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Image Compression Fundamentals PDF

This document provides an overview of image compression techniques. It discusses the need for compression due to the large size of digital images. It describes different types of redundancy in images like coding, interpixel, and psychovisual redundancy that compression aims to remove. It also introduces fidelity criteria to measure information loss during lossy compression. Key compression models and methods are outlined including variable length coding, transforms, and standards like JPEG.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
233 views84 pages

Image Compression Fundamentals PDF

This document provides an overview of image compression techniques. It discusses the need for compression due to the large size of digital images. It describes different types of redundancy in images like coding, interpixel, and psychovisual redundancy that compression aims to remove. It also introduces fidelity criteria to measure information loss during lossy compression. Key compression models and methods are outlined including variable length coding, transforms, and standards like JPEG.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Resmi N.G.

Reference:
Digital Image Processing 2nd Edition
Rafael C. Gonzalez
Richard E. Woods
Overview
 Introduction
 Fundamentals
 Coding Redundancy
 Interpi xel Redundancy
 Psychovisual Redundancy
 Fidelity Criteria
 Image Compression Models
 Source Encoder and Decoder
 Channel Encoder and Decoder
 Elements of Information Theory
 Measuring Information
 The Information Channel
 Fundamental Coding Theorems
 Noiseless Coding Theorem
 Noisy Coding Theorem
 Source Coding Theorem

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 2


 Error-Free Compression
 Variable-Length Coding
 Huffman Coding
 Other Near Optimal Variable Length Codes
 Arithmetic Coding
 LZW Coding
 Bit-Plane Coding
 Bit-Plane Decomposition
 Constant Area Coding
 One-Dimensional Run-Length Coding
 Two-Dimensional Run-Length Coding

 Lossless Predictive Coding


 Lossy Compression
 Lossy Predictive Coding

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 Transform Coding
Transform Selection

 Subimage Size Selection

 Bit Allocation

 Zonal Coding Implementation

 Threshold Coding Implementation

 Wavelet Coding
 Wavelet Selection

 Decomposition Level Selection

 Quantizer Design

 Image Compression Standards


 Binary Image Compression Standards
 One Dimensional Compression

 Two Dimensional Compression

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 Continuous Tone Still Image Compression Standards
JPEG

 Lossy Baseline Coding System

 Extended Coding System

 Lossless Independent Coding System

 JPEG 2000

 Video Compression Standards

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Introduction
 Need for Compression
 Huge amount of digital data
 Difficult to store and transmit
 Solution
 Reduce the amount of data required to represent a digital image
 Remove redundant data
 Transform the data prior to storage and transmission
 Categories
 Information Preserving
 Lossy Compression

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Fundamentals
 Data compression
 Difference between data and information
 Data Redundancy
 If n1 and n2 denote the number of information-carrying
units in two datasets that represent the same information,
the relative data redundancy RD of the first dataset is
defined as 1
RD  1  ,
CR
n1
where, CR  , is called the compression ratio.
n2
3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 7
Case1: n2  n1
CR  1 and RD  0  no redundant data
Case 2 : n2  n1
CR   and RD  1  highly redundant data
significant compression
Case 3 : n2  n1
CR  0 and RD    second dataset contains
more data than the original

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 8


Overview
 Introduction
 Fundamentals
 Coding Redundancy
 Interpi xel Redundancy
 Psychovisual Redundancy
 Fidelity Criteria
 Image Compression Models
 Source Encoder and Decoder
 Channel Encoder and Decoder
 Elements of Information Theory
 Measuring Information
 The Information Channel
 Fundamental Coding Theorems
 Noiseless Coding Theorem
 Noisy Coding Theorem
 Source Coding Theorem

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 9


Coding Redundancy
 Let a discrete random variable rk in [0,1] represent the
graylevels of an image.
 pr(rk) denotes the probability of occurrence of rk.
nk
pr ( rk )  , k  0,1, 2,...L  1
n
 If the number of pixels used to represent each value of rk
is l(rk), then the average number of bits required to
represent each pixel is
L 1

Lavg   l ( rk ) pr ( rk )
k 0
3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 10
 Hence, the total number of bits required to code an MxN
image is MNLavg.
 For representing an image using an m-bit binary code,
Lavg= m.

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 How to achieve data compression?
 Variable length coding - Assign fewer bits to the more
probable graylevels than to the less probable ones.

 Find Lavg, compression ratio and redundancy.

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 12


3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 13
Overview
 Introduction
 Fundamentals
 Coding Redundancy
 Interpi xel Redundancy
 Psychovisual Redundancy
 Fidelity Criteria
 Image Compression Models
 Source Encoder and Decoder
 Channel Encoder and Decoder
 Elements of Information Theory
 Measuring Information
 The Information Channel
 Fundamental Coding Theorems
 Noiseless Coding Theorem
 Noisy Coding Theorem
 Source Coding Theorem

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Interpixel Redundancy
 Related to interpixel correlation within an image.
 The value of a pixel in the image can be reasonably
predicted from the values of its neighbours.
 The gray levels of neighboring pixels are roughly the
same and by knowing gray level value of one of the
neighborhood pixels one has a lot of information about
gray levels of other neighborhood pixels.
 Information carried by individual pixels is relatively
small. These dependencies between values of pixels in the
image are called interpixel redundancy.
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 Autocorrelation

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 The autocorrelation coefficients along a single line of
image are computed as
A(n)
 (n) 
A(0)
1 N 1n
where A(n)  
N  n y 0
f ( x, y) f ( x, y  n)

 For the entire image,

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 19


 To reduce interpixel redundancy, transform it into an
efficient format.
 Example: The differences between adjacent pixels can be
used to represent the image.
 Transformations that remove interpixel redundancies are
termed as mappings.
 If original image can be reconstructed from the dataset,
these mappings are called reversible mappings.

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 20


3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 21
Overview
 Introduction
 Fundamentals
 Coding Redundancy
 Interpi xel Redundancy
 Psychovisual Redundancy
 Fidelity Criteria
 Image Compression Models
 Source Encoder and Decoder
 Channel Encoder and Decoder
 Elements of Information Theory
 Measuring Information
 The Information Channel
 Fundamental Coding Theorems
 Noiseless Coding Theorem
 Noisy Coding Theorem
 Source Coding Theorem

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 22


Psychovisual Redundancy
 Based on human perception
 Associated with real or quantifiable visual information.
 Elimination of psychovisual redundancy results in loss of
quantitative information. This is referred to as
quantization.
 Quantization – mapping of a broad range of input values
to a limited number of output values.
 Results in lossy data compression.

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 23


Overview
 Introduction
 Fundamentals
 Coding Redundancy
 Interpi xel Redundancy
 Psychovisual Redundancy
 Fidelity Criteria
 Image Compression Models
 Source Encoder and Decoder
 Channel Encoder and Decoder
 Elements of Information Theory
 Measuring Information
 The Information Channel
 Fundamental Coding Theorems
 Noiseless Coding Theorem
 Noisy Coding Theorem
 Source Coding Theorem

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Fidelity Criteria
 Objective fidelity criteria
 When the level of information loss can be expressed as a
function of original (input) image and the compressed and
subsequently decompressed output image.
 Example: Root Mean Square error between input and
output images. 
e ( x , y )  f ( x , y )  f ( x, y )
1
 1 M 1 N 1
 
 
2 2
erms    
x 0 y 0 
f ( x, y )  f ( x, y )  
 
 MN
3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 25
 Mean Square Signal-to-Noise Ratio
M 1 N 1 

 x 0 y 0
f ( x, y ) 2
SNRms  M 1 N 1 2
 

  
x 0 y 0 
f ( x , y )  f ( x, y ) 

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 Subjective fidelity criteria
 Measures image quality by subjective evaluations of a
human observer.

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Overview
 Introduction
 Fundamentals
 Coding Redundancy
 Interpi xel Redundancy
 Psychovisual Redundancy
 Fidelity Criteria
 Image Compression Models
 Source Encoder and Decoder
 Channel Encoder and Decoder
 Elements of Information Theory
 Measuring Information
 The Information Channel
 Fundamental Coding Theorems
 Noiseless Coding Theorem
 Noisy Coding Theorem
 Source Coding Theorem

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Image Compression Models

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 Encoder – Source encoder + Channel encoder

 Source encoder – removes coding, interpixel, and


psychovisual redundancies in input image and outputs a
set of symbols.

 Channel encoder – To increase the noise immunity of the


output of source encoder.

 Decoder - Channel decoder + Source decoder

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 Source Encoder

 Mapper
 Transforms input data into a format designed to reduce
interpixel redundancies in input image.
 Reversible process generally
 May or may not reduce directly the amount of data required
to represent the image.
 Examples
 Run-length coding(directly results in data compression)
 Transform coding

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 Quantizer
 Reduces the accuracy of the mapper’s output in
accordance with some pre-established fidelity criterion.
 Reduces the psychovisual redundancies of the input
image.
 Irreversible process (irreversible information loss)
 Must be omitted when error-free compression is desired.

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 Symbol encoder
 Creates a fixed- or variable-length code to represent the
quantizer output and maps the output in accordance with
the code.
 Usually, a variable-length code is used to represent the
mapped and quantized output.
 Assigns the shortest codewords to the most frequently
occuring output values.
 Reduces coding redundancy.
 Reversible process

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 Source decoder

 Symbol decoder
 Inverse Mapper

 Inverse operations are performed in the reverse order.

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 Channel Encoder and Decoder

 Essential when the channel is noisy or error-prone.


 Source encoded data – highly sensitive to channel noise.
 Channel encoder reduces the impact of channel noise by
inserting controlled form of redundancy into the source
encoded data.

 Example
 Hamming Code – appends enough bits to the data being
encoded to ensure that two valid codewords differ by a
minimum number of bits.

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 7-bit Hamming(7,4) Code
 7-bit codewords
 4-bit word
 3 bits of redundancy
 Distance between two valid codewords (the minimum
number of bit changes required to change from one code to
another) is 3.
 All single-bit errors can be detected and corrected.
 Hamming distance between two codewords is the number
of places where the codewords differ.
 Minimum Distance of a code is the minimum number of
bit changes between any two codewords.
 Hamming weight of a codeword is equal to the number of
non-zero elements (1’s) in the codeword.

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Binary data Hamming Codeword
b3b2b1b0 h1h2h3h4h5h6h7
0000 0000000
0001 1101001
0010 0101010
0011 1000011
0100 1001100
0101 0100101
0110 1100110
0111 0001111
3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 37
Overview
 Introduction
 Fundamentals
 Coding Redundancy
 Interpi xel Redundancy
 Psychovisual Redundancy
 Fidelity Criteria
 Image Compression Models
 Source Encoder and Decoder
 Channel Encoder and Decoder
 Elements of Information Theory
 Measuring Information
 The Information Channel
 Fundamental Coding Theorems
 Noiseless Coding Theorem
 Noisy Coding Theorem
 Source Coding Theorem

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 38


Basics of Probability

Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability
3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 39
Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability
3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 40
Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 41


Elements of Information Theory
 Measuring Information
 A random event E occuring with probability P(E) is said
to contain
1
I ( E )  log   log( P( E ))
P( E )
 units of information.
 I(E) is called the self-information of E.
 Amount of self-information of an event E is inversely
related to its probability.

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 42


 If P(E) = 1, I(E) = 0. That is, there is no uncertainty
associated with the event.
 No information is conveyed because it is certain that the
event will occur.
 If base m logarithm is used, the measurement is in m-ary
units.
 If base is 2, the measurement is in binary units. The unit of
information is called a bit.
 If P(E) = ½, I(E) = -log (½) = 1 bit. That is, 1 bit of
information is conveyed when one of the two possible
equally likely outcomes occur.

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 43


Overview
 Introduction
 Fundamentals
 Coding Redundancy
 Interpi xel Redundancy
 Psychovisual Redundancy
 Fidelity Criteria
 Image Compression Models
 Source Encoder and Decoder
 Channel Encoder and Decoder
 Elements of Information Theory
 Measuring Information
 The Information Channel
 Fundamental Coding Theorems
 Noiseless Coding Theorem
 Noisy Coding Theorem
 Source Coding Theorem

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 44


The Information Channel
 Information channel is the physical medium that connects
the information source to the user of information.
 Self-information is transferred between an information
source and a user of the information, through the
information channel.
 Information source – Generates a random sequence of
symbols from a finite or countably infinite set of possible
symbols.
 Output of the source is a discrete random variable.

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 45


 The set of source symbols or letters{a1, a2, …, aJ} is
referred to as the source alphabet A.
 The probability of the event that the source will produce
symbol aj is P(aj).
J

 P(a )  1
j 1
j

z   P(a1 ), P(a2 ),..., P(aJ )


T
 The Jx1 vector is used to
represent the set of all source symbol probabilities.
 The finite ensemble (A,z) describes the information source
completely.

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 46


 The probability that the discrete source will emit symbol
aj is P(aj).
 Therefore, the self-information generated by the
production of a single source symbol is,

I (a j )   log P( a j )

 If k source symbols are generated, the average self-


information obtained from k outputs is
 kP(a1 ) log P(a1 )  kP(a2 ) log P(a2 )  ...  kP(aJ ) log P(aJ )
J
 k  P(a j ) log P(a j )
j 1

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 47


 The average information per source output, denoted as
H(z), is
J
H (z )  E[ I (z )]   P(a j ) I (a j )
j 1
J J
1
  P(a j ) log   P(a j ) log P(a j )
j 1 P(a j ) j 1

 This is called the uncertainty or entropy of the source.


 It is the average amount of information (in m-ary units
per symbol) obtained by observing a single source
output.
 If the source symbols are equally probable, the entropy is
maximized and the source provides maximum possible
average information per source symbol.
3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 48
3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 49
 A simple information system

 Output of the channel is also a discrete random variable


which takes on values from a finite or countably infinite
set of symbols {b1, b2, …, bK} called the channel alphabet
B.

 The finite ensemble (B,v), where v   P(b1 ), P(b2 ),..., P(bJ )T
describes the channel output completely and thus the
information received by the user.

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 50


 The probability P(bk) of a given channel output and the
probability distribution of the source z are related as
J
P(bk )   P(bk | a j ) P(a j )
j 1

where P(bk | a j ) is the conditional probability that


the output symbol bk is received , given that the
source symbol a j was generated .

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 51


 Forward Channel Transition Matrix or Channel Matrix

 P  b1 | a1  P  b1 | a2  ... P  b1 | aJ  
 
 P  b2 | a1  P  b2 | a2  ... P  b2 | aJ  
Q
 : : ... : 
 
 P  bK | a1  P  bK | a2  ... P  bK | aJ  

 Matrix element, qkj  P  bk | a j 


 The probability distribution of the output alphabet can be
computed from
 v = Qz

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 52


 Conditional entropy function
Entropy
J J
H (z )  E[ I (z )]   P(a j ) I (a j )   P (a j ) log P(a j )
j 1 j 1

 Conditional entropy function


J
H (z | bk )  E[ I (z | bk )]   P (a j | bk ) I (a j | bk )
j 1
J
  P(a j | bk ) log P(a j | bk )
j 1

where P (a j | bk ) is the probability that symbol a j is


transmitted by the source given that the user receives bk .
3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 53
 The expected or average value over all bk is
K
H (z | v )   H (z | bk ) P(bk )
k 1
K  J 
    P(a j | bk ) log P(a j | bk )  P(bk )
k 1  j 1 
K J
  P(a j | bk ) P(bk ) log P(a j | bk )
k 1 j 1

P(a j , bk )
Conditional Probability, P (a j | bk ) 
P(bk )
K J
 H (z | v )   P(a j , bk ) log P(a j | bk )
k 1 j 1

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 P(aj,bk) is the joint probability of aj and bk. That is, the
probability that aj is transmitted and bk is received.
 Mutual information
 H(z) is the average information per source symbol,
assuming no knowledge of the output symbol.
 H(z|v) is the average information per source symbol,
assuming observation of the output symbol.
 The difference between H(z) and H(z|v) is the average
information received upon observing the output symbol,
and is called the mutual information of z and v, given by
 I(z|v) = H(z) - H(z|v)

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 55


I (z | v)  H (z )  H (z | v)
 J   J K 
   P(a j ) log P(a j )     P(a j , bk ) log P( a j | bk ) 
 j 1   j 1 k 1 
J J K
  P(a j ) log P(a j )   P(a j , bk ) log P( a j | bk )
j 1 j 1 k 1

P(a j )  P(a j , b1 )  P (a j , b2 )  ...  P (a j , bK )


K
  P(a j , bk )
k 1

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 56


J K J K
I (z | v )   P( a j , bk ) log P( a j )   P( a j , bk ) log P( a j | bk )
j 1 k 1 j 1 k 1
J K P (a j | bk )
  P (a j , bk ) log
j 1 k 1 P(a j )
J K P (a j , bk )
  P (a j , bk ) log
j 1 k 1 P (a j ) P (bk )

3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 57


P (a j , bk )  P (a j | bk ).P (bk )
P (a j , bk )  P (bk | a j ).P (a j )
J K P (bk | a j ).P (a j )
I (z | v )   P (bk | a j ).P (a j ) log
j 1 k 1 P (a j ) P (bk )
J K qkj .P (a j )
  qkj .P (a j ) log
j 1 k 1 P (a j ) P (bk )
J K qkj
  qkj .P (a j ) log
j 1 k 1 P (bk )
J K qkj
  qkj .P (a j ) log
j1 k 1 P (bk )
3/24/2012 CS 04 804B Image Processing Module 3 58
J
P (bk )   P (bk | a j ) P (a j )
j 1
J K qkj
I (z | v )   qkj .P(a j ) log J
j 1 k 1
 P(b
i 1
k | ai ) P(ai )
J K qkj
  qkj .P(a j ) log J
j 1 k 1
q
i 1
ki P(ai )

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 The minimum possible value of I(z|v) is zero.
 Occurs when the input and output symbols are statistically
independent.
 That is, when P(aj,bk) = P(aj)P(bk).
J K P (a j , bk )
I(z | v )   P( a j , bk ) log
j 1 k 1 P (a j ) P (bk )
J K P (a j ) P (bk )
  P (a j , bk ) log
j 1 k 1 P (a j ) P (bk )
J K
  P (a j , bk ) log1  0
j 1 k 1

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 Channel Capacity
 The maximum value of I(z|v) over all possible choices of
source probabilities in the vector z is called the capacity,
C, of the channel described by channel matrix Q.
C  max[I(z | v)]
z

 Channel capacity is the maximum rate at which


information can be transmitted reliably through the
channel.
 Binary information source
 Binary Symmetric Channel (BSC)

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 Binary Information Source
Source alphabet A  {a1 , a2 }  0, 1
P  a1  pbs , P  a 2   1- pbs  p bs
Entropy of source,
H (z )   pbs log 2 pbs  p bs log 2 p bs
where z   P  a1 , P  a 2     pbs ,1- pbs 
T T

  pbs log 2 pbs  p bs log 2 p bs  is called the binary entropy


 
function denoted as H bs (.)
For example, H bs (t )  t log 2 t  t log 2 t
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 Binary Symmetric Channel (Noisy Binary Information
Channel)
Let the probability of error during transmission
of any symbol be pe .
Channel matrix for BSC
 P (b1 | a1 ) P (b1 | a2 ) 
Q 
 2 1
P (b | a ) P (b2 | a 2 
)
 P (0 | 0) P (0 |1) 
 
 P (1| 0) P (1|1) 
1  pe pe   pe pe 
   
 pe 1  pe   pe p e 
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Output alphabet B  {b1 , b 2 }  0, 1
v   P  b1  , P  b 2     P  0  , P 1 
T T

The probabilities of the receiving output symbols


b1 and b2 can be determined by,
v  Qz
 pe pe   pbs 
=  
 pe p e   p bs 
 P(0)  p e pbs  pe p bs
P (1)  pe pbs  p e p bs
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 The mutual information of BSC can be computed as
 2 2 qkj
I (z | v )   qkj .P(a j ) log 2 2
j 1 k 1
q
i 1
ki P(ai )

q11
 q11.P(a1 ) log 2
q11 P(a1 )  q12 P(a2 )
q21
 q21.P(a1 ) log 2
q21 P(a1 )  q22 P(a2 )
q12
 q12 .P(a2 ) log 2
q11 P(a1 )  q12 P(a2 )
q22
 q22 .P(a2 ) log 2
q21 P(a1 )  q22 P(a2 )
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pe pe
 p e . pbs log 2  pe . pbs log 2
p e pbs  pe p bs pe pbs  p e p bs
pe pe
 pe . p bs log 2  p e . p bs log 2
p e pbs  pe p bs pe pbs  p e p bs
 
 p e . pbs log 2 p e  p e . pbs log 2 p e pbs  pe p bs

 pe . pbs log 2 p  p . p log  p p  p p 


e e bs 2 e bs e bs

 pe . p bs log 2 p  p . p log  p p  p p 
e e bs 2 e bs e bs

 p e . p bs log 2 p  p . p log  p p  p p 
e e bs 2 e bs e bs

 H bs ( pe pbs  p e p bs )  H bs ( pe )
where H bs (.)    pbs log 2 pbs  p bs log 2 p bs 
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 Capacity of BSC
 Maximum of mutual information over all source distributions.
T
1 1 1
I (z | v ) is max imum when pbs is .This corresponds to z   ,  .
2 2 2
1 1
 I (z | v )  H bs ( pe  p e )  H bs ( pe )
2 2
1 1
 H bs ( pe  (1  pe ) )  H bs ( pe )
2 2
1
 H bs    H bs ( pe )
2
1 1 1 1
  log 2  log 2  H bs ( pe )
2 2 2 2
 1  H bs ( pe )
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Overview
 Introduction
 Fundamentals
 Coding Redundancy
 Interpi xel Redundancy
 Psychovisual Redundancy
 Fidelity Criteria
 Image Compression Models
 Source Encoder and Decoder
 Channel Encoder and Decoder
 Elements of Information Theory
 Measuring Information
 The Information Channel
 Fundamental Coding Theorems
 Noiseless Coding Theorem
 Noisy Coding Theorem
 Source Coding Theorem

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Fundamental Coding Theorems

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 The Noiseless Coding Theorem or Shannon’s First
Theorem or Shannon’s Source Coding Theorem for
Lossless Data Compression
 When both the information channel and communication
system are error-free
 Defines the minimum average codeword length per source
symbol that can be achieved.
 Aim: to represent source as compact as possible.
 Let the information source (A,z), with statistically
independent source symbols, output an n-tuple of symbols
from source alphabet A. Then, the source output takes on
one of the Jn possible values, denoted by, αi , from
A'  {1 ,  2 ,  3 , ,  J n }

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Probability of a given  i , P ( i ) is related to single  symbol
probabilities as
P( i )  P(a j1 ) P(a j 2 )... P(a jn )
z '  {P(1 ), P( 2 ),..., P( J n )}
Entropy of the sourceis given by
Jn
H (z ')   P( i ) log P( i )
i 1
Jn
   P(a j1 ) P(a j 2 )... P(a jn )  log  P(a j1 ) P(a j 2 )... P(a jn ) 
i 1

H (z ')  nH (z )

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 Hence, the entropy of the zero-memory source is n times
the entropy of the corresponding single symbol source.
Such a source is called the nth extension of single-symbol
source.
1
Self information of  i is log .
P( i )
1 1
log  l ( i )  log 1
P( i ) P( i )
αi is therefore represented by a codeword whoselength
is the smallest integer exceeding the self - information
of αi .

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1 1
P ( i ) log  P( i )l ( i )  P ( i ) log  P( i )
P ( i ) P( i )
Jn Jn Jn
1 1

i 1
P ( i ) log   P( i )l ( i )   P( i ) log
P ( i ) i 1 i 1 P( i )
1

H (z ')  L 'avg  H ( z ')  1


Jn
where L 'avg   P ( i )l ( i )
i 1

H (z ') L 'avg H (z ')  1


 
n n n
L 'avg 1
H (z )   H (z ) 
n n
 L 'avg 
lim    H (z )
n 
 n 
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 Shannon’s source coding theorem for lossless data
compression states that for any code used to represent the
symbols from a source, the minimum number of bits
required to represent the source symbols on an average
must be atleast equal to the entropy of the source.
L 'avg 1
H (z )   H (z) 
n n
The efficiency  of any encoding strategy can be defined as
nH (z )

L 'avg
H (z ')

L 'avg
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 The Noisy Coding Theorem or Shannon’s Second
Theorem
 When the channel is noisy or prone to error
 Aim: to encode information so that the communication is
made reliable and the error is minimized.

 Use of repetitive coding scheme


 Encode nth extension of source using K-ary code
sequences of length r, Kr ≤ Jn.
 Select only φ of the Kr possible code sequences as valid
codewords.

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 A zero-memory information source generates information
at a rate equal to its entropy.
 The nth extension of the source provides information at a
rate of H (z ') information units per symbol.
n

 If the information is coded, the maximum rate of coded


information is log(φ/r) and occurs when the φ valid
codewords used to code the source are equally probable.
 Hence, a code of size φ and block length r is said to have a
rate of 
 R  log
r
 information units per symbol.

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 The noisy coding theorem thus states that for any R<C,
where C is the capacity of the zero-memory channel with
matrix Q, there exists an integer r, and code of block
length r and rate R such that the probability of a block
decoding error is less than or equal to ε for any ε>0.

 That is, the probability of error can be made arbitrarily


small so long as the coded message rate is less than the
capacity of the channel.

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 The Source Coding Theorem for Lossy Data
Compression
 When channel is error-free, but communication process is
lossy.
 Aim: information compression
 To determine the smallest rate at which information about
the source can be conveyed to the user.
 To encode the source so that the average distortion is less
than a maximum allowable level D.
 Let the information source and ecoder output be defined
by (A,z) and (B,v) respectively.
 A nonnegative cost function ρ(aj,bk), called distortion
measure, is used to define the penalty associated with
reproducing source output aj with decoder output bk.
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Average value of distortion is given by
J K
d (Q)    (a j , bk ) P(a j , bk )
j 1 k 1
J K
   (a j , bk ) P(a j )qkj
j 1 k 1

where Q is the channel matrix.


Rate distortion function R ( D ) is defined as
R( D)  min  I (z, v ) 
QQD

where QD  {qkj | d (Q)  D} is the set of all


D  admissible encoding  decoding procedures.
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 If D = 0, R(D) is less than or equal to the entropy of the
source, or R(0)≤H(z).


R( D)  min  I (z, v)defines the minimum rate at
QQD
which information can be conveyed to user subject to the
constraint that the average distortion be less than or equal
to D. K

 I(z,v) is minimized subject to:qkj  0,  qkj  1, and d (Q )  D


k 1

 d(Q) = D indicates that the minimum information rate


occurs when the maximum possible distortion is allowed.

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 Shannon’s Source Coding Theorem for Lossy Data
Compression states that for a given source (with all its
statistical properties known) and a given distortion
measure, there is a function, R(D), called the rate-
distortion function such that if D is the tolerable amount
of distortion, then R(D) is the best possible compression
rate.
 The theory of lossy data compression is also known as
rate distortion theory.

 The lossless data compression theory and lossy data


compression theory are collectively known as the source
coding theory.
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Thank You

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