishes them from other waste that
What is it? is organic in nature but not ‘controlled’, such as kerbside green
waste.
The majority (99%) of wastes in this category by tonnage are made
up of grease trap waste (61%) and animal effluent and residues
(38%).
Grease trap waste, or Grease interceptor trap waste, is waste from a
grease interceptor used for the capture of food, grease and solids
before entry to the sewer. These wastes include any solids that are
derived from the treatment of this waste. It is primarily sourced from
retail food business, such as restaurants and fast food outlets.
Animal effluent and residues includes abattoir wastes such as
manure from the stockyards and the partly digested paunch or
stomach content, as well as similar waste components from poultry
and fish processing activities.
Solid, liquid and

Waste form
sludge
These wastes, particularly from animal processing, can have

Physical/ significant odour and visual amenity issues. Grease solids from
chemical cooking have similar properties to the more viscous and solid
description petroleum fractions, such as waste mineral oils (Y8) and waste tarry
residues (Y11).

NEPM code:
K140, K190
Grease has very poor solubility in water and separates from the
liquid solution when cooled. Large amounts of oil and grease create
congealment on the surface of tanks and clog pipes, as well as
hampering effective treatment at wastewater treatment plants.
Odour amenity, pathogen potential and 'spreading' potential to

Primary hazard blanket environmental media, such as surface waters, when spilled,
causing environmental impacts.

Secondary
hazard

Why is it meaning as ‘inflammable’. Flammable
hazardous? liquids are liquids, or mixtures of liquids, or
H3: Flammable
Other hazard(s) lacquers, etc, but not including substances
liquids
Animal effluent and residues

Abattoirs, broiler sheds and poultry processing facilities and fish
Where does it
Main sources processing facilities.
come from?
Grease trap waste
Restaurants, cafes and fast food outlets.
Significant reuse or recycling of grease trap waste occurs.

Composting and bio-digestion methods are typically applied to
How is it
Main fates recycle, reclaim or recovery energy from animal industry wastes, with
managed?
some used as inputs into fertiliser products. Alternatively these
wastes may be managed through landfill.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
How much is
tonnes in 2013) 12.59%
generated in
Australia? TOTAL: 905,350 ACT: 5,024 NSW: 319,854
Waste arising in
2013 (tonnes)
NT: 10,395 Qld: 255,770 SA: 72,118

NEPM code:
K140, K190
Tas: 22,150 Vic: 140,222 WA: 79,817
Grease trap waste is made up solids and sludges from cooking of

both animal and vegetable oils, which are obviously edible oils.
However, the cooking process degrades these oils and, in
combination with residues of cooked foods, can form trace levels of
harmful organic pollutants such as PAHs.
Overview
Animal wastes share amenity characteristics with grease trap waste
although more so, and contribute some risk of pathogenicity through
ingestion.
Potential health
impacts Despite these concerns the overall human health impacts from these
wastes are smaller than the potential for environmental impacts.
Acute toxicity Low
Chronic toxicity Low
Carcinogenicity Low
Reproductive
No reproductive toxicity impacts are expected from these wastes.
toxicity
Workplace Hygiene is important in both food preparation and processing industries, for the purposes
health & safety of food standards and safety to the consumer as well as exposure to raw animal blood and
impacts associated carcass wastes of slaughtered animals.
Grease trap wastes have environmental impact properties similar to

waste oils and tarry residues. There is evidence in the literature that
food oil such as vegetable oil spills occur and impact the
1
environment similar to petroleum oil spills.
Both grease trap and animal industry wastes share a common
property of having high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), due to
their high biological organic content. BOD is a measure of the
Overview quantity of oxygen used by microorganisms in the oxidation of
organic matter. Oxygen consumed in the decomposition process of
organic wastes discharged to waterways robs other aquatic
Potential
organisms of the oxygen they need to live.
environment
impacts Consequently oxygen starvation is a symptom of high organic
loading of waters, both as a physical surface barrier (oil pollution)
and as an unnaturally active biochemical process in the vicinity of
organic waste discharge.
High: Animal fats and vegetable oils can cause devastating physical
effects such as coating animals and plants with oil and suffocating
Acute ecotoxicity
them by oxygen depletion, foul shorelines, clog water treatment
plants and catch fire when ignition sources are present.
Chronic Low - medium: Can destroy future and existing food supplies,
ecotoxicity breeding animals and habitats.

NEPM code:
K140, K190
Medium: Although vegetable oils in particular will biodegrade
Persistence relatively quickly in the environment, large spills can form products
that linger in the environment for many years.
Bioaccumulation Low: Biological wastes such as these do not bioaccumulate in fish.
Where are the

risks of
impacts most
likely? High High Medium Medium Medium Low
There are numerous historical incidents in Australia of illegal dumping of wastes like
grease trap wastes and animal industry wastes.
While not illegal dumping per se, a rendering company in Wodonga, Victoria was fined
Has anything
$5841 for its stockpiling of 4,000 tonnes of rotting abattoir waste at a property on the city’s
happened
outskirts in 2010. The fine was levied following the completion of EPA Victoria’s
before in
investigation of community complaints about a stench coming from the property.
Australia?
The EPA received eight complaints in a day about the odour coming from the property.
The stockpiles of odorous waste material were identified as paunch — the contents of an
animal’s stomach, and sludge generated from the rendering process.
Animal and food processing industries, depending on their size and

Industry – emissions characteristics, may be licensed by environmental
systematic regulators to control industrial processes and equipment so as to
controls limit environmental emissions of odorous compounds and waste
water discharge.

Industry – control equipment in place, particularly to address odour issues, and
exposure stringent trade waste emissions agreements. Additionally at-risk
What control
controls workers wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE),
measures are
relating to inhalation of odours and skin contact.
in place to
manage risks State and territory governments regulate the management of
posed by this hazardous waste in their respective jurisdictions in Australia. These
waste? place strict controls on the methods of transport, treatment and
Government In Victoria the EPA has issued a classification for the management of
grease interceptor trap waste to achieve the best environmental
outcome. Under the classification, disposal of grease interceptor trap
waste, or residual solids derived from the treatment of grease
interceptor trap waste, is prohibited and this waste must be reused or
recycled.
1. US EPA website. Accessed March 22, 2015 from:: http://www2.epa.gov/emergency-

References response/vegetable-oils-and-animal-fats
2. North East Waste Forum. Fact Sheet – Grease trap waste. Accessed 23 April 2015

NEPM code:
K140, K190
from: http://www.newaste.org.au/docs/ATOZ/GREASE%20TRAP%20WASTE.pdf
3. EPA Victoria (2009). INDUSTRIAL WASTE RESOURCE GUIDELINES —
CLASSIFICATION FOR REUSE: GREASE INTERCEPTOR TRAP WASTE. Accessed 23
April 2015 from:
http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/IWRG421.pdf
4. The Border Mail newspaper, July 21, 2010: $5840 fine for stinking Wodonga stockpile.
Accessed 23 April, 2015 from:
http://www.bordermail.com.au/story/52209/5840-fine-for-stinking-wodonga-stockpile/

3.49 End of life tyres

Basel permit
category:
End of life tyres code: B3140 T140
Y+8
Hazard score
(0 – 6) 0 – 2.5
Tyres or ‘waste tyres’ are used, discarded or rejected tyres that have
Description of reached the end of their useful life, i.e., when they can no longer be
the waste used for their original purpose, and are subsequently removed from
What is it?
a vehicle.
Waste form Solid
Physical/
Tyres are composed of approximately 75% rubber and, as waste,
chemical
they are found in large stockpiles.
description
Tyres per se are not hazardous in the context of traditional human

health and environmental impact measures shown in the headings
below, which is why there is no quantitative score provided above.
They are something of a special case.
Primary hazard
Their hazard comes about as a result of the practice of stockpiling
large quantities of them, which introduces a serious fire risk (with
characteristic thick black (and toxic) smoke and polluting run-off from
fire extinguishing efforts).
Mosquito and other vermin-borne disease (health) risk, due to the

Secondary
stockpile’s provision of an environment conducive to still water
hazard
capture and breeding.
Why is it
Tyres are made from flammable materials, and when they are stored
hazardous?
in a concentrated mass such as a stockpile, they pose a fire risk.
Tyres are designed to absorb heat generated by the friction of road
contact. While this makes their combustion point much higher (about
twice that of materials such as paper or wood), their ability to absorb
Why are tyre heat also makes them difficult to extinguish once ignited. Even if the
stockpile fires a open flames of the fire have been smothered, the stored heat in
risk? tyres can persist for an extended period, meaning there is a high
chance of re-ignition.
As tyre fires are difficult to control, they are often left to burn out
under supervision, lasting several weeks or months, increasing the
health and environmental impacts as well as risk of personal or
property damage.
Passenger vehicle tyres (27%), truck tyres (30%) and off-the-road

tyres (43%), such as those used on machinery or equipment used in
Where does it
Main sources areas such as forestry, agriculture, mining and construction and
come from?
demolition, make up the total estimate of tyres that reached end of
1
life in 2009/10 .
How is it Main fates Domestic fates: recycling, energy recovery, civil engineering,

Basel waste
category:
Y+8
managed? licensed landfill and an unknown category made up of permanent
stockpiles and illegal dumping
Export fates: reuse and retreading, recycling and energy recovery.
The rate of tyre recycling in Australia remains relatively low – recent
Victorian data estimates recycling to account for 20% of all tyres
generated as waste, with 26% exported and 54% unaccounted for
2
and presumed to be either stockpiled or illegally dumped.
Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

(% of national
How much is
generated in TOTAL: 435,233 ACT: 3,372 NSW: 104,212
Australia?
Waste arising in
NT: 5,636 Qld: 92,383 SA: 58,668
2013 (tonnes)
Tas: 10,000 Vic: 87,873 WA: 73,089
Tyres per se are not hazardous in the context of traditional human

health impact measures shown in the headings below and would
consequently be rated very low.
However, these health impacts can occur from large stockpiles of
tyres:
Overview
a) if a fire starts or
b) from incubating environments created by uncovered large tyre
stores (stockpiles), which increase mosquito and vermin breeding,
increasing the risk of diseases such as dengue fever and Ross River
virus.
Can result from inhalation of smoke from tyre fires, which emit
characteristic thick black smoke containing dangerous soot-laden
Acute toxicity
particulates from incomplete combustion, as well as other air
Potential health
pollutants.
impacts
Contraction of mosquito-borne diseases from the still-water breeding
environments that tyre stockpiles provide. Aedes albopictus, a
Chronic toxicity secondary dengue fever vector in Asia, has spread to North America
and Europe largely due to the international trade in used tyres (a
3
breeding habitat) .
Tyre fires emit black smoke, volatile organic compounds and

hazardous pollutants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
dioxins, furans, hydrochloric acid, benzene, polychlorinated
Carcinogenicity
biphenyls, arsenic, cadmium, nickel, zinc, mercury, chromium and
4
vanadium . Many of these are carcinogens or suspected
carcinogens.
Reproductive
No definitive evidence of risk to the unborn child.
toxicity

Basel waste
category:
Y+8
Workplace
health & safety N/A, unless in the event of fire – as above.
impacts
Repeated exposure to smoke from fires in general result in increased cases of respiratory
Population illness.
scale impacts Increased breeding habitats for disease-bearing mosquito vectors contributes to an
increase in cases of the disease.
Tyres per se are not hazardous in the context of traditional

environmental impact measures shown in the headings below, and
would consequently be rated very low.
However, environmental impacts can occur from large stockpiles of
tyres, especially in relation to stockpile fires.
If burned, 1 million tyres will generate some 200,000 litres of run-off
oil, as tyre combustion causes pyrolysis of the rubber, which results
in oily decomposition waste that is both highly polluting and
Overview flammable. In addition to the problems caused by oil run-off, the
waste may be carried by water, if it is used to extinguish the fire, or
via percolation through the soil, reaching the groundwater or nearby
4
streams.
The leachate of pollutants with rainwater may also lead to soil and
water contamination. This may occur through two atmospheric
Potential
processes known as wash-out (small particles that cling together
environment
and are brought in by rainwater) and rain-out (larger particles that
impacts
are directly affected by rainfall).
May occur from various toxic contaminants of run-off or wash-out/

Acute ecotoxicity rain-out from tyre stockpile fires, such as persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals.

Chronic
rain-out from tyre stockpile fires, such as persistent organic
ecotoxicity

Persistence rain-out from tyre stockpile fires, such as persistent organic

Bioaccumulation rain-out from tyre stockpile fires, such as persistent organic
risks of impacts
most likely? Low Low High N/A Medium Medium
Has anything In NSW, fire services estimate a total of 256 tyre fires have burnt since 2009, with an

Basel waste
category:
Y+8
2
happened average of 50 a year. Fire activity relative to this would also apply in other Australian
before in states and territories.
Australia? For example, in January 2015, an investigation was launched into a large stockpile of tyres
which were burned in fires in Moyston, Victoria. Concerns were raised by the Environment
Protection Authority who are investigating whether a pile of 30,000 tyres that caught fire
5
was illegally dumped.
Overseas there have also been many examples of large tyre stockpile fires. A stockpile of
10million tyres illegally dumped near Knighton, Powys in Wales caught fire in 1989.
Unable to access the area, fire fighters could not extinguish the blaze and it burnt for at
least 15 years. Polluting leachate from the site contaminated drinking water supplies by
6
polluting the River Teme.
In response to suspected illegal operators undercutting legitimate

recyclers (who had the requisite licences, planning approvals and
Industry –
safety measures), the Australian Tyre Recycling Association
systematic
developed a best practice standard of operation.
controls
Also see Tyre Product Stewardship Scheme and the formation of
Tyre Stewardship Australia below.
Industry –
exposure N/A
controls
The Australian Government launched Tyre Stewardship Australia

(TSA) on behalf of the tyre industry on 20 January 2014. TSA has
been established by tyre importers to administer a national tyre
product stewardship scheme. TSA will also promote environmentally
What control sustainable collection and recycling of end-of-life tyres and explore
measures are in and promote new uses for recycled end-of-life tyres.
place to
TSA will administer the tyre product stewardship scheme and
manage risks
conduct education, communication, compliance assessment and
posed by this
market development activities.
waste?
The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC)
granted authorisation for the scheme for five years until 3 May 2018.
Government The scheme is funded through an ACCC-authorised levy on the sale
of tyres in Australia.
Victoria is currently proposing regulations relating to the storage of
waste tyres, as evidenced by their Regulatory Impact Statement
2
comment process in late 2014 . From 29 April 2015, tyre stockpiles
in Victoria have been managed under the Environment Protection
(Scheduled Premises and Exemptions) Regulations 2007 which will
require an EPA works approval.
In July 2015 NSW will commence new Waste Regulations to lower
the licensing threshold for the storage of waste tyres and introduce
tracking requirements on the movement of tyres to ensure end-of-life
tyres are being sent to lawful facilities.

Basel waste
category:
Y+8
Community N/A
1. COAG Standing Council on Environment and Water. Study into domestic and
international fate of end- of-life tyres, Final Report (2012). Hyder Consulting.
2. EPA Victoria Storage of waste tyres – Regulatory impact statement (RIS) (2014).
Publication number 1576.
3. World Health Organization. Dengue and severe dengue, fact sheet No.117 (2015).
4. Secretariat of the Basel Convention. Revised technical guidelines for the
environmentally sound management of used and waste pneumatic tyres (2011).
References
5. EPA Victoria. Media release: EPA investigates Moyston tyre stockpile fire (9 January
2015). Accessed March 12, 2015 from: http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/about-us/news-
centre/news-and-updates/news/2015/january/09/epa-investigates-moyston-tyre-stockpile-
fire
6. Environment Agency Wales: Regulation of Waste Management, p.31. Report prepared
for the Auditor General for Wales by the National Audit Office Wales (2004). Accessed
March 12, 2015 from:
https://web.archive.org/web/20120308220156/http://www.wao.gov.uk/assets/
englishdocuments/Environment_Agency_Wales_Waste_Management_agw_2004.pdf

Appendix A
Basel Y-code to NEPM code conversion
Basel Convention
NEPM code2
Code Waste description (Annex 1)
Y1 Clinical wastes from medical care in hospitals, medical centres and clinics R100
Y2 Wastes from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products R140
Y3 Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines R120
Y4 Wastes from the production…... of biocides and phytopharmaceuticals H100
Y5 Wastes from the manufacture…... of wood preserving chemicals H170
Y6 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of organic solvent G160
Y7 Wastes from heat treatment and tempering operations containing cyanides A110
Y8 Waste mineral oils unfit for their originally intended use J100
Y9 Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures, emulsion J120
Y10 Waste substances ….containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs, PBBs M100
Y11 Waste tarry residues ... from refining, distillation and any pyrolytic treatment J160
Y12 Wastes from production…... of inks, dyes, pigments, paints, etc. F100
Y13 Wastes from production……resins, latex, plasticizers, glues, etc. F110
Y14 Waste chemical substances arising ….. environment are not known T100
T200, D340, D350,
Y15 Wastes of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation
E100
Y16 Wastes from production, formulation and use of photographic chemicals… T120
Y17 Wastes resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics A100
N205, N150,
Y18 Residues arising from industrial waste disposal operations
N160, N230
Wastes having as constituents …
Y19 Metal carbonyls D100
Y20 Beryllium; beryllium compounds D160
Y21 Hexavalent chromium compounds D140
Y22 Copper compounds D190
Y23 Zinc compounds D230
Y24 Arsenic; arsenic compounds D130
Y25 Selenium; selenium compounds D240
Y26 Cadmium; cadmium compounds D150
Y27 Antimony; antimony compounds D170
Y28 Tellurium; tellurium compounds D250
Y29 Mercury; mercury compounds D120
Y30 Thallium; thallium compounds D180
Y31 Lead; lead compounds D220
Y32 Inorganic fluorine compounds excluding calcium fluoride D110
Y33 Inorganic cyanides A130
Y34 Acidic solutions or acids in solid form B100
Y35 Basic solutions or bases in solid form C100
Y36 Asbestos (dust and fibres) N220
Y37 Organic phosphorus compounds H110
Y38 Organic cyanides M210
Y39 Phenols; phenol compounds including chlorophenols M150
Y40 Ethers G100
Y41 Halogenated organic solvents G150
Y42 Organic solvents excluding halogenated solvents G110
Y43 Any congenor of polychlorinated dibenzo-furan M170

Basel Convention
NEPM code2
Code Waste description (Annex 1)
Y44 Any congenor of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin M180
Y45 Organohalogen compounds other than …(e.g. Y39, Y41, Y42, Y43, Y44) M160
Categories of wastes requiring special consideration (Annex II)
Y46 Wastes collected from households N/A4
Y47 Residues arising from the incineration of household wastes N/A5
Additional waste categories not included in Y-Codes (‘+8’)
D200, D210, D270,
1 Other metal compounds
D290
D300, D310, D330,
2 Other inorganic chemicals
D360
M220, M230,
3 Other organic chemicals
M250, M260
K100, K110, K140,
4 Controlled putrescible/ organic waste
K190
Waste packages and containers containing Annex 1 substances in concentrations sufficient to
5 N100
exhibit Annex III hazard characteristics
6 Soils contaminated with residues of substances in Basel Y-codes 19-45 N120
7 Sludges contaminated with residues of substances in Basel Y-codes 19-45 N140, N190
8 Tyres T140
Notes:
1. Taken from Annex III of the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and Their Disposal
2. Translation of Y-code to NEPM code(s) as described in Reporting hazardous waste under the Basel
Convention - guidance to states, territories and the Commonwealth (2014 version), Blue Environment,
Ascend and REC (Table 4)
3. Y46 Wastes collected from households not classified as hazardous waste in Australia and is not within scope
for this project
4. Y47 Residues arising from the incineration of household wastes not within scope of this project as, in the
main, this is not carried out in Australia

Appendix B
NEPM code to Basel Y-code conversion

NEPM 15 Y code
‘15’ code ‘75’ code Waste description (NEPM Schedule A, List 1)
description
A Plating and heat A100 Waste resulting from surface treatment of metals and plastics Y17
treatment A110 Waste from heat treatment and tempering operations containing cyanides Y7
A130 Cyanides (inorganic) Y33
B Acids B100 Acidic solutions or acids in solid form Y34
C Alkalis C100 Basic solutions or bases in solid form Y35
D Inorganic chemicals D100 Metal carbonyls Y19
D110 Inorganic fluorine compounds excluding calcium fluoride Y32
D120 Mercury; mercury compounds Y29
D130 Arsenic; arsenic compounds Y24
D140 Chromium compounds (hexavalent and trivalent) Y21
D150 Cadmium; cadmium compounds Y26
D160 Beryllium; beryllium compounds Y20
D170 Antimony; antimony compounds Y27
D180 Thallium; thallium compounds Y30
D190 Copper compounds Y22
D200 Cobalt compounds Y+1
D210 Nickel compounds Y+1
D220 Lead; lead compounds Y31
D230 Zinc compounds Y23
D240 Selenium; selenium compounds Y25
D250 Tellurium; tellurium compounds Y28
D270 Vanadium compounds Y+1
D290 Barium compounds (excluding barium sulphate) Y+1
D300 Non-toxic salts Y+2
D310 Boron compounds Y+2
D330 Inorganic sulfides Y+2
D340 Perchlorates Y15
D350 Chlorates Y15
D360 Phosphorus compounds excluding mineral phosphates Y+2
E Reactive chemicals E100 Waste containing peroxides other than hydrogen peroxide Y15
F Paints, resins, inks, F100 Waste from the production, formulation and use of inks, dyes, pigments,
Y12
organic sludges paints, lacquers and varnish
F110 Waste from the production, formulation and use of resins, latex, plasticisers,
Y13
glues and adhesives
G Organic solvents G100 Ethers Y40
G110 Organic solvents excluding halogenated solvents Y42
G150 Halogenated organic solvents Y41
G160 Waste from the production, formulation and use of organic solvents Y6
H Pesticides H100 Waste from the production, formulation and use of biocides and
Y4
phytopharmaceuticals
H110 Organic phosphorous compounds Y37
H170 Waste from manufacture, formulation and use of wood-preserving chemicals Y5
J Oils J100 Waste mineral oils unfit for their original intended use Y8
J120 Waste oil/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures or emulsions Y9
J160 Waste tarry residues arising from refining, distillation, and any pyrolytic
Y11
treatment

NEPM 15 Y code
‘15’ code ‘75’ code Waste description (NEPM Schedule A, List 1)
description
K Putrescible/ organic K100 Animal effluent and residues (abattoir effluent, poultry and fish processing
Y+4
waste wastes)
K110 Grease trap waste Y+4
K140 Tannery wastes (including leather dust, ash, sludges and flours) Y+4
K190 Wool scouring wastes Y+4
M Organic chemicals M100 Waste substances and articles containing or contaminated with
polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated naphthalenes, polychlorinated Y10
terphenyls and/or polybrominated biphenyls
M150 Phenols, phenol compounds including chlorophenols Y39
M160 Organo halogen compounds—other than substances referred to in this Table Y45
M170 Polychlorinated dibenzo-furan (any congener) Y43
M180 Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (any congener) Y44
M210 Cyanides (organic) Y38
M220 Isocyanate compound5 Y+3
M230 Triethylamine catalysts for setting foundry sands Y+3
M250 Surface active agents (surfactants), containing principally organic constituents
Y+3
and which may contain metals and inorganic materials
M260 Highly odorous organic chemicals (including mercaptans and acrylates) Y+3
N Soil/ sludge N100 Containers and drums that are contaminated with residues of substances
Y+5
referred to in this list
N120 Soils contaminated with a controlled waste Y+6
N140 Fire debris and fire wash waters Y+7
N150 Fly ash, excluding fly ash generated from Australian coal fired power stations Y18
N160 Encapsulated, chemically-fixed, solidified or polymerised wastes referred to in
Y18
this list
N190 Filter cake contaminated with residues of substances referred to in this list Y+7
N205 Residues from industrial waste treatment/disposal operations Y18
N220 Asbestos Y36
N230 Ceramic-based fibres with physico-chemical characteristics similar to those of
Y18
asbestos
R Clinical and R100 Clinical and related wastes Y1
pharmaceutical R120 Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines Y3
R140 Waste from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products Y2
T Miscellaneous T100 Waste chemical substances arising from research and development or
teaching activities, including those which are not identified and/or are new and Y14
whose effects on human health and/or the environment are not known
T120 Waste from the production, formulation and use of photographic chemicals
Y16
T140 Tyres Y+8
T200 Waste of an explosive nature not subject to other legislation Y15

Appendix C
Approach to quantifying relative hazard

Hazard scoring method
To establish a defensible basis for quantifying relative hazard, a modified form of the
National Pollutant Inventory’s (NPI) risk scoring approach, which quantifies environmental
and human health hazard, was used. The NPI Technical Advisory Panel (TAP) developed a
risk scoring methodology 2 in the late 1990’s for taking a long list of industrial chemical
contaminants and comparatively assessing their risk so that they could be ranked for
inclusion into the program. This approach is well suited to comparatively assess the hazards
posed by a list of hazardous wastes, so that a default categorisation can be arrived at using
a quantitative approach based on risk.
We used a modified version of the NPI TAP’s risk scoring approach to quantify relative
hazard, excluding assessment of potential exposure, as this is variable and dependant on
management controls and its life-cycle stage. This exclusion defines it as hazard scoring
approach.
• The general approach for each waste can be described as:
- Score human health effects on a scale of 0 – 3 per dimension, quantified based on
the allocated European risk phrases. The four component dimensions for human
health are: acute toxicity, chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity.
Obtain a total human health score out of 3 by dividing all dimension scores by four
(the total number of dimensions).
- Score environmental effects on a scale of 0 – 3, quantified based on the allocated
risk phrases. The component dimensions for human health are: acute toxicity,
chronic toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation. Obtain a total environmental score
out of 3 by dividing all dimension scores by four (the total number of dimensions).
- Add the two component scores together to obtain a hazard score (out of a possible
6).
A worked example is shown for the waste Metal Carbonyls below in Figure C.1 overleaf.
Hazard scores were calculated by sourcing EC risk phrases for each hazardous waste (or
substance for those wastes whose hazard is clearly substance- based, such as ‘lead and
lead compounds’ or ‘Polychlorinated dibenzo-furan (any congener)’ for example). For those
not overtly substance-based (such as ‘clinical and related waste’), industry knowledge and
desktop research was used to understand the waste’s salient properties, so sound
professional judgement could be made about the primary hazard posed by the waste. Once
the primary hazard was clear, this was sufficient to undertake hazard scoring for these
wastes.
Apart from the TAP report itself, key references for this work were material safety data
sheets, Safe Work Australia’s Hazardous Substance Information System database and a
number of other literature references such as the World Health Organisation’s health and
safety guides.
The resulting hazard scores for each waste are shown in each impact profile, accompanied
by a colour-based scoring graphic, or ‘hazard scoring bar’, based on six ranges of hazard
score as follows:
2
Rae, I (1999), National Pollutant Inventory Technical Advisory Panel. Final report to the National Environment
Protection Council.

Hazard grouping
Extreme hazard: >5.0
High hazard: 3.9 - 4.9
Medium hazard: 3.1 - 3.8
Moderate hazard: 2.6 - 3.0
Low hazard: 0 - 2.5
No hazard score applied
A key thing to note about the default waste categorisation table is that it is built on generic
assumptions about waste contaminants, properties and industrial processes. Particularly in
the case of wastes with chemical contaminants (for example lead; lead compounds), there is
no account taken of the concentration of the contaminant in the waste – because this is
entirely variable - which in turn varies the scale of hazard posed. Because individual wastes
will vary, scoring is by nature precautionary; the core assumption is:
Hazard of the contaminant (or primary influencing hazard property) = hazard of the
waste.
In the case where a waste is primarily a lead-containing waste, but the lead concentration is
typically low compared to hazardous waste contaminant criteria, it is assumed that such a
waste would not be classified as hazardous in the first place.

Figure C.1 Example hazard scoring approach for Y10 Metal Carbonyls


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The health and environmental

impacts of hazardous wastes

Date::7 June 2015

VERSION CONTROL RECORD

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes

2 Summary report: Australia’s key hazardous waste impacts and risks 6

3 Hazardous waste impact profiles 16

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page i

Appendix A: Basel Y-code to NEPM code conversion

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page ii

ANZSIC Australia and New Zealand Standard Industry Codes

Basel The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous

CRT Cathode ray tube

Hazard score A quantification of comparative hazard (between wastes) expressed on a scale of 1 –

kt Kilotonnes (thousands of tonnes)

LPCL Low POP concentration limit

Mt Megatonnes (millions of tonnes)

PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl

PFOS Perfluorooctane sulfonate

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page iii

POP-BDE Persistent organic pollutants - bromodiphenyl ethers (various forms)

WEEE Waste electrical and electronic equipment

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page iv

The Australian Government Department of the Environment commissioned Ascend Waste

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 5

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 6

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 7

Waste quantity (tonnes) NEPM Waste Code Hazard score (1-6)

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 8

Asbestos waste includes both end-of-life asbestos-containing building materials as well as

2. Waste oils (Y8, J100)

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 9

3. Alkali wastes (Y35, C100)

4. Lead wastes (Y31/ D220)

While lead is ecotoxic, persistent and bioaccumulative in the environment, it is primarily a

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 10

5. Clinical (biohazardous) waste (Y & Y3/ R100 & R120)

6. Contaminated soils (N120)

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 11

A substantial quantity of hazardous waste is generated and managed onsite in industrial

7. Spent pot liner (SPL)

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 12

9. Coals seam gas (CSG) waste

10. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) waste

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 13

These issues indicate an emerging potential problem in relation to management of POP

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 14

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 15

Clinical waste is waste arising from medical, nursing, dental,

Waste form Solid and liquid

Sharps can cause disease and/or injury and include: syringes,

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 16

Other hazard(s) N/A N/A

Main likely chemical contaminants N/A

Like other hazardous wastes, clinical waste is regulated at the state

Volume score <1% 1 – 5% 5 – 10% 10 – 20% ≥ 20%

The hazardous nature of clinical waste is due to the presence of

The health and environmental impacts of hazardous wastes Page 17

Extreme: Dependant on the nature of exposure to the waste, its