B.Com 5th Sem. (Hons.

) Subject- Auditing

SYLLABUS

Class – B.Com. V Sem. (Hons.)

Subject – Auditing

UNIT – I Introduction, Meaning & Objectives, Fraud Errors Basic

Principles and Techniques. Classification of Audit.

UNIT – II Audit programme: Audit programme, audit books, auditor’s

working books. Test checking routine checking.

UNIT – III Auditing planning: internal control, internal check & internal
audit. Vouching & Verification of assets and liabilities.

UNIT – IV Company auditors: Qualifications and disqualifications,

appointment, removal, remuneration, right duties & liabilities.

UNIT – V Recent trends in auditing, basic consideration of audit in EDP

environment.

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B.Com 5th Sem. (Hons.) Subject- Auditing

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO AUDITING
Meaning and Objectives Of Auditing - According to AAS-1 An audit is an independent examination of
financial information, of any entity, whether profit oriented or not, and irrespective of its size or legal
form, when such an examination is conducted with a view to, expressing an opinion thereon.
The person conducting audit is known as the auditor, he makes a report to the person appointing him
after due examination of the accounting records and the accounting statement in the form of an opinion
on the financial statements. The opinion that he is called upon to express is whether the financial
statement reflects a true and fair view.
A complete and comprehensive definition : “Auditing is a critical examination of the books of accounts
of an organization, which is conducted by an independent individual skillfully on the basis of vouchers
and other information, with an object to reporting that the profit and loss account prepared for a
certain period expresses the true and fair profit or loss of the organization and the balance sheet of the
organization, prepared on a certain date, depicts a true and fair picture of the financial position of the
organization on the particular day”.

Advantages of an Audit:
(a) Safeguards the financial interest of persons who is not under management of the entity, i.e.,
partners or shareholders.
(b) Acts as a moral check on the employees from committing frauds and errors.
(c) Helpful in setting liability for taxes, negotiating loans and determining the purchase
consideration for a business.
(d) Useful for setting trade disputes whether it is a matter of performance bonus or increment or it
is claim for the damages due to fire or other accident.
(e) Discover the areas of wastages and losses occurring due to the absence or inadequacy of
internal checks or internal control measures.
(f) Audit report generally state the fact that whether proper books of account and related records
have been properly kept so as to make the deficiencies or inadequacies good in this respect.
(g) As an appraisal function, audit reviews the existence effectiveness and continuity of various
controls in the organizations and reports weaknesses, inadequacies, etc., in them.
(h) Audited accounts are of great help in the settlement of accounts at the time of admission or
dissolution or death or retirement of partner.

Distinction between book keeping and Auditing

Point of Book keeping Auditing
Difference
1. Nature It includes actual recording of It is analytical in nature. It is relating to
transactions. verification of accounting records.
2. It starts when business transactions take It starts when accounts writing is over.
Commencement place.
3. Object The object is to record all the facts of The object is to opine about truthfulness
business. and fairness of financial statement.
4. Qualifications No formal qualifications are required for An auditor must possess formal
a book keeper. professional qualifications.
5. Reporting A Bookkeeper is not required to submit An auditor has to submit a report to the
a report unless specially called for. concerned authority in routine.
6. Status A Book keeper is an employee of an An auditor is not an employee of an
organization. organization.
7.Scope Recording of all the facts of business are How much transaction should be verified
necessary for the purpose. is a matter decided by the legislation and
pronouncement of the institute.

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B.Com 5th Sem. (Hons.) Subject- Auditing

Distinction between Accounting and Auditing:

Point of Accounting Auditing
Difference
1. Meaning It includes recording of all the day It is critical examination of the
to day transactions in the books of transactions recorded in the books of
accounts leading to preparation of accounts.
financial statements to get
meaningful information.
2. Nature It is concerned with finalization of It is concerned with verification of true
final accounts. and fair view of financial statement.
3. Objects The object is to ascertain the The object is to opine about truthfulness
operational results. and fairness of financial statements.
4. Commencement Accounting begins when book Auditing begins when accounting ends.
keeping ends.
5. Scope It involves maintenance of books of It depends upon the agreement or upon
accounts. It does not go beyond the provisions of law and may go beyond
books of accounts. books of accounts.
6. Qualifications An accountant needs no formal An auditor needs prescribed
qualifications. qualifications.
7. Reporting An accountant does not submit any An auditor has to submit report in the
report. prescribed form.
8. Status An accountant is an employee of an An auditor is not an employee of an
organization. organization.
9. Errors and Accountant may commit errors and Auditor cannot afford to commit errors
Frauds frauds. and frauds.

The objectives of audit:

1. Examination of the Truth and Fairness of Final Accounts
2. Discovery of Errors
3. Detection of Fraud
4. Prevention of Frauds and Errors
5. Advice to Management
6. Ascertaining true Financial Position of Business
7. Objectives determined by International Auditing Practices Committee

Basic Principles Governing an Audit

1. Integrity, objectivity and independence
2. Confidentiality
3. Skill and Competence
4. Work Performed by Others
5. Documentation
6. Planning
7. Audit Evidence
8. Accounting System and Internal Control
9. Audit Conclusions and Reporting

Types of Audit
(1) On the basis of need of audit
a. External Need b. Internal Need
(2) On the basis of period of audit
(a) Continuous Audit (b) Interim Audit (c) Final/Annual Audit
1. On the basis of Need

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B.Com 5th Sem. (Hons.) Subject- Auditing

a. The auditor appointed to satisfy the internal or managerial needs of the organization is
known as INTERNAL AUDITOR. According to AAS-7 The internal audit function constitutes
a separate component of internal control established with the objective of determining
whether other internal controls are well designed and properly operated.
b. The auditor appointed to satisfy the External Needs of the organization is known as
EXTERNAL AUDITOR.
c. If external need is a statutory need the same external auditor is known as STATUTORY
AUDITOR. For example :

2. On the basis of Period of Audit

A continuous audit is one where the auditor or his staff is constantly engaged in checking the accounts
during the whole period or where the auditor or his staff attends at regular or irregular intervals
during the period.
The following features of continuous audit come to light on analysis of the above definition.
(a) It is carried throughout the year.
(b) It is conducted at regular or irregular intervals depending on auditors professional
judgment.
(c) The accounts are taken for scrutiny as and when prepared.
(d) Final accounts i.e. trial balance, profit and loss account and balance sheet are audited at the
end of the year.
Advantages of Continuous Audit
(i) Exhaustive and intensive.
(ii) Greater possibility of exposure of errors and frauds.
(iii) Early detection of errors & Frauds.
(iv) Moral impact on employees.
(v) Quick preparation of final accounts.
(vi) Early planning for future.
(vii) Proper advice of auditor
(viii) Early rectifications of errors.
(ix) Facility for interim accounts.

Disadvantages of Continuous Audit

(i) Possibility of change in audited accounts.
(ii) Snags in routine work.
(iii) Adverse moral impact
(iv) More expensive
(v) Dislocation of sequence of work.
(vi) Mechanization of work
(vii) Sloth in work.

Annual Audit : Annual audit is one which is carried out only at the end of an accounting period, spicer
and pegler have defined it as an audit which is not commenced until after end of the financial period
and is then carried on until completed. Annual audit is also called periodical, final or completed audit.

Characteristics: The main Characteristics of annual audit are as follows :

(a) It is done at the close of the financial year books of account have been closed and final
accounts drawn by the management of the entity.
(b) The audit work is completed at a stretch i.e. in a single continuous session.
(c) Generally this type of audit suitable to small organizations.

Interim Audit : An audit conducted between two annual audits is called interim audit. More commonly
it is known in case of banks as half yearly review. Interim audit helps management to take timely and

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B.Com 5th Sem. (Hons.) Subject- Auditing

appropriate decisions for example declaration of interim dividend or valuation of shares to decide swap
ratio in case of a merger. Interim audit is gaining statutory status now a days various regulating
authorities like SEBI and RBI requires periodic audited financial statements in between the two annual
audited financial statements. However, it is generally carried out by professionally qualified auditors.

Particulars Interim audit Concurrent audit

Meaning An audit that is taken up Refers to verification of
between two annual audits is transactions of on a
called an interim audit. continuous basis at various
points of time during the
same year.
Time period A specific date, as per the The period of verification is
client or regulatory professional judgement of the
authority’s requirement is auditor and sometimes
taken into account, e.g. 30 determined by the auditee e.g.
Sept., 31 Dec. concurrent audits in public
sector banks.
Financial statements Financial statements are Financial statements are not
prepared and authenticated prepared for the period of
for the interim audit period. concurrent audit.
Asset verification Assets and liabilities are Assets and liabilities are
required to be verified for generally verified only at year
interim balance sheet end.
purposes.

Point of Internal audit Statutory Audit/external

Difference audit
l. Appointment Internal auditor is appointed by External auditor is appointed
the management. by the shareholders or the
Government and also by
management if prescribed in
statute.
2. Independence As appointed by and working for Is fundamental personal
management cannot be said as characteristic required to
independent. discharge the duty.
3. Qualification There are no prescribed The auditor must possess
qualification as such for internal qualifications as prescribed by
audit. the law. For example CA in
companies act and income tax
act.
4. Responsibility He is responsible to the He is responsible to the
management. shareholders or the
Government.
5. Period It may cover any period. It covers normally one
accounting period.
6.Object To improve the existing system of To comment upon reliability of
operation. the financial statements.
7. Rights scope It is determined by the It is determined by the law,
management terms of engagement and
pronouncement of institute.
8. Test Check He usually not relies on test He can rely on test check.
check.

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B.Com 5th Sem. (Hons.) Subject- Auditing

9. Internal check He usually not depends on He can depend on internal

internal check rather he targets to check if it is satisfactory.
verify the same.
10. Termination It is as per the agreement It is as per the law.
11. Remuneration It is fixed up by the management. It is fixed up by the
shareholders or the
Government as per statute.

Efficiency Audit
The efficiency audit examines all the aspects of the business activities and their propriety. It is to be
found out as to what modification or changes are required to enhance the overall efficiency. In this
type of audit, the auditor not only examines the accounts and other activities of business but also
tenders valuable advice so that the plans of the business may be implemented more effectively and
economically with the object to achieving more success. Its objective is not to discover and detect
errors and frauds but to find out ways and means to motivate each and every employee to work
with sincerity, honesty and trust.

Propriety Audit : The auditor must look into whether the management has acted wisely or not. The
auditor must see whether the decisions were taken in good faith or not. It is quite possible that some
factors like nepotism, recommendations, bribe etc., might have overwhelmed the management and in
spite of prudence, the management might have tilted to some degree by such extraneous
considerations. The auditor must examine the decisions in the light of expenditure involved in
implementing them. If the decisions, notwithstanding wisdom and faithfulness, have involved
extravaganza, they cannot be justified.

Performance Audit : Performance audit implies the performance of the business or any component of
it in the light of pre determined targets and cost involved. The present business structure is so complex
that no single man can perform all the activities. Naturally, the management has to depend on his
assistants and different jobs have to be entrusted to them. As a corollary, they are endowed with
certain powers and their responsibilities are to be fixed. In the circumstance, it becomes necessary to
examine and appraise as to what extent the individuals have discharged their duties.

Limitations of Audit
1. Auditing does not guarantee 100% correctness.
2. All frauds are not necessarily disclosed by audit.
3. The auditor expresses only his opinion.
4. Auditing is not a credential of the perfect honesty of employees.
5. Auditing does not certify the commercial prudence of transactions.
6. Auditing does not pay attentions to trivial.
7. Auditing is not supported by practical independence.

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B.Com 5th Sem. (Hons.) Subject- Auditing

UNIT-II
The Audit Process
The steps in audit process are:
1. Appointment of auditor
2. Determination of Objective and Scope of audit
3. Obtaining Knowledge of Clients business
4. Evaluating accounting system, Internal control and Audit risk.
5. Audit Planning and programming, Determining the nature timing and extent of audit
procedure and co-ordination of work.
6. Collection of audit evidence
7. Drawing conclusions and making report.

Preparation of Audit Programme

Audit programme is a description, memorandum or outline of the work to be done in an audit and often
of the time allotted and personnel assignments, prepared by a Principal as a definition of audit scope, or
by an auditor for the guidance and control of assistants. It is the auditors plan of action, specifying the
procedures to be followed.

Objects of audit programme :

a. To obtain informations regarding the accounting system, policies and control techniques of
the client.
b. To ascertain the extent to which internal control techniques can be banked upon.
c. To lay down the nature, time and extent of audit techniques to be adopted.
d. To co-ordinate the total works.

Characteristics of good audit programme

i. Explicit and clarity of expression.
ii. Segmentation of work in the light of different aspects of accounting.
iii. Logical flow of accounting documents
iv. Elasticity
v. Review of work
vi. According to scope of audit
vii. Based on evidences
viii. Record of movements and accomplishments.

Advantages of audit programme : Disadvantages

i. Division of work as per ability i. Mechanization of work
ii. Determination of responsibilities ii. No motivation for free decision
iii. Progress of work iii. Want of constructive thinking
iv. Change of employees won’t affect work iv. Want of moral influence
v. Uniformity in work v. Planned frauds are undisclosed
vi. Protection in court of law vi. Disabilities remain concealed
vii. Complete examination vii. Plea against auditor
viii. Time saver
ix Facility of review
x. Pursuance of audit principles

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B.Com 5th Sem. (Hons.) Subject- Auditing

Audit Files
The maintenance of files is very important for the office of the auditor so as to enable him to
keep them for easy and ready reference.
There are two types of audit files : (i) permanent audit file, and (ii) Current audit file.
The contents of permanent audit file are:
1. The rules which govern the company under audit such as Memorandum and Articles of
Association in case of a company and partnership deed in case of a partnership firm.
2. Copies of minutes and extracts of agreements which are entered into between the client and
others for rendering/obtaining services.
3. A brief description of the business, its nature, address, area of operation, etc.
4. Particulars about the organization of the business along with a list of officials, branches and
departments under their charge.
5. Copy of instructions, if any, issued to the staff and of relevance to the auditor.
6. List of books and registers and names of persons dealing with them.
7. Important notes regarding the final accounts including the balance sheet and other financial
statements.

The contents of current audit file are;

1. Audit programme duly amended and modified in accordance with the system of internal control
in use.
2. Internal control questionnaires.
3. Flow chart covering the time budget.
4. All relevant notes properly filed and indexed.
5. Bank and petty cash reconciliations.
6. Brief notes for discussion with the client before completion of the work of audit.
7. Weaknesses inherent in the system of internal control.
8. The draft final accounts and balance sheet and their completed copies.

Advantages:
(a) Preparation of audit plan.
(b) Useful file for the use of auditor in forming an opinion.
(c) Provides materials in the field work in audit engagement.
(d) Provides information to suggest improvement in business operations and system of accounting.
(e) Maximizes efficiency in auditing procedures.

Audit working papers

Audit working papers are personal written materials which an Auditor prepares with regard to all
audits and contains techniques adopted by the auditors, his decisions and conclusions and relevant
information regarding financial statements.
Some papers included in Audit Working Papers;-
1. The agreement regarding the appointment if the auditor or letter of appointment
2. Technical Features of the audited business.
3. Audit Programme
4. Certificates of officials in regard to such important matters as bad debts, valuation of stock,
unpaid expenses, accrued income etc
5. Certificate issued by the banks in regard to the bank balance of the client certain date, safe
custody of documents etc.
6. Correspondence between the auditor and the debtors, creditors, etc. the client.
7. Rough trial balance.
8. Important extracts from the minute books
9. Particulars of investment.
10. Draft final accounts.

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B.Com 5th Sem. (Hons.) Subject- Auditing

11. A copy of the auditors book.

Objects of keeping Audit-Working Papers;-

1. Certification of the correctness of record and report
2. Use as references, during discussion with the employer.
3. Defensive position of the auditor in case of legal dispute and court proceedings.
4. Guide for Subsequent examinations.
5. To co-ordinate and organize the work of audit clerks.

Ownership of Audit-Working Papers :-

These are the property of the auditor, whether prepared by him or presented to him by the owner of
the business and therefore must be kept in safe custody.

Filing of Audit-Working Papers is a necessity. The auditor keeps these papers for his defense, reference,
future guidance and as a proof of his. According to section 209 of the Indian Companies Act 1956, the
books of accounts of a company must be kept safe up to 8 years after the relevant year.

Audit Note Book;-

An important component of Audit-Working papers is audit note- book basically maintained by the audit
clerk in which he notes down the important points and enquires which he has to refer to officials clients
or to discuss with his senior or the auditor himself.
Contents of audit note book:
1. Technical details about the business.
2. Queries for which explanations and information have to be demanded.
3. Missing vouchers and invoices whose duplicates have to be obtained.
4. Fraud and errors found in the books during the course of audit.
5. Details to be included in audit report.
6. Notes regarding system of maintaining accounts.
7. Information to be needed in future.
8. Names of officials who certify bad debts, depreciation, etc.
9. Record of all important correspondence.
10. Total of important ledger accounts.
11. Progress of audit work.
12. Record of suggestions made by the audit staff.

Advantages:-
1. Defense in court of law.
2. Yard-stick of the efficiency and diligence and skill of the auditor,
3. Guide for future.
4. Future references,
5. Permanent certificate of audit.

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