UNIT 1 CHEMISTRY IN EVERY DAY LIFE

ANALGESIC:
An analgesic (also known as a painkiller) is any member of the group of drugs used to
relieve pain (achieve analgesia). The word analgesic derives from Greek an- ("without")
and algos ("pain").
Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they
include paracetamol (para-acetylaminophenol, also known in the US as acetaminophen),
the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, and opioid
drugs such as morphine and opium. They are distinct from anesthetics, which reversibly
eliminate sensation.

Analgesic can be divided into two main groups namely

1. Naracotic analgesics These drugs produce depression of the central nervous
system and are two types
Natural analgesics eg. Morphine, codeine etc.
Synthetic analgesics eg pethidine, methadone etc.
2.Non-narcotic analgesics
The drugs do not produce significant depression of the central nervous system but it
possess antipyretic and anti-inflammatory property. Antipyretic agents reduces the
elevated body temperature. It regulates the body temperature by cutaneous vasodilation
and by excessive sweating.
Non-narcotic analgesics are classifed as
1. The Salicylic acid and its derivatives.
Eg. Asprin [non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)]
Methyl salicylate ,sodium salicylate, salicin etc.
2. Paraamino phenol derivaties
Eg. Para acetamol, phenacetin
3. The Pyrazole derivatives. Eg Analgin
4. Indolyl and Aryl acetic acid derivatives.

The exact mechanism of action of paracetamol/acetaminophen is uncertain, but it

appears to be acting centrally rather than peripherally (in the brain rather than in nerve
endings). Aspirin and the other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit
cyclooxygenases, leading to a decrease in prostaglandin production. This reduces pain
and also inflammation (in contrast to paracetamol and the opioids.

Paracetamol has few side effects and is regarded as safe, although intake above the
recommended dose can lead to liver damage, which can be severe and life-threatening,
and occasionally kidney damage.

NSAIDs predispose to peptic ulcers, renal failure, allergic reactions, and occasionally
hearing loss, and they can increase the risk of hemorrhage by affecting platelet function.
The use of aspirin in children under 16 suffering from viral illness has been linked to
Reye's syndrome, a rare but severe liver disorder.
ANTISEPTICS:-

Antiseptics are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue/skin to

reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis, or putrefaction.
Antiseptics are generally distinguished from antibiotics by the latter's ability to be
transported through the lymphatic system to destroy bacteria within the body, and from
disinfectants, which destroy microorganisms found on non-living objects.
Some antiseptics are true germicides, capable of destroying microbes
(bacteriocidal), whilst others are bacteriostatic and only prevent or inhibit their growth.
Functionality
For the growth of bacteria there must be a food supply, moisture, in most cases
oxygen, and a certain minimum temperature.
Some common antiseptics
 Alcohols: Most commonly used is ethanol (60–90%), 1-propanol (60–70%) and 2-
propanol/isopropanol (70–80%) or mixtures of these alcohols. They are commonly
referred to as "surgical alcohol"
Used to disinfect the skin before injections are given, often along with iodine (tincture
of iodine)
 Quaternary ammonium compounds: It is also known as Quats or QAC's include
the chemicals benzalkonium chloride (BAC), cetyl trimethylammonium bromide
(CTMB), cetylpyridinium chloride (Cetrim, CPC) and benzethonium chloride (BZT).
Benzalkonium chloride is used in some pre-operative skin disinfectants (conc. 0.05–
0.5%) and antiseptic towels
 Boric acid: It is used in suppositories to treat yeast infections of the vagina, in
eyewashes, and as an antiviral to shorten the duration of cold sore attacks.
 Iodine: It is usually used in an alcoholic solution (called tincture of iodine) or as
Lugol's iodine solution as a pre- and post-operative antiseptic
 Manuka Honey: It is used as a medical device for use in wounds and burns.

ANTACID:-

An antacid is a substance, generally a base or basic salt, which neutralizes

stomach acidity.

Mechanism of action
Antacids perform a neutralization reaction, increasing the pH to reduce acidity in the
stomach. When gastric hydrochloric acid reaches the nerves in the gastrointestinal
mucosa, they signal pain to the central nervous system. This happens when these nerves
are exposed, as in peptic ulcers.
Some well-known chemicals used as antacid are
NaHCO3 and/or KHCO3
  Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2
 CaCO3 MgCO3
 Milk of Magnesia – Mg(OH)2
 Al(OH)3

DISINFECTANT:-

Disinfectants are substances that are applied to non-living objects to destroy

microorganisms that are living on the objects. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all
microorganisms, especially nonresistant bacterial spores. It is less effective than
sterilization. Disinfectants are different from other antimicrobial agents such as
antibiotics, which destroy microorganisms within the body, and antiseptics, which
destroy microorganisms on living tissue. Disinfectants are frequently used in hospitals,
dental surgeries, kitchens, and bathrooms to kill infectious organisms.

Types of disinfectants

1. Air disinfectants
Air disinfectants are typically chemical substances capable of disinfecting
microorganisms suspended in the air. . An air disinfectant must be dispersed either as an
aerosol or vapor at a sufficient concentration in the air to cause the number of viable
infectious microorganisms to be significantly reduced.

2. Alcohols
Alcohols, usually ethanol or isopropanol, are sometimes used as a disinfectant. They
are non-corrosive, but can be a fire hazard. They also have limited residual activity due to
evaporation

3. Aldehydes
Aldehydes, such as formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde, have a wide microbiocidal
activity and are sporocidal and fungicidal. They are partly inactivated by organic matter
and have slight residual activity.

4. Oxidizing agents
Oxidizing agents act by oxidizing the cell membrane of microorganisms, which results in
a loss of structure and leads to cell lysis and death. Chlorine and oxygen are strong
oxidizers
a) Sodium hypochlorite is very commonly used. Common household bleach is a
sodium hypochlorite solution and is used in the home to disinfect drains, toilets,
and other surfaces. In more dilute form, it is used in swimming pools, and in still
more dilute form, it is used in drinking water.
b) Chloramine is often used in drinking water treatment.
 c) Chlorine dioxide is used as an advanced disinfectant for drinking water to reduce
waterborne diseases.
d) Hydrogen peroxide is used in hospitals to disinfect surfaces and it is used in
solution alone or in combination with other chemicals as a high level disinfectant.
Hydrogen peroxide vapor is used as a medical sterilant and as room disinfectant.
Peracetic acid, Lactic acid, Performic acid and Potassium permanganate are also used as
disinfectants.

5. Phenolics
Phenolics are active ingredients in some household disinfectants. They are also
found in some mouthwashes and in disinfectant soap and hand washes. Phenol is
probably the oldest known disinfectant. It is rather corrosive to the skin and sometimes
toxic to sensitive people. Impure preparations of phenol were originally made from coal
tar, and these contained low concentrations of other aromatic hydrocarbons including
benzene, which is an IARC Group 1 carcinogen.

 Chloroxylenol is the principal ingredient in Dettol, a household disinfectant and

antiseptic.

 Hexachlorophene is a phenolic that was once used as a germicidal additive to

some household products but was banned due to suspected harmful effects.

 Thymol, derived from the herb thyme, is the active ingredient in some "broad
spectrum" disinfectants that bears ecological claims.
 Thymol

ARTIFICIAL SWEETENING AGENTS:-

Artificial Sweetener, any synthetically produced, intensely sweet substance

developed for use in reduced-calorie or dietetic foods and beverages. Unlike natural
sugars, artificial sweeteners do not promote decay, and they contribute few if any calories
to the foods they sweeten. Major sweeteners include aspartame, saccharin, the
cyclamates, and sucralose. Sweeteners are usually made from the fruit or sap of
plants, but can also be made from any other part of the plant, or all of it. Some
sweeteners are made from starch, with the use of enzymes. Sweeteners made by
animals, especially insects, are put in their own section as they can come from more
than one part of plants. The sap of some species is concentrated to make sweeteners,
usually through drying or boiling. Monosaccharide and disaccharide are sweet in taste.
However there are some compounds which are sweeter than the sugar. These
synthetically developed compounds are called as artificial sweeteners. Examples of
artificial sweeteners are
 Saccharin
 Aspartame
 Sucralose
 Cyclamates
SUGAR SUBSTITUTES:
A sugar substitute is a food additive that duplicates the effect of sugar in taste,
usually with less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are natural and some are
synthetic. Those that are not natural are, in general, called artificial sweeteners.
An important class of sugar substitutes is known as high-intensity sweeteners. These
are compounds with sweetness that is many times that of sucrose, common table
sugar.

Six intensely-sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are aspartame,
sucralose, saccharin and cyclamate. The majority of sugar substitutes approved for food
use are artificially-synthesized compounds. Some bulk natural sugar substitutes are
known, including sorbitol and Xylitol,.
For example, xylose is converted to Xylitol, lactose to lactitol, and glucose to sorbitol.
Still other natural substitutes are known, but are yet to gain official approval for food use.
Artificial sweeteners are among the most controversial food additives due to
allegations of adverse health effects. These allegations include dermatological
problems, headaches, mood variations, behavior changes, respiratory difficulties,
seizures, and cancer.

ASPARTAME:
Aspartame (NutraSweet) consists of two amino acids, aspartic acid and phenylalanine.
Foods containing this substance must be labeled so as to notify individuals with
phenylketonuria, a rare disease that requires control of dietary phenylalanine.

PROPERTIES:-

1.It is an odorless, white crystalline powder that is derived from the two amino acids
aspartic acid and phenylalanine.

2. It is about 200 times as sweet as sugar and can be used as a tabletop sweetener or in
frozen desserts, gelatins, beverages, and chewing gum.

3.When cooked or stored at high temperatures, aspartame breaks down into its constituent
amino acids. This makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener. It is more stable in
somewhat acidic conditions, such as in soft drinks. Though it does not have a bitter
aftertaste like saccharin, it may not taste exactly like sugar. When eaten, aspartame is
metabolized into its original amino acids.

4. Aspartame can not be considered a “non-caloric” sweetener since it is broken

down in the digestive tract into its components which are absorbed and metabolized.
These components, aspartic acid, phenylalanine, and methanol, account for the 4 Calories
per gram energy rating of aspartame.

5. However, since the substance is about 180 times sweeter than sugar, very little needs to
be used in foods and beverages to achieve a satisfactory degree of sweetness.

6. Aspartame can not be used in cooked or baked foods since it breaks

down into its components and loses its sweetening power.

7 . Aspartame is not stable in acidic conditions or when heated.

SACCHARIN:
Saccharin is a synthetic organic compound that is 200-100 times sweet as cane
sugar. The sodium or calcium salt of saccharin is widely used as a diet sweetener.

It is 300 to 500 times as sweet as sugar (sucrose) and is often used to improve the taste of
toothpastes, dietary foods, and dietary beverages.

Saccharin, synthetic, white, crystalline powder, of formula C6H4CONHSO2, which

in its pure state is 550 times as sweet as sugarcane. In its commercial form,
saccharin is estimated to have a sweetening power 375 times that of sugar. It is
prepared from toluene.

When moderately large amounts of saccharin are dissolved in water, the solution has a
bitter taste, the sweetness being evident only in dilute solutions.

Saccharin is not digested by the body and has no food value. It is used in place of sugar
by persons suffering from diabetes (Diabetes Mellitus) and persons on weight-reducing
diets, for the psychological purpose of satisfying a taste for sweetness.
SUCRALOSE:
1.Sucralose is a chlorinated sugar that is about 600 times as sweet as sugar. It is produced
from sucrose when three chlorine atoms replace three hydroxyl groups.

2.It is used in beverages, frozen desserts, chewing gum, baked goods, and other foods.

3.Unlike other artificial sweeteners, it is stable when heated and can therefore be used in
baked and fried goods.

4.About 15% of sucralose is absorbed by the body and most of it passes out of the body
unchanged

5.The only artificial sweetener made from sugar is sucralose.

CYCLAMATES
1. Three similar compounds, namely sodium cyclamate, calcium cyclamate, and
cyclamic acid, are collectively referred to as the “cyclamates”.

2.They are about thirty times sweeter than sugar and are chemically more stable
than saccharin or aspartame. Some of a cyclamate dose is excreted by the body
unchanged, but some is converted to a cyclohexylamine.

NON SUGAR SWEETENERS:

Some non-sugar sweeteners are polyols, also known as "sugar alcohols." These are, in
general, less sweet than sucrose, but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a
wide range of food products.
REASONS FOR USE:
1.To assist in weight loss
2. Dental care:Sugar substitutes are tooth-friendly, as they are not fermented by the
micro flora of the dental plaque

3. Diabetes mellitus — people with diabetes have difficulty regulating their blood sugar
levels.

4. To reduce Cost — many sugar substitutes are cheaper than sugar.

5.Avoiding processed foods —Individuals may opt to substitute refined white sugar with
less-processed sugars, such as fruit juice or maple syrup.

FOOD PRESERVATIVES:
Artificial preservatives are a group of chemical substances added to food, sprayed on
the outside of food, or added to certain medications to retard spoilage, discoloration, or
contamination by bacteria and other disease organisms.

Preservatives should have the following properties.

1. It should not react with the ingredient or with container.
2. Must be non-toxic.
3. It should be soluble in any medium.

Artificial food preservatives

Chemical food preservatives are synthesized artificially that are
 Benzoates(sodium benzoate, benzoic acid),
 Nitrites (sodium nitrites),Sulphities
 Sorbates (sodium sorbates, potassium sorbate)

Benzoate & Benzoic acid

These two compounds are related because sodium benzoate produce benzoic acid
when it is dissolved in water, It has antimicrobial properties and naturally found in
plums, ripen cloves. apples etc.

Sodium benzoate , salt of benzoic acid is preferred over benzoic acid in many food
application because it is 180 time more soluble in water. It has a marked pH effect (ie)
lower the pH, more effective it is. So it will work if the food product has a pH below 4.5
. It is used in jams, beverages, dressing salads, icings.
Sorbates (sodium sorbates, potassium sorbate)

Sorbic acid is the compound with antimicrobial properties, due to difference

insolubility. Potassium sorbate is effective upto pH 6.5. if pH decreases its effectives
also decreases. In wine processing sorbate is used to prevent refermentation. In many
food products, sorbate and benzoates are used together to provide greater protection
against a wide variety of micro-organism.

Nitrites (sodium nitrites)

Prevents the growth of bacteria, particularly Clostridium botulinum (bacterium

responsiblefor botulism), in meat or smoked fish.

Sulphities
In dried fruits, wines and fruit juices.
Anti microbial agents Function

Benzoates. inhibits the growth of molds, yeasts, and bacteria in

acidic drinks and liquids, including fruit juice, vinegar,
sparkling drinks and soft drinks
Sodium benzoate with a pH below 3.6, including salad dressings,
carbonated drinks, fruit juices, and Oriental food sauces
such as soy sauce and duck sauce
sorbate Prevents the growth of molds, yeasts, and fungi in foods
or beverages.

Nitrites Prevents the growth of bacteria, particularly Clostridium

botulinum (bacterium responsible for botulism), in meat
or smoked fish.

Anti oxidants Function

Butylated hydroxy inhibits the growth of yeasts and fungi in beer and wines,
toluene and preserves meats, dried potato products, and dried
fruits
Sulfites. Used in fats, oils, shortening, and similar products

Vitamin C Slows oxidation of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables, used

to fortify breakfast cereals and pet foods.
VitaminE. Prevents browning of fresh-apples, peaches, and other
fruits.

Some preservatives aid in manufacturing . eg Anti-caking agents prevent liquids from

boiling or from froth when they are bottled.
Thickening and stabilizing agents which are added to give a certain consistency and
texture to food such as pectin in jam, locust bean gum in ice cream to prevent the
formation of ice crystal.

Emulsifier- Food containing fats and water Lecithin in chocolates, mono and di
glyceridies in bakery products.

Colouring agent- Caramel in soft drinks

Chelating agent- citric acid, EDTA

CHARACTERISTIC OF WATER

Water quality is determined by physical, chemical and microbiological

properties of water. These water quality characteristics throughout the world are
characterized with wide variability. Therefore the quality of natural water sources used
for different purposes should be established in terms of the specific water-quality
parameters that most affect the possible use of water.

Physical characteristics of water

Physical characteristics include colour, taste, odour etc.) are determined by senses of
touch, sight, smell and taste.

Colour
Colour in water is primarily a concern of water quality . Coloured water gives the
appearance of being unfit to drink, even though the water may be perfectly safe for public
use. On the other hand, colour can indicate the presence of organic substances, such as
algae or humic compounds. More recently, colour has been used as a quantitative
assessment of the presence of potentially hazardous or toxic organic materials in water.
Colour is measured by ‘tintometer’ and expressed in mg/lit in platinium cobalt scale or
Hazen units.

Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the water clarity. It depends upon the amount of
material suspended in water. Suspended materials can be the soil particles and other
substances. Turbidity often increases sharply during a rainfall season. Turbidity also
depends upon the stream flow and velocity.
Turbidity is measured by using turbid meter and Nephelometer. A light scattering
property of water is used to know the turbidity. Turbidity is measured in nephelometric
turbidity units, (NTU).
Chemical Characteristics of Water
Acidity
Acidity is the " measure of the ability of water to neutralize base (or) it is the tendency
to donate H+ inorder to neutralize the basic anions". Acidity is usually expressed in
terms of pH.
The potential of hydrogen ion solution i. e. pH is a measure of the concentration
of hydrogen ions in the water. This measurement indicates the acidity or alkalinity of
water. On the pH scale of 0 to 14, a reading of 7 is considered to be neutral. The value
below 7 is recorded, as the water is more acidic while the value above 7 indicates water is
alkaline. Normally, the value of pH ranging between 6 and 8 is considered as good water.
The solubility and availability of nutrients depends upon the pH value, which are
important for aquatic organisms.

Alkalinity
Alkalinity is due to the presence of bicarbonates, carbonates and hydroxides. Alkalinity
are determined by potentiometric method or using pH meter of titrimetry using different
acid-base indicators. Determination of water alkalinity in water is needed in water
softening , chemical treatment of water.
Hardness

If the water does not produce lather with soap, it is called as Hard water. The property is
known as hardness. But it will produce a scummy white precipitate. The hardness is due
to Ca2+ , Mg2+ and SO42- , Cl- , CO32-, HCO3- ions and their salts.

Dissolved Oxygen:
Oxygen is as important to life in water as it is to life on land. Most aquatic plants
and animals require for survival and the availability of oxygen affects their growth and
development.
DO is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quality of water at a particular
temperature and atmospheric pressure.
DO is very important measure of the quality of water. The presence of oxygen in
water is a positive sign and the absence f oxygen is often a sign that the water is grossly
polluted.
BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand).
BOD is one of the very important parameters to determine the quality of water.
The sewage and wastewater from the industries often contains organic materials that are
decomposed by microorganisms, which use the dissolved oxygen in the process.
BOD is defined as “The amount of oxygen consumed by the microorganisms during
the bio-chemical degradation of organic matter under aerobic conditions at 20 °C
for five days”.
BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in rivers and streams.
Greater the BOD, more will be the rapid depletion of oxygen in the stream. This means
less oxygen is available for higher forms of aquatic life. BOD is expressed in mg/L or
ppm.
Why is BOD important?
(i) The consequences of high BOD are the same as those for dissolved oxygen. The
higher the BOD, higher will be the stress, suffocation to the microorganism.
(ii) Water samples having a BOD value greater than 10 mg/L are considered to be
highly polluted.
COD ( Chemical oxygen Demand)
COD is defined as the amount of oxygen required for the oxidation of organic
matter as well as oxidisible inorganic matter. COD is expressed as mg/L.
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
Fecal Coliform Bacteria are microscopic organisms that live in the intestines of all
warm blooded animals and lives, animal wastes as feces, eliminated from intenstinal
tract. Fecal coliform bacteria may indicate the presence of disease causing
microorganisms, which live in the same environment as the Fecal Coliform bacteria.
The measurement is expressed as the number of organisms per 100 mL sample water.
Drinking water should be free from pathogenic micro organisms.
Total Dissolved Solids
Total Dissolved Solids is a measure of the amount of particulate solids that are in
solution which includes chlorides, nitrates, sulphates, phosphates of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe,
Mn etc., A high concentration of total solids will make drinking water unpalatable and
might have an adverse effect on people. Total solids also affect the clarity of water.
Total Dissolved Solids are measured by weighing the amount of solids present in a
known volume of sample. This is done by gravimetric method. It is expressed in mg/L.
Nitrates
Nitrates are essential plant nutrients, but in excess amounts they can cause
significant water quality problems. Nitrates in combination with phosphate may
accelerate eutrophication, which in turn will affect the DO, temperature and other
indicators.
Nitrate is measured using nitrate electrode method. This method is similar in
function to dissolved oxygen matter. Nitrate is expressed in mg/L.
Phosphorous
Both phosphorous and nitrogen are essential nutrients for the plants and animals.
But, the excess amount of phosphorous can accelerate the plant growth, algal blooms,
which may cause no dissolved oxygen.
 The phosphorous can be measured using electronic spectrophotometer or
colorimeter. The unit of phosphorous is mg/L.
HARDNESS OF WATER

Hardness is the characteristic property present in water, which prevents lather

with soap. The water sample, which gives a ready lather with soap, is called soft water.
Water, which does not produce ready lather with soap, is known as hard water. The salts
of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium are responsible for
hardness.

The reaction of hardness producing salts with the soap is as follows.

2C17 H35 COONa + CaCl2 (C17H35COO) 2Ca + 2 NaCl

(Calcium stearate)

Hardness producing substance

Hardness of water can be classified into two types.

Temporary hardness:
The temporary hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium. The temporary hardness can be removed by

(i) Boiling the water

(ii) Adding lime to the water.

On boiling, the temporary hardness producing salts are settled down as their insoluble
carbonates and hydroxides.

Ca (HCO3)2 Heat CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

Mg (HCO3)2 Heat Mg(OH)2 +2CO2

Permanent Hardness:

Permanent hardness or non-carbonate hardness is caused by the presence of chlorides

and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, aluminum etc.

There are two methods to remove the permanent hardness.

(i) Lime soda process
(ii) Zeolite process.

Units of Hardness:

The units used to express hardness are

 (i) Parts per million (ppm) is the number of parts by weight of calcium carbonate
equivalent hardness per million (106) parts of water.

(ii). Milligrams per liter (mg/L) is the number of milligrams of calcium carbonate
equivalent hardness present per liter of water.

1PPM = 1 mg/L
1mg/L = one part of Calcium carbonate equivalent hardness in 106 parts of water (1 liter).

(iii). Degree clerk (0C) is the part of calcium carbonate equivalent hardness per
gallon of water.

(iv). Degree of French (0Fr) is the part of calcium carbonate equivalent hardness per
5
10 parts of water.

1 ppm = 1mg/L.

Hardness is always used to express as equivalents of calcium carbonate. The

choice of calcium carbonate is due to its molecular weight 100 and equivalent weight 50
which is found to be convenient for the calculation purpose.

The concentration of hardness producing salts can be calculated by using the

following formula.

Equivalent of calcium carbonate = Weight of hardness producing salts in mg x 50

Equivalent weight of salt

The same formula can be written as follows

Equivalent of calcium carbonate = Weight of hardness producing salts in mg x 100

Molecular weight of salt

PROBLEMS: -

1. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of a sample of water containing the
dissolved salts in 1 liter of hard water as given below

Calcium bicarbonate = 64.8 mg

Calcium sulphate = 13.6 mg
Magnesium chloride = 50 mg
Magnesium bicarbonate = 14.6 mg

Solution:
Temporary hardness due to(i) Ca(HCO3)2

Equivalent of CaCO3
 hardness = 64.8 x 100 (Molecular weight of calcium
162 bicarbonate = 162)

= 40 ppm
(ii) Mg (HCO3)2

Equivalent of CaCO3
hardness = 14.6 x 100 (Molecular weight of Magnesium
146 bicarbonate = 146)
= 10 ppm

Temporary hardness is due to Ca (HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2.

Hence the temporary hardness

of the given water sample = 40 + 10 = 50 ppm.

Permanent hardness due to

(i) CaSO4

Equivalent of CaCO3 hardness = 13.6 x 100 (Molecular weight of

136 Calcium Sulphate = 136)

= 10 ppm
(ii) MgCl2

Equivalent of CaCO3 hardness = 50 x 100 (Molecular weight of

95 Magnesium Chloride = 95)

= 52.6 ppm
Permanent hardness present in
the given water sample = 52.6 + 10 = 62.6 ppm
2. Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of water sample containing the
following analysis

Mg (HCO3)2 = 146 mg/L

Ca (HCO3)2 = 81 mg/L
CaSO4 = 68 mg/L
CaCl2 = 11.1 mg/L
MgCl2 = 9.5 mg/L
Solution:
Temporary hardness due to,
(i) Mg (HCO3)2
Equivalent of CaCO3 hardness = 146 x 100 (Molecular weight of
146 Magnesium bicarbonate = 146)
= 100 ppm
 (ii) Ca (HCO3)2
Equivalent of CaCO3 hardness = 81 x 100 (Molecular weight of
162 Calcium bicarbonate = 162)
= 50 ppm

Temporary hardness = 100 + 50 = 150 ppm

Permanent hardness due to

(i) CaSO4
Equivalent of CaCO3 hardness = 68 x 100 (Molecular weight of
136 Calcium Sulphate = 136)

= 50 ppm
(ii) CaCl2
Equivalent of CaCO3 hardness = 11.1 x 100 (Molecular weight of
111 Calcium Chloride = 111)

= 10 ppm
(iii) MgCl2
Equivalent of CaCO3 hardness = 9.5 x 100 (Molecular weight of
95 Magnesium Chloride = 95)

= 10 ppm

Permanent hardness = 50 + 10 + 10 = 70 ppm

Total hardness = Temporary hardness + Permanent hardness

= 150 + 70 = 220 ppm.

Determination of Hardness:

It is essential to determine the hardness of water to use the water in boilers as well
as in industries. This is done by the following methods.

EDTA method:

EDTA - Ethylene diamine Tetra acetic acid.

The structure of EDTA is

HOOCH2C CH2COOH

N – CH2 – CH2 - N

HOOCH2C CH2COOH
 Since EDTA is insoluble in water, the soluble disodium salt of EDTA is
used as the permanent complexing reagent with the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions of hard
water. The structure of the sodium salt of EDTA is

NaOOCH2C CH2COOH

N – CH2 – CH2 - N

HOOCH2C CH2COONa

EDTA forms a very stable complex with water in the pH range 8-10.
Before titration, the added Eriochrome black–T indicator forms an unstable
complex of wine red colour.

After the titration, the unstable complex forms stable complex with
EDTA.

Formation of unstable complex by hard water with Eriochorme black–T

indicator is given below.

Ca+2 + Eriochrome black-T Ca2+

Eriochorme black–T complex

Mg2+ Mg2+

Wine red colour (Unstable Complex)

After titration, the sodium salt forms stable complex in place of the unstable
complex formed by Eriochrome black-T indicator. At the end point, the colour changes
from wine red to steel blue.

This is due to the following reaction.

Ca2+ Ca2+

Eriochorme black–T complex

+ EDTA EDTA + EBT
(Steel
Blue)
Mg2+ Mg2+
Wine red colour Stable Complex

(Unstable Complex)
Experiment:
(i) Preparation of Indicator:

Dissolve 0.5 gm of Eriochorme Black-T and about 100 gm of sodium chloride in

20ml of water.
(ii) Preparation of Buffer solution:

Dissolves 16.9 gm ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) in 143 ml of concentrated

ammonia solution and dilute the solution with distilled water to 250 ml.
(iii) Preparation of Standard hard water.
Dissolve 1 gm of dry calcium carbonate in dilute HCl and evaporate the solution
completely. Dissolve the residue in distilled water and make up the solution to 1 liter with
distilled water.
(iv) Preparation of EDTA solution:
Dissolve 4gm of pure sodium salt of EDTA crystals in 1 liter of distilled water.
(v) Standardization of EDTA solution.
Pipette out 50ml of standard hard water in to a clean conical flask. Add 10-15ml
of buffer solution and few drops of EBT indicator. Titrate this solution against EDTA
taken in the burette. End point is the colour change from wine red to steel blue. Note the
end point. Repeat the titrations for the concordant value. Let the volume of EDTA
consumed be V1 ml.

(vi) Estimation of total hardness:

Pipette out 50 ml of the hard water sample into a clean conical flask. Add 10 ml
of buffer solution to maintain the pH 10. Add few drops of EBT indicator and titrate the
solution against standard EDTA taken in the burette. The end point is the change of
colour from wine to steel blue. Repeat the titration for the concordant value. Let the
volume of EDTA consumed be V2 ml.

(vii) Estimation of permanent hard ness:

Take 250 ml of the hard water sample in a beaker and evaporate it to 50 ml. Filter
the solution into a 100 ml standard flask. Make up the solution again to 250 ml by adding
distilled water. Pipette out 50ml of the made-up solution into a clean conical flask. Add
100 ml of buffer solution to maintain the pH 10. Add few drops of EBT indicator and
titrate the solution against standard EDTA taken in the burette. The end point is colour
change from wine red to steel blue.
Let the volume of EDTA consumed be V3 ml.
Calculations:
Total Hardness:
1 ml of standard hard water = 1mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
I) V1 ml of EDTA is consumed by 50 ml standard hard water
or
50 ml of standard hard water consumes V1 ml of EDTA
V1 ml of EDTA = 50 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
1 ml of EDTA = 50 / V1 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness

II) V2 ml of EDTA is consumed by 50 ml of sample hard water

We know,
1 ml of EDTA = 50/V1 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
V2 ml of EDTA = 50/V1 x V2 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
Similarly,
50 ml of sample hard water
contain = 50/V1 x V2 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
Therefore,
1ml of sample hard water contains = 50/V1 x V2/50mg of CaCO3 equivalent
hardness
1000ml of sample hard water contains = 50/V1 x V2/50 x 1000 mg of
CaCO3 equivalent
= V2/V1 x 1000 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness

Total hardness = V2/V1 x 1000 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness

Permanent Hardness:

50 ml of the sample hard water after removing temporary hard ness consumes V3
ml of EDTA.
1 ml of EDTA = 50/V1 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
V3 ml of EDTA = 50/V1 x V3 mg CaCO3 equivalent hardness
50 ml of sample water after boiling
contain = 50/V1 x V3 mg of CaCO3 equivalent
hardness
1ml of sample hard water contains = 50/V1 x V3/50mg of CaCO3 equivalent
hardness
1000 ml of sample water = 50/V1 x V3/50 x 1000 mg/L
= V3/V1 x 1000 mg/L of CaCO3 equivalent hardness

Permanent Hardness = V3/V1 x 1000 mg/L

 Temporary hardness:
Temporary hardness = Total hardness – Permanent hardness
= (V2/V1x1000) - (V3/V1x1000)
= 1000 x (V2/V1) – (V3/V1) ppm
= (V2-V3)
x 1000 ppm
V1

Purification of water for domestic use

Potable water should be free from objectionable impurities. Sewage or industrial

wastes should not contaminate it. It should be free from disease causing bacteria’s
(pathogens). For removing various types of impurities the following treatment processes
are employed.
Screening Aeration Sedimentation Coagulation

Sterilization Filtration

(i) Screening:
The raw water, which contains suspended impurities, is passed through
screens, having large number of pores, when floating matters are retained by
them.
(ii)Areation :
The process of mixing water with air is known as aeration. The main purpose of
aeration is
i. To remove gases like CO2, H2S and other volatile impurities causing bad
taste and odour to water.
ii. To remove ferrous and manganous salts as insoluble ferric and manganic salts.
(iii) Sedimentation:
Sedimentation is the process of removing the sludge and other solid
impurities by allowing the water to stay undisturbed for 2-6 hours. The clear
supernatant water is then drawn from tank with the help of pumps. The different
types of sedimentation tanks are horizontal flow tank, radical flow circular tank
and vertical flow hopper tank.
(iv) Coagulation:
When water contains colloidal particles, it becomes necessary to apply
sedimentation with coagulation to remove colloidal impurities. Coagulation is the
 process of removing colloidal matter from water with the addition of requisite
amount of coagulants. The chemical substances like alum (K2SO4) Al2 (SO4)3 24
H2O, Aluminium sulphate, (Al2 (SO4)3 8 H2O), ferrous sulphate (FeSO4 7 H2O)
etc are used as coagulants. These chemical substances react with carbonate and a
bicarbonate ion present in water and form a precipitate which settles down.

Al2 (SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 2 Al (OH)3 + 3 CaSO4 + 6 CO2

FeSO4 + Mg (HCO3)2 Fe(OH)2 + MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O

4 Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2 H2O 4 Fe(OH)3

Fe (OH)3 which is in the form of heavy floc causes quick sedimentation.

v. Filtration:
Filtration is a process of removing colloidal and bacterial impurities by passing
water through sand filters. The sand filters consist of thick layer of fine sand placed over
several beds of coarse sand and gravels and water is allowed to percolate through the bed.
a) Sand filter

Sand filter is made up of rectangular concrete tank in, which placed three feet of
fine sand at the top, one feet of coarse sand in the middle and 8 inches thick of, graded
gravel at the bottom as the filtering material. Sediment water entering the sand filter is
uniformly distributed over entire sand bed. When water percolates through the filter most
of the objectionable impurities are retained by the sand bed. When the rate of filtration
becomes slow the fine sand bed has to be removed, washed and again replaced. The sand
filter method is an effective efficient process of municipal water supply.

Sand filter
v)Sterilization of water
The process of destroying the disease-producing bacteria’s and micro organisms
from the water and making it as portable water is called disinfection. There are various
methods of disinfection of water.
1. By boiling water for 20 minutes all the disease producing bacteria are killed and
water become safe for use. But, boiling alters the taste of drinking water and also it is
impossible to employ it in municipal water levels.
2. Sterilization of water can be done by using ultra violet rays. In this process ultra violet
rays are concentrated on flowing water. The UV radiation kills bacteria’s. But it is
costlier method when applied to large quantities of water.
Using ozone: Ozone is a powerful disinfectant and is readily absorbed by water.
Ozone is highly unstable and breaks down to give nascent oxygen.
O3 O2 + [O]
Nascent oxygen
The nascent oxygen is a powerful oxidizing agent and kills the bacteria.
Disadvantages:
i. This process is costly and cannot be used in large scale.
ii. Ozone is unstable and cannot be stored for long time.
Chlorination:
The process of adding chlorine to water is called chlorination. Chlorination can be
done by the following methods.
i. By adding Chlorine gas: Chlorine gas can be bubbled in the water as a very
good disinfectant
Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCl (Hypochlrous acid)

ii. By adding Chloramine: When chlorine and ammonia are mixed in the ratio 2:1
compound chloramines is formed.
Cl2 + NH3 ClNH2 + HCl
Chloramine compounds decompose slowly to give chlorine. It is a better disinfection than
chlorine.
By adding bleaching powder:
By adding bleaching powder (Calcium hypochlorite) the disease causing bacteria
can also be killed. The added bleaching power reacts with water to produce hypochlorous
acid, a powerful disinfectant.
CaOCl2 + H2O Ca (OH) 2 + Cl2

Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCl (Hypochlrous acid)

Pathogens + HOCl Pathogens are killed

The disinfecting action of bleaching power is due to the chlorine produced when
it reacts with water.
Chlorination is the most effective method used for municipal water supply.
Break point chlorination:

Break point chlorination is the application of chlorine to produce a residual free

available chlorine with no combined chlorine present. As chlorine is added to water, it
reacts with ammonia and forms chloramines. Hence, chlorine in the combined form
gradually increases. After a particular limit oxidation of chloroamine and other impurities
start and there is a fall in the combined chlorine state. When all combined chlorine has
been oxidized by reaction, with free available chlorine, the residual, now consisting of
only of free available chlorine rises again and continues to increase in direct proportion to
increased dosage. The point at which the residual again begins to increase is the break
point.
The break point chlorination curve appears in four stages. Stage ‘a’ shows a
typical breakpoint for water containing a considerable amount of ammonia. During the
initial upward rise, chloramines are first formed. The curve rises until sufficient free
available chlorine is developed to react with chloramines, then it falls until a point where
all ammonia compounds have been oxidized.

While less organic matter in the water, as in stage ‘b’ and ‘c’ free available
chlorine is formed sooner, destroying chloramines formed at the early stage.This results
in lower combined chlorine residuals and flatter curves before breakpoint.

The stage ‘d’ shows the chloramines are neutralized at an early stage by the
upswing of the curve.

Break point chlorination.

Advantages of break point chlorination

(i) Highly bactericidal efficiency.

 (ii) It removes colour and odour from water.
iii)It oxidizes completely the organic compounds present in the water.

Desalination of Brackish Water

i) The process of removing the common salt from the water is known as
desalination. The water containing dissolved salts (high percentage of NaCl)
with a salty taste is called brackish water eg., sea water.
ii) In oil rich west Asian countries, which are surrounded by sea, contain no potable
water but only sea water, and brackish water. Brackish water is totally unfit
for drinking purpose. But, the sea water can be made available as drinking
water through desalination process. Commonly used methods for the
desalination of brackish water are reverse osmosis and electro dialysis.
Reverse osmosis

When a semi-permeable membrane separates two solutions of different

concentrations, flow of solvent takes place from dilute to concentrated solution due to
osmosis. But pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied the water to flow in the
reverse direction to the direction of flow in natural osmosis. This process is called reverse
osmosis. This process is also known as hyper-filtration.

Reverse osmosis - from a concentrated solution to a dilute solution.Reverse osmosis

is used in conjunction with one or more activated carbon filters; this combination
removes the 99.9 % of undesirable water contaminants.
In this process high pressure of the water 15-40 kg/cm2 applied to the raw water to force
the water to pass through a thin film reverse osmosis membrane, leaving behind the
dissolved solids. Some of the thin film membranes used in reverse osmosis process are
cellulose acetate, polysulphone, polyamide etc. In the latest technique hydrophobic
membranes are used as semi permeable membrane.
 Advantages of Reverse Osmosis:
1.High life time
2.Removes ionic, non-ionic and colloidal silica impurities , which can not be removed by
demineralization method.
3. Low capital cost.
4. Simple operational procedure.
5. The membrane can be replaced within a few minutes, thereby providing uninterrupted
water supply.