Air Pollution

Air pollution can be defined as the presence of toxic chemicals or compounds

(including those of biological origin) in the air, at levels that pose a health risk.
In an even broader sense, air pollution means the presence of chemicals or
compounds in the air which are usually not present and which lower the quality
of the air or cause detrimental changes to the quality of life (such as the damaging
of the ozone layer or causing global warming).
Air pollution is probably one of the most serious environmental problems
confronting our civilization today. Most often, it is caused by human
activitiessuch as mining, construction, transportation, industrial work,
agriculture, smelting, etc. However, natural processes such as volcanic eruptions
and wildfires may also pollute the air, but their occurrence is rare and they usually
have a local effect, unlike human activities that are ubiquitous causes of air
pollution and contribute to the global pollution of the air every single day.
A large number of contaminants may pollute the air in a large variety of forms.
Almost any toxic chemical could make its way into the atmosphere to pollute the
air that we breathe. Aerosol particles (clouds of liquid and solid particles in a gas)
that are found in the air may also contain pollutants.

The chemical compounds that lower the air quality are usually referred to as air
pollutants. These compounds may be found in the air in two major forms:

 in a gaseous form (as gases),

 in a solid form (as particulate matter suspended in the air)

Sulfur Oxides Poisoning

Sulfur oxides are all around us. Some of them are naturally occurring (for instance
in volcanic eruptions), and relatively harmless; some, however, can be man-made
as a byproduct of industrial processing, and are extremely toxic.

Toxicity

Sulfur dioxide is a common pollutant in most civilized countries, from industrial

processing plants (coal, oil, cement, metal, wood, copper, electric power plants
etc.). It can cause various serious health problems, especially with long-term
exposure, exposure to critical levels, exposure in children or in people with
preexisting heart and lung conditions:
  temporary respiratory problems
 chronic bronchitis
 emphysema
 decreased fertility
 coughing
 stomach pain
 menstrual disorders
 nausea
 inhibition of thyroid function
 headache
 convulsions
 dizziness

Nitrogen Oxides Poisoning

Nitrogen oxides are present all around us, as a mostly unfortunate byproduct of
industrial civilization. While they have many beneficial uses, they can also be
heavy pollutants.

Toxicity

Nitrogen oxides are polluting the air through car exhaust, electric power plants,
the burning of various fuels, cigarette smoking, electroplating, welding etc.When
combined with volatile organic compounds, nitrogen oxides form smog; when
combined with sulfur dioxides, they form acid rain.

Depending on the level and length of exposure, nitrogen oxides can cause serious
health problems:

 Breathing difficulties
 Throat spasms
 Headache
 Fatigue
 Nausea
 Dizziness
 Lung fluid build-up
  Decreased fertility in women
 Mental confusion
 Birth defects
 Coughing

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

Carbon monoxide is a known pollutant, almost omnipresent in present-day cities
around the world. It is produced during the process of burning fuel (gasoline, oil,
diesel, wood, charcoal etc.). This means it’s present in vehicle exhaust and
tobacco smoke, as well as unvented spaces where fuel is being burned.

Toxicity

Effects depend on the concentration of carbon monoxide you are exposed to, and
can include the following:

 Confusion, vision and balance problems

 Loss of consciousness
 Nausea and vomiting
 Headaches
 Muscle weakness
 Fatigue
 Shortness of breath
 Memory loss
 Miscarriage
 Birth defects
 Damage to the nervous system

Carbon Dioxide Poisoning

Carbon dioxide is a natural compound present in the atmosphere, in Earth’s water
and land etc. It absorbs heat and contributes to global warming, which makes it
both useful and very dangerous to humans’ future.
Toxicity

Carbon dioxide can be very toxic to humans when inhaled or in direct contact,
especially in confined spaces. Exposure can lead to serious health problems:

 Hyperventilation
 Loss of vision
 Muscle contractions
 Shortness of breath
 Headaches
 Numbness
 Dizziness
 Unconsciousness
 Nervous system damage
 Memory loss
 Nausea and vomiting
 Confusion
 Skin burns
 Elevated blood pressure
 Birth defects

Gaseous Hg Poisoning
Mercury is known to be extremely harmful to human health in any form, a strong
neurotoxin that can occur naturally or be released from power plants and many
other sources and spread across land, soil, air and water.

Toxicity

While mercury is very toxic when it builds up in water and soil, it is even more
dangerous when in gaseous form, because it is all the more easily inhaled,
swallowed or deposited on our body.
The toxic effects of gaseous mercury include:

 Developmental problems
 Reproductive problems
 Thyroid dysfunction
 Kidney dysfunction
 Neuropsychological problems

Ammonia Poisoning
Ammonia is a naturally occurring compound that can also be manufactured.
When naturally occurring, it is present in decaying matter, but also in water, soil,
and air. When manufactured, it is most often found in liquid form and has
numerous industrial and household uses. It is commonly sold in liquid form and
is a corrosive chemical.

Toxicity

High levels of ammonia can be extremely harmful to human health. Toxic effects
include:

 Eye, skin, throat irritation

 Coughing
 Shortness of breath
 Headaches
 Nausea and vomiting
 Laryngitis
 Chest pain
 Asthma
 Increased blood pressure
 Abdominal pain
 Lung fluid build-up
 Lung collapse
 Seizures
 Blindness
Air Pollution Causes
Air pollution may be caused by various processes, either natural or
anthropogenic (man-made). Some of them leave evident traces in the air; others
can go unnoticed unless specific tests are conducted - or until you become ill from
their effects.
Natural Causes

 Volcanic activities – volcanic eruptions emit a series of toxic gases

(including sulfur and chlorine) as well as particulate matter (ash particles)
but are usually restricted to localized areas;
 Winds and air currents – can mobilize pollutants from the ground and
transport them over large areas;
 Wildfires – add carbon monoxide, as well as particulate matter, to the
atmosphere (containing organic contaminants such as PAHs); could affect
significant areas, although in general they are restricted and may be
contained;
 Microbial decaying processes – microorganisms which are present in any
environment have a major role in natural decaying processes of living
organisms as well as environmental contaminants; this activity results in
the natural release of gases especially methane gas;
 Radioactive decay processes – for example, radon gas is emitted due to
natural decay processes of Earth’s crust which has potential to accumulate
in enclosed spaces such as basements;
 Increasing temperatures – contribute to an increase in the amounts of
contaminants volatilizing from polluted soiland water into the air.

Anthropogenic Causes

 Mining and smelting – emit into the air a variety of metals adsorbed on
particulate matter that is suspended in the air due to crushing & processing
of mineralogical deposits;
 Mine tailing disposal – due to their fine particulate nature (resulting after
crushing and processing mineral ores) constitute a source of metals to
ambient air which could be spread by the wind over large areas;
  Foundry activities – emit into the air a variety of metals absorbed on
particulate matter that is suspended in the air due to processing of metallic
raw materials (including the use of furnaces);
 Various industrial processes may emit both organic and inorganic
contaminants through accidental spills and leaks of stored chemicals or the
handling and storage of chemicals – especially of volatile inorganic
chemicals
 Transportation – emits a series of air pollutants (gases – including carbon
monoxide, sulfur oxides, and nitrogen oxides - and particulate matter)
through the tailpipe gases due to internal combustion of various fuels
(usually gasses such as oxides of carbons, of sulfur, of nitrogen, as well as
organic chemicals as PAHs)
 Construction and Demolition activities – pollute the air with
various construction materials. Of special threat is the demolition of old
buildings which may contain a series of banned chemicals such as PCBs,
PBDEs, asbestos.
 Coal Power Plants – when burning coal this may emit a series of gases as
well as particulate matter with metals (such as As, Pb, Hg) and organic
compounds (especially PAHs);
 Military activities – may introduce toxic gases through practices and
training

The Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health

Air pollution has serious effects on the human health. Depending on the level of
exposure and the type of pollutant inhaled, these effects can vary, ranging from
simple symptoms like coughing and the irritation of the respiratory tract to acute
conditions like asthma and chronic lung diseases.

Skin problems and irritations can develop due to prolonged exposure to several
air pollutants, and a variety of cancer forms may develop after inhaling air
contaminants. Do not neglect potential diseases caused by air pollution.
Air pollutants that have serious negative effects on the human health can be
classified as toxic and non-toxic.

Petroleum & Oil Companies In Pakistan

1. SHELL OIL
2. PAKISTAN PETROLEUM
3. ATTOCK PETROLEUM
4. BYCO PETROLEUM
5. TOTAL PARCO
6. BPH BILLITON PETROLEUM
7. PAKISTAN STATE OIL
8. OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT
9. DEWAN PETROLEUM
10.MARI GAS COMPANY

Pakistan is one of the richest countries of the world in terms of natural resources
and has been blessed with huge reserves of oil and gas. Availability of such
natural resources is necessary for the economic and social development and for
this numerous oil and petroleum companies are working throughout Pakistan to
bring out a positive relationship between the people and nature.

1. SHELL OIL PAKISTAN

First on my list of top oil and petroleum companies is definitely Shell Pakistan, a
leading petroleum company that has successfully accomplished its 100 years in
history and has established itself as a prosperous multinational company of
Pakistan.
The company unifies and markets in different kinds of lubricating oils and has
recently launched Shell Heliux Ultra, Shell Heliux CNG super, and re-established
its quick oil change service to Shell Heliux Oil change plus.

2. PAKISTAN PETROLEUM LIMITED

Being pioneer of the natural gas industry in the country PPL has been a frontline
player in the energy sector since the mid-1950s becoming a sure shot on any list
of top oil and petroleum companies in Pakistan. It is the major supplier of natural
gas, besides producing crude oil, Natural Gas Liquid and Liquefied Petroleum
Gas.
Pakistan Petroleum Limited has received numerous awards in recognition of its
contribution on various fronts most recent includes; Best Corporate Report
Award — 2007- 2014, Corporate Philanthropy Award — 2004-2014,
Occupational Safety, Health and Environment Best Practices Awards — 2012
and 2014 and Living the United Nations Global Compact Business Excellence
Award —2014.

3. ATTOCK PETROLEUM LIMITED

APL is an oil marketing company in Pakistan granted a license, in February,
1998 and is wholly involved in exploration and production, refining and
marketing of oil and gas. It has a network of petrol pumps in NWFP & Punjab.
APL is strengthening its presence in major urban areas such as Karachi, upper
Punjab and Afghanistan. For better controls and improved customer service at
sites, APL operates a quality assurance unit, for on-site testing of petroleum
products.
4. BYCO PETROLEUM LIMITED PAKISTAN

Next on my list of top oil and petroleum companies , is this company that is a
petroleum company based in Karachi, formerly known as Bosicor Petroleum
Pakistan. In 2012, it became Pakistan’s biggest refiner, followed by Pak-Arab
Refinery and has its refineries located in Hub, Lasbela District of Balochistan.

5. TOTAL PARCO PAKISTAN LIMITED

As a part of the Pak-Arab refinery, in a relatively short time, Total Parco has
emerged as the fastest growing oil and lubricant brand in Pakistan, and has set
standards that remain unprecedented and admired both locally and globally.
PARCO is a joint venture between the Government of Pakistan and the Emirates
of Abu Dhabi. PARCO is a key player in Pakistan’s strategic oil supply and
logistics, and its major business activities include Crude Oil Refining and
Transportation, Storage and Marketing of POL Products. Thus it is an absolute
on the top oil and petroleum companies list in Pakistan.

6. BPH BILLITON PETROLEUM PAKISTAN Pty LIMITED

BPH has been active in Pakistan since 1994, after a successful exploration review.
It now acts under different joint venture partnerships and operates the ZamZama
production facility. Working with global hands this company is also a must on
the top oil companies in Pakistan’s list.

7. PAKISTAN STATE OIL

It is a Karachi-based Pakistani state-owned multinational petroleum corporation
involved in marketing and distribution of petroleum products, being a definite on
the top oil companies list. It was founded on December 30, 1976, after Pakistan’s
government took over the management of Pakistan National Oil (PNO)
and Dawood Petroleum Limited and renamed into POCL (Premier Oil Company
Limited) under marketing of Petroleum Products. Based on its business
performance, Pakistan State Oil (PSO) was listed among the world’s biggest
publicly traded companies on Forbes 2000 list in FY2014.

8. OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT COMPANY PAKISTAN

OGDCL is a Pakistani multinational oil and gas company and accounts for one
of the top companies in the oil and gas fields in the public sector. Established in
1961 by the Government of Pakistan, it was turned into a public listed company
on 23 October 1997. And is involved in exploring, drilling, refining and selling
oil and gas in Pakistan. It is the market leader in terms of reserves, production
and acreage.

9. DEWAN PETROLEUM PRIVATE LIMITED

DPL is a Pakistani exploration and production company operating in six
exploration licenses and is developing and producing gas and associated
condensate from its Salsabil gas field in Pakistan. Very rapidly since starting
operations in 2005, DPL has maintained a fast-track growth by making significant
gas discoveries in Safedkoh Block and has managed the development of Salsabil
Gas Field in record time. DPL has active involvement in the exploration,
development and production of petroleum to meet the growing energy needs of
the country, making it one of the rapidly developing companies and assuming
place on the top oil companies list.

10. MARI GAS COMPANY LIMITED

Mari Gas Field was originally owned by Pakistan Stanvac Petroleum Project, a
joint venture formed in 1954 between Government of Pakistan and M/s Esso
Eastern Incorporated, in 1983, M/s Esso Eastern transferring its entire share to
Fauji Foundation.

Oil And Gas Pollution

Dehydrator in Fayette County

A variety of air contaminants are emitted throughout the oil and gas development
process, and these compounds are released from a number of sources:
 Condensate tanks
 Construction activity
 Dehydrators
 Engines
 Fugitive emissions
 Pits
 Vehicles
 Venting and Flaring
Condensate tanks
Some natural gas wells produce a semi-liquid condensate along with the gas.
Condensates are hydrocarbons that are in a gaseous state within the reservoir
(prior to production), but become liquid during the production process.
Condensates are composed of hydrocarbons (typically those containing five or
more carbon molecules), as well as aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene,
toluene, xylenes and ethylbenzene (BTEX).
Condensates may give off a characteristic hydrocarbon or petroleum-type smell.
BTEX give off a sweet, aromatic odor. Most people can smell benzene when it
reaches levels of approximately 1.5 - 5 parts of benzene per million parts of air
(ppm). The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set
maximum exposure levels for workers at 1 ppm (over an 8-hour period) and 5
ppm (over a 15-minute period). At levels above 150 ppm some people may begin
to experience serious and irreversible health effects.

The vapors of benzene, toluene and xylenes are heavier than air and may
accumulate in low-lying areas.

Construction activity
A certain amount of construction accompanies every phase of oil and gas
development (exploration, field organization, production, and site abandonment).
Each requires disturbing the soil to some degree through the use of construction
machinery. These activities generate particulate matter and stir up dust, which in
turn react with the other prerequisites to form ground-level ozone, or smog.
Dehydrators
If the gas wells use glycol dehydrators to remove water from the gas, the
dehydrator may release aromatic organic chemicals to the atmosphere. If the
natural gas undergoing dehydration contains benzene, toluene, or other volatile
organic compounds, significant quantities of these compounds can be released
when the glycol solution undergoes regeneration.

Engines
Drilling, completion and workover trucks, rigs and equipment such as pumps
typically run off of diesel-powered or gasoline engines. The exhaust fumes from
gasoline and diesel fuels can produce emissions that are noticeable to people
living downwind.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are found in exhaust from motor

vehicles and other gasoline and diesel engines. A long list of other air pollutants,
including nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, BTEX, formaldehyde and metals
are also contained in diesel fuel combustion products.

Fugitive Emissions
Fugitive emissions are unintentional leaks of gases. This may occur from breaks
or small cracks in seals, tubing, valves or pipelines, as well when lids or caps on
equipment or tanks have not been properly closed or tightened. When natural gas
escapes via fugitive emissions, methane as well as volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and any other contaminants in the gas (e.g., hydrogen sulfide) are
released to the atmosphere.

Recently, while on a tour of oil and gas fields in Weld and Adams counties, a
team of high-tech Environmental Protection Agency investigators used an
infrared camera to look for fugitive emissions, which are normally invisible to
the naked eye. They aimed their camera at pipelines, valves and hatches atop
storage tanks, the EPA regulators found numerous sources of fugitive emissions.

Pits
Earthen pits are often used to store or evaporate produced water and waste water
from natural gas dehydration or oil/gas separation units. Additionally, prior to
disposal drilling wastes (muds and cements) and fracking wastes are often stored
in earthen or metal pits that are open to the air. There are hundreds of different
chemicals that may be used during drilling, fracking and workover procedures,
including acids, biocides, surfactants, solvents, lubricants and others.

Chemical compounds that are naturally present in natural gas, or chemicals that
have been injected downhole during drilling, hydraulic fracturing or well
workover operations, will be present in the water or wastes that are held in pits.
Some of the lighter or more volatile chemicals and compounds, such as benzene,
toluene, hydrogen sulfide, etc., will escape from the produced water pits into the
atmosphere. These chemicals may then be transported through the air, into nearby
neighborhoods. The odors associated with the natural gases or chemicals will
vary, depending on the concentrations, volumes, and combinations of chemicals
released. Also see: Alternatives to Pits.

Vehicles
The biggest pollutant from motor vehicle traffic at oil and gas operations is dust.
Fracking a single well requires 1,400 truck trips.
Burning fuel to power trucks also emits NOx, carbon monoxide, and sulfur
dioxide, as well as particulate matter. These compounds combine with VOCs to
form ground-level ozone (smog)

Emissions from oil and gas production operations

Recently, global climate change and air quality have become increasingly
important environmental concerns.[1] Consequently, there has been a rise in
collaborative international efforts to reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases
and criteria pollutants. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), occurring naturally and as the result of human
activity. In addition, criteria pollutants (1970 amendments to the Clean Air Act
required EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards for certain pollutants
known to be hazardous to human health) include emissions of nitrogen oxide,
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and total unburned hydrocarbons. International
and national governments are implementing more regulations on air emissions.
Drilling contractors and operators in all phases of O&G production can play an
important role in environmental stewardship. This is accomplished by reporting
carbon emissions from O&G operations, eliminating redundant emission,
performing measurements, and leading the industry in efforts to reduce the
release of these chemicals.

Since most operations are similar or the same, for on-shore and off shore
production; the air emissions will have similar chemistries in both operational
areas. The currently applied technology for producing oil and gas from various
installations results in three main types of gas emissions[2], namely:

 Combustion gases consisting of carbon dioxides and minor amounts of carbon

monoxide, nitrous oxide, N2O, SO2, and un-combusted hydrocarbons
(methane and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)).
 Hydrocarbons consisting of methane and primarily aliphatic VOCs vented to
the atmosphere or escaping from the hydrocarbon processes through fugitive
emissions.
 Releases of halon and other Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases from fire-
fighting and refrigeration systems.

Combustion Gases
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, offshore oil
and gas production was responsible for the release of 6.2 million metric tons of
combustion gases in 2013.[3] That's less than onshore production, with an output
of 94.8 million metric tons. For comparison, the average emission rates in the
United States from coal-fired generation are: 2,249 lbs/MWh of carbon dioxide,
13 lbs/MWh of sulfur dioxide, and 6 lbs/MWh of nitrogen oxides.[4]

Carbon emissions from the burning of fossil fuels has been on the increase since
the industrial era; and with more than 85% of the world’s energy coming from
fossil fuels, it will remain an important energy source well into the future.[5] As
the demand for fossil fuels is growing, so is the volume of CO2 emitted each year.
This has led to concerns over the impact of CO2 emissions on global climate
change.
Four major sources contribute to the CO2 emissions from the O&G industry:

 Exhaust form engines, turbines and fired heaters.

 Gas flaring.
 Well testing.
 Other carbon emissions such as CO2 for enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
operations.[6]

For example because of the lack of pipelines and gas treating facilities, as much
as 30% of the gas produced is flared[7] or is used for powering (directly)
hydraulically operated equipment[8] that then vents the gas to the atmosphere. A
report by Aleklett[7] includes satellite photos that were claimed to have been taken
by NASA of multiple oilfield gas flares in the Bakken and Eagle Ford plays. The
illumination from the flares seems to compare in intensity with the illumination
of major cities in the regions near the flares. These flares will produce CO2 as
well as oxides of sulfur and nitrogen.

The State of North Dakota as well as a major producer,[8] are claimed to be

committed to drastically reducing the waste of these hydrocarbon streams by
constructing adequate transportation and other ways to use the products in the
near future.
Hydrocarbons
Methane and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted via multiple
sources: un-combusted fuel gas and diesel, emissions from tanks without vapor
recovery units, offshore loading, vents, fugitive emissions (leaks and spills), gas
flaring, and well testing.[9]

Methane Emission Details

Rapid worldwide expansion of natural gas developments and use in recent years
is drawing attention to the need to improve understanding of methane emissions
associated with natural gas.[10] New production technologies and practices,
including those involving hydraulic fracturing, necessitate a thorough review of
existing quantification methods for fugitive methane emissions from venting,
flaring, and equipment leaks associated with natural gas systems and operations.

In the past few years, a broad variety of estimates have emerged regarding
methane emissions from the United States natural gas industry sector. Industry
surveys noted discrepancies that led to a thorough review of information that led
to the improvement of estimation methods and emission factors associated with
natural gas system activities. This has manifested itself in the engineering
estimations that are used for compiling the U.S. Greenhouse Gas Inventory and
in the methods used by companies for reporting under the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency's mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program.

CH4 in the atmosphere is a major component of transient climate pollutants that

directly and indirectly contribute to radiative forcing.[11] Additionally,
CH4 contributes to maintaining background levels of tropospheric ozone. CH 4 is
emitted from a variety of natural (e.g., wetlands, oceans, termites) and
anthropogenic (e.g., fossil-fuel exploration, livestock, rice cultivation, waste
management, and biomass burning) sources.

Methane is a potent “greenhouse gas.” USEPA[12] notes that methane's lifetime in

the atmosphere is much shorter than carbon dioxide (CO2), but CH4 is more
efficient at trapping radiation than CO2. The report claims that pound for pound,
the comparative impact of CH4on climate change is over 20 times greater than
CO2 over a 100-year period. Johnson[13] has published a short review of the role
that O&G production contributes to the release of methane to the atmosphere and
the actual role it has in global climate change. He notes and cites information that
up to 29% of the annual methane loss to the atmosphere comes from O&G
production and transportation. He claims that because of the trapping of heat
factor of methane vs. CO2, reducing methane emissions in the short term (the next
10
CFC gases
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals that contain
carbon, chlorine, and fluorine atoms. CFCs are used in the manufacture of aerosol
sprays, blowing agents for foams and packing materials, solvents, and
refrigerants. They are classified as halocarbons, compounds that contain atoms of
carbon and halogen. The associated effect of emitted CFC gases to the depletion
of the stratospheric ozone layer resulted in the Montreal Protocol in 1985. The
objective was to stop these emissions by phasing out the use of
chlorofluorocarbons and halon by the end of that century, thus affecting the
petroleum industry. Now, all UN recognized nations have ratified the treaty and
continue to phase out the production of chemicals that deplete the ozone layer
while searching for ozone-friendly alternatives

Measuring air emissions

Industry and regulatory agencies have spent a great deal of study and effort to
estimate air emissions from oil and gas.[15] The EPA's "AP-42" emissions
estimating guideline is the standard for estimating emissions from most fugitive
and combustion sources. Additionally, the EPA's "Gas Star" program helped to
identify fuel gas emissions sources and rates. In the mid 1990's, the EPA
developed guidance documents for estimating emissions from gas plants. The
Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ; a.k.a. TNRCC) developed
guidelines and rules for determining emissions from combustion devices. A joint
industry and government initiative produced "Gly-Calc" to determine emissions
from glycol dehydration units. The American Petroleum Institute developed
recent guidelines for the calculation of greenhouse gas emissions. Because of the
calculation routines, advances in database programs, and internet reporting
capabilities British Petroleum can estimate emissions from over 280 properties in
the Permian Basin. BP was the first company to apply the jointly developed
techniques in estimating emissions for a large number of properties.

The emission system was developed to meet two goals: 1) To gather regulatory
required data for reporting emissions to the TCEQ and 2) To provide data for an
intra-company greenhouse gas reporting and reduction program. Additionally,
the program resulted in greater operating efficiencies and a reduction of air
emissions. In 2010, Eni E&P developed the Air Quality Monitoring Standard, a
guide for Eni E&P subsidiaries for the design, installation, and management of
fixed Air Quality Monitoring Systems (AQMS). Although fixed AQMS are the
most complete and precise monitoring tools, their installation is not always
necessary in order to manage air quality issues. Therefore, before installing a
monitoring station, a general structured assessment of air quality and emissions'
should be carried out in order to eventually identify different and/or cheaper
monitoring options. Eni E&P gained some important expertise regarding this
issue in 2011 via a structured project implemented in two Tunisian oil centers,
one located in the desert, the other in a coastal area.

Wet hydrocarbon recovery

Wet hydrocarbon recovery eliminates the continuous use of burn pit for wet HC
from the blow down system and re-injects it back into the HC crude lines. The
modification also allows for compliance with environmental regulations by
eliminating the continuous flaring of wet HC, reserving the lifetime of the burn
pits and protect the groundwater aquifer from contaminants.

Reducing SO2
One process used for sulfur oxide reduction uses the Claus reactions, a catalytic
chemical process that converts gaseous hydrogen sulfide (H2S) into elemental
sulfur (S)[17]. Claus is commonly referred to as a sulfur recovery unit (SRU) and
is widely used to produce sulfur from the hydrogen sulfide found in raw natural
gas and from the by-product sour gases containing hydrogen sulfide derived from
refining petroleum crude oil and other industrial facilities.

Several hundred Claus recovery units are in operation worldwide. In fact, the vast
majority of the 68,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2010 was
by-product sulfur from petroleum refining and natural gas processing plants.

Upgrading sulfur units from the Claus process to SUPERCLAUS process

achieves 98.7 % of sulfur recovery and reduces SO2emissions by installing new
condensers with coalescer oil skimmers and changing the converter catalysts. All
of these modifications resulted in decreasing the SO2 emissions by 25 %. The
third idea is Flare Gas Recovery System which the system will recover the flare
gases from the flare headers and then compressed the gas to 260 psig for feeding
the plant low pressure sour gas header. The ultimate goal of this system is to avoid
visible smoke and flames from flaring systems and to comply with environmental
regulations. The system is very attractive not only reducing flares' emissions but
also it would recover the valuable gases being wasted to the flare stack.

CO2 sequestration
Sequestration is one option that is gaining interest to stabilize and reduce the
concentration of CO2. Carbon capture and storage technology involves the
process of trapping and separating the CO2, transporting it to a storage location,
and then storing it long-term so that it does not enter into the atmosphere.[18] It is
not a new technology and has been used by petroleum, chemical, and power
industries for decades.[19] In fact, carbon capture was first used in Texas in 1972
as a method to enhance oil recovery.[20]
Purpose
CO2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels has been on the incline since the
industrial era; and with more than 85% of the world’s energy coming from fossil
fuels, it will remain an important energy source well into the future. [21] As the
demand for fossil fuels is growing, so is the volume of CO2 emitted each year.
This has led to concerns over the impact of CO2 emissions on global climate
change. CO2 sequestration is an option that is gaining interest to stabilize and
reduce the concentration of CO2.

Types
After CO2 is captured at the source, it must be safely sequestered or stored
away.[22] There are three types of CO2 sequestration: terrestrial, geologic, and
mineralization (Figure 2). More than 150 CO2 sequestration projects are in
progress in North America alone.

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION IN OIL FIELD:

The various sources of air contamination which are encountered in oil fields are
:

 Evaporation of crude oil from oil pits in the form of vapours during
production testing .
 Pungent fumes, odours and dust from cementing units and from mud
banks.
 The exhaust of derrick engines and generators, pump engines, compressors
etc.
 Discharge of natural gas directly to the atmosphere during production
testing.
 Burning of the oil from effluent pit.
 Flaring of natural gas to the atmosphere.
 Burning of gas and effluent water from the flare pit in the air directly from
various oil terminals.
 Presence of smoke , Fog, Mist & wind in which S.P.M. remains suspended
near the earth surface.
 Oxidation of various pollutants .
 Depletion of the natural resources & decrease in forest areas disturbing the
eco system.
 The weather & orography of oil fields.
 Discharge of associated low pressure natural gas to the atmosphere.
 Increase in surrounding temp. due to flare.
 Glare effect of flare which adversely effect the nearby vegetation.
 Table 1: Significant Refinery Air Emission Sources, Air
Pollutants And Emission Factors*
Refinery Process Air Pollutant Emission Factor**

Catalytic Cracking Particulates 242

(Fluid Bed)
Carbon Monoxide 13,700

Sulfur Dioxide 493

Nitrogen Oxides 71

Hydrocarbons 220

Aldehydes 19

Ammonia 54

Catalytic Cracking Particulates 17

(Moving Bed)
Carbon Monoxide 3,800

Sulfur Dioxide 60

Nitrogen Oxides 5

Hydrocarbons 87

Aldehydes 12

Ammonia 6

Catalytic Reforming Hydrocarbons 25

Inorganic Chlorine 4,450

Sulfur Recovery Plant Sulfur Dioxide 359 lbs/ton sulfur recovered

Reduced Sulfur 0.65 lbs/ton sulfur recovered

(H2S, CS2, COS)

Storage Vessels Hydrocarbons No single emission factor

Fluid Coking Particulates 523

Wastewater Streams Hydrocarbons 0.097

Cooling Towers Hydrocarbons 0.0048

Equipment Leaks Hydrocarbons 0.034

Blowdown System Hydrocarbons 580

Vacuum Distillation Hydrocarbons 50

Steam Boiler, Process Particulates 10 lbs/1,000 gallon #6 fuel oil

Furnace or Process
Heater (Below 100 Nitrogen Oxides 55 lbs/1,000 gallon #6 fuel oil
Million Btu/hr
capacity) Carbon Monoxide 5 lbs/1,000 gallon #6 fuel oil

Sulfur Oxides 157 x sulfur percentage in

fuel/1,000 gallon #6 fuel oil

Steam Boiler, Process Particulates 2 lbs/1,000 gallon distillate oil

Furnace or Process
Heater (Below 100 Nitrogen Oxides 20 lbs/1,000 gallon distillate oil
Million Btu/hr
capacity) Carbon Monoxide 5 lbs/1,000 gallon distillate oil

Sulfur Oxides 142 x sulfur percentage in

fuel/1,000 gallon distillate oil

Steam Boiler, Process Particulates 2 lbs/1,000 gallon #2 fuel oil

Furnace or Process
Heater (Above 100 Nitrogen Oxides 24 lbs/1,000 gallon #2 fuel oil
Million Btu/hr
capacity) Carbon Monoxide 5 lbs/1,000 gallon #2 fuel oil

Sulfur Oxides 157 x sulfur percentage in

fuel/1,000 gallon #2 fuel oil

Compressor Engine Hydrocarbons 1.4 lbs/1000 cubic feet gas fuel

(Reciprocating)
Carbon Monoxide 0.43 lbs/1000 cubic feet gas fuel

Nitrogen Oxides 3.4 lbs/1000 cubic feet gas fuel

Sulfur Oxides 2 x sulfur percentage in fuel/1000

cubic feet gas fuel

Compressor Engine Hydrocarbons 0.02 lbs/1000 cubic feet gas fuel

(Gas Turbine)
Carbon Monoxide 0.12 lbs/1000 cubic feet gas fuel

Nitrogen Oxides 0.3 lbs/1000 cubic feet gas fuel

Sulfur Oxides 2 x sulfur percentage in fuel

gas/1000 cubic feet gas fuel

Vessel Loading Hydrocarbons 3.4 lbs/1,000 gallons transferred

(Barge)

Vessel Loading (Ship) Hydrocarbons 1.8 lbs/1,000 gallons transferred

Gasoline Rack Hydrocarbons 995 lbs/1,000 gallons transferred

Loading
 Control Methods

Some of the effective methods to Control Air Pollution are as follows: (a)
Source Correction Methods (b) Pollution Control equipment (c) Diffusion
of pollutant in air (d) Vegetation (e) Zoning.

(a) Source Correction Methods:

Industries make a major contribution towards causing air pollution.
Formation of pollutants can be prevented and their emission can be
minimised at the source itself.

By carefully investigating the early stages of design and development in

industrial processes e.g., those methods which have minimum air pollution
potential can be selected to accomplish air-pollution control at source itself.

These source correction methods are:

(i) Substitution of raw materials:
If the use of a particular raw material results in air pollution, then it should
be substituted by another purer grade raw material which reduces the
formation of pollutants. Thus,

(a) Low sulphur fuel which has less pollution potential can be used as an
alternative to high Sulphur fuels, and,

(b) Comparatively more refined liquid petroleum gas (LPG) or liquefied

natural gas (LNG) can be used instead of traditional high contaminant fuels
such as coal.

(ii) Process Modification:

The existing process may be changed by using modified techniques to
control emission at source. For example,
(a) If coal is washed before pulverization, then fly-ash emissions are
considerably reduced.

(b) If air intake of boiler furnace is adjusted, then excess Fly-ash emissions
at power plants can be reduced.

(iii) Modification of Existing Equipment:

Air pollution can be considerably minimised by making suitable
modifications in the existing equipment:
(a) For example, smoke, carbon-monoxide and fumes can be reduced if open
hearth furnaces are replaced with controlled basic oxygen furnaces or elec-
tric furnaces.

(b) In petroleum refineries, loss of hydrocarbon vapours from storage tanks

due to evaporation, temperature changes or displacement during filling etc.
can be reduced by designing the storage tanks with floating roof covers.

(c) Pressurising the storage tanks in the above case can also give similar
results.

(iv) Maintenance of Equipment:

An appreciable amount of pollution is caused due to poor maintenance of
the equipment which includes the leakage around ducts, pipes, valves and
pumps etc. Emission of pollutants due to negligence can be minimised by a
routine checkup of the seals and gaskets.

(b) Pollution Control Equipment:

Sometimes pollution control at source is not possible by preventing the
emission of pollutants. Then it becomes necessary to install pollution
control equipment to remove the gaseous pollutants from the main gas
stream.
The pollutants are present in high concentration at the source and as their
distance from the source increases they become diluted by diffusing with
environmental air.

Pollution control equipment’s are generally classified into two types:

(a) Control devices for particulate contaminants.

(b) Control devices for gaseous contaminants.

In the present book only the control devices for particulate contaminants are
dealt with.

Control Devices for Particulate Contaminants:

(1) Gravitational Settling Chamber:
For removal of particles exceeding 50 µm in size from polluted gas streams,
gravitational settling chambers (Fig 5.1) are put to use.
This device consists of huge rectangular chambers. The gas stream polluted
with particulates is allowed to enter from one end. The horizontal velocity
of the gas stream is kept low (less than 0.3 m/s) in order to give sufficient
time for the particles to settle by gravity.

The particulates having higher density obey Stoke’s law and settle at the
bottom of the chamber from where they are removed ultimately. The several
horizontal shelves or trays improve the collection efficiency by shortening
the settling path of the particles.

(2) Cyclone Separators (Reverse flow Cyclone):

Instead of gravitational force, centrifugal force is utilized by cyclone
separators, to separate the particulate matter from the polluted gas.
Centrifugal force, several times greater than gravitational force, can be
generated by a spinning gas stream and this quality makes cyclone
separators more effective in removing much smaller particulates than can
possibly be removed by gravitational settling chambers.

A simple cyclone separator (Fig 5.2) consists of a cylinder with a conical

base. A tangential inlet discharging near the top and an outlet for
discharging the particulates is present at the base of the cone.
Mechanism of Action:
The dust laden gas enters tangentially, receives a rotating motion and
generates a centrifugal force due to which the particulates are thrown to the
cyclone walls as the gas spirals upwards inside the cone (i.e. flow reverses
to form an inner vortex which leaves flow through the outlet). The
particulates slide down the .walls of the cone and are discharged from the
outlet.

(3) Fabric Filters (Baghouse Filters):

In a fabric filter system, a stream of the polluted gas is made to pass through
a fabric that filters out the particulate pollutant and allows the clear gas to
pass through. The particulate matter is left in the form of a thin dust mat on
the insides of the bag. This dust mat acts as a filtering medium for further
removal of particulates increasing the efficiency of the filter bag to sieve
more sub micron particles (0.5 µm).
A typical filter (Fig 5.3) is a tubular bag which is closed at the upper end
and has a hopper attached at the lower end to collect the particles when they
are dislodged from the fabric. Many such bags are hung in a baghouse. For
efficient filtration and a longer life the filter bags must be cleaned
occasionally by a mechanical shaker to prevent too many particulate layers
from building up on the inside surfaces of the bag.

(4) Electrostatic Precipitators:

The electrostatic precipitator (Fig. 5.4) works on the principle of
electrostatic precipitation i.e. electrically charged particulates present in the
polluted gas are separated from the gas stream under the influence of the
electrical field.

A typical wire and pipe precipitator consists of:

(a) A positively charged collecting surface (grounded).

(b) A high voltage (50 KV) discharge electrode wire.

(c) Insulator to suspend the electrode wire from the top.

(d) A weight at the bottom of the electrode wire to keep the wire in position.
Mechanism of Action:
The polluted gas enters from the bottom, flows upwards (i.e. between the
high voltage wire and grounded collecting surface). The high voltage in the
wire ionises the gas. The negative ions migrate towards the grounded
surface and pass on their negative charge to the dust particles also. Then
these negatively charged dust particles are electrostatically drawn towards
the positively charged collector surface, where they finally get deposited.

The collecting surface is rapped or vibrated to periodically remove the

collected dust-particles so that the thickness of the dust layer deposited does
not exceed 6 mm, otherwise the electrical attraction becomes weak and
efficiency of the electrostatic precipitator gets reduced.

As the electrostatic precipitation has 99 + percent efficiency and can be

operated at high temperatures (600°C) and pressure at less power
requirement, therefore, it is economical and simple to operate compared to
other devices.
(5) Wet Collectors (Scrubbers):

In wet collectors or scrubbers, the particulate contaminants are removed

from the polluted gas stream by incorporating the particulates into liquid
droplets.

Common wet scrubbers are:

(i) Spray Tower

(ii) Venturi Scrubber

(iii) Cyclone Scrubber

(i) Spray Tower:

Water is introduced into a spray tower (Fig. 5.5.) by means of a spray nozzle
(i.e. there is downward flow of water). As the polluted gas flows upwards,
the particulates (size exceeding 10 µm) present collide with the water
droplets being sprayed downward from the spray nozzles. Under the
influence of gravitational force, the liquid droplets containing the
particulates settle to the bottom of the spray tower.
(ii) Venturi Scrubber:
Submicron particulates (size 0.5 to 5 µn) associated with smoke and fumes
are very effectively removed by the highly efficient Venturi Scrubbers. As
shown in Fig 5.6 a Venturi Scrubber has a Venturi shaped throat section.
The polluted gas passes downwards through the throat at the velocity of 60
to 180 m/sec.

A coarse water stream is injected upwards into the throat where it gets
atomised (i.e. breaks the water into droplets) due to the impact of high
velocity of the gas. The liquid droplets collide with the particulates in the
polluted gas stream.

The particles get entrained in the droplets and fall down to be removed later
on. Venturi Scrubbers can also remove soluble gaseous contaminants. Due
to the atomisation of water there is proper contact between the liquid and
the gas increasing the efficiency of the Venturi Scrubber (their power cost
is high because of the high inlet gas velocity).

To separate the droplets carrying the particulate matter from the gas stream,
this gas-liquid mixture in the Venturi Scrubber is then directed into a separa-
tion device such as a cyclone separator.
(iii) Cyclone Scrubber:
The dry cyclone chamber can be converted into a wet cyclone scrubber by
inserting high pressure spray nozzles at various places within the dry
chamber (Fig. 5.7).

The high pressure spray nozzles generate a fine spray that intercepts the
small particles in the polluted gas. The centrifugal force throws these
particles towards the wall from where they are drained downwards to the
bottom of the scrubber.

(c) Diffusion of Pollutants in Air:

Dilution of the contaminants in the atmosphere is another approach to the
control of air pollution. If the pollution source releases only a small quantity
of the contaminants then pollution is not noticeable as these pollutants easily
diffuse into the atmosphere but if the quantity of air contaminants is beyond
the limited capacity of the environment to absorb the contaminants then
pollution is caused.

However, dilution of the contaminants in the atmosphere can be

accomplished through the use of tall stacks which penetrate the upper
atmospheric layers and disperse the contaminants so that the ground level
pollution is greatly reduced. The height of the stacks is usually kept 2 to
21/2times the height of nearby structures.
Dilution of pollutants in air depend on atmospheric temperature, speed and
direction of the wind. The disadvantage of the method is that it is a short
term contact measure which in reality brings about highly undesirable long
range effects.

This is so because dilution only dilutes the contaminants to levels at which

their harmful effects are less noticeable near their original source whereas
at a considerable distance from the source these very contaminants
eventually come down in some form or another.

(d) Vegetation:
Plants contribute towards controlling air-pollution by utilizing carbon
dioxide and releasing oxygen in the process of photosynthesis. This purifies
the air (removal of gaseous pollutant—CO2) for the respiration of men and
animals.
Gaseous pollutants like carbon monoxide are fixed by some plants, namely,
Coleus Blumeri, Ficus variegata and Phascolus Vulgaris. Species of Pinus,
Quercus, Pyrus, Juniperus and Vitis depollute the air by metabolising
nitrogen oxides. Plenty of trees should be planted especially around those
areas which are declared as high-risk areas of pollution.

(e) Zoning:
This method of controlling air pollution can be adopted at the planning
stages of the city. Zoning advocates setting aside of separate areas for
industries so that they are far removed from the residential areas. The heavy
industries should not be located too close to each other.
New industries, as far as possible, should be established away from larger
cities (this will also keep a check on increasing concentration of urban
population in a few larger cities only) and the locational decisions of large
industries should be guided by regional planning. The industrial estate of
Bangalore is divided into three zones namely light, medium and large
industries. In Bangalore and Delhi very large industries are not permitted.
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