COURSE CONTENTS

• THEORY:
• Introduction; population sampling; population fluctuation and its measurement; population models,
different methods of insect pest scouting and forecasting; losses caused by insect pests to different
crops; methods of control: cultural, physical, mechanical, legislative, chemical, biological, microbial
and genetical, alongwith antimetabolites, feeding deterrents, hormones and pheromones; concept of
integrated pest management (IPM); economics of pest management.
• BOOKS RECOMMENDED:
• Atwal, A. S. and S. S. Bains, 2005. Agricultural Pests of South East Asia and their Management. Kalyani
Publishers, Ludhiana.
• Pimental D. 2002. Encyclopedia of Pest management. Maral Dekker Inc. USA.
• Peterson, R.K.D and L.G. Sigley. 2001. Biotic Stress and Yield Loss.
• Binns, M.R.2000. Sampling and Monitoring in Crop Protection. CABI Publishing Co.
• Upadhyay, R. K., K. G. Mukerji, B. P. Chamola and O.P. Dubly, 1998. Integrated Pest and Disease
Management. A. P. H. Publ. Co., New Delhi.
• House, P., I. Stevens and O. Jones, 1998. Insect Pheromones and their use in Pest Management.
Chapman and Hall, London.
• Pedigo, L.P., 1996. Entomology and pest management 2nd ed. Prentice and Hall, Intl. Limited, London.
• Dent, D., 1996. Integrated Pest Management. Chapman & Hall, London.
• Metcalf, R.L. & W.H, Luckmann. 1994. Introduction to Insect Pest Management. 3rd ed. Intercept Ltd.
U.K.
• Hill, D. S., 1993. Agricultural Insect Pests of the Tropics and Their Control. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 746 pp.
• Goodenough, J.L. & J.M. Mckineon, 1992. Basics of Insect Modelling. Amer. Soc. Agri. Engineers, USA.
• Pimental, D., 1991. Handbook of Pest Management I - III. C.R.C. Press Inc. Florida, USA.
 PEST MANAGEMENT THEORY AND
CONCEPT
CONCEPT OF PEST MANAGEMENT
Three Elements/characteristics of PM
1. Multiple tactics used in highly compatible
manner (Multiple attacking strategy)
2. Pest population maintained below level that
causes economic damage (Number reduction
strategies)
3. Conservation of environmental quality
 PEST MANAGEMENT THEORY AND
CONCEPT
Additional Elements/characteristics of PM outlined
by Geier in 1966
1. PM should be selective for pest (Target specific)
2. PM should be comprehensive for production
system
3. PM should be compatible with ecological
principles
4. PM should be tolerant of potentially harmful
species but within economically acceptable limits
 OBJECTIVES OF PEST MANAGEMENT

Main objectives:
1. to reduce the pest status
1. By killing pest
2. By avoiding or repelling pests
3. By reducing reproductive potential/rates of pests
2. Reduce pest population or its effects to a tolerable levels
1. Acceptable by human
2. Not at economically important level
3. Complete elimination is not desirable
3. Capstone objective of PM is maintenance of the quality of
both cropping and non-cropping environment
PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
PM strategy is the over all plan to alleviate the real
pest problem using single and multiple
management tactics in a compatible manner.
1. Do-Nothing strategy (DN-strategy)

2. Reduce Numbers Strategy (RN-strategy)

3. Reduce Crop susceptibility to Pest Injury

(RCS-strategy)

4. Combined RN-RCS strategy

PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Do-Nothing strategy (DN-strategy)
PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Reduce Numbers Strategy (RN-strategy)
 Most widely used strategy

 Used in therapeutic manner when density

reached ETL

 Also used in preventive manner based on the

history problem

One of the two objectives are desirable in RN-

strategy
Reduce Numbers Strategy (RN-strategy) by Damping Peaks
PM applied PM applied

K (CC)

EIL

ETL

GEP
Reduce Numbers Strategy (RN-strategy)
Tactics are applied which bring
Change in K

Original K (CC)

GEP

EIL

ETL

New K
(CC)
GEP
Reduce Numbers Strategy (RN-strategy)
Tactics are applied which bring
Change in GEP

K (CC)

Original GEP

EIL

ETL

New
GEP
PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
1. Reduce Crop susceptibility to Pest Injury
(RCS-strategy)

 Most desirable, ecofriendly and effective

strategy
PEST MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Combined RN-RCS strategy
 POPULATION SAMPLING
 Survey
 Examine and record the features of some thing to construct a map,
plan, or description.
 Surveillance
 the monitoring of behavior, activities, or other changing
information
 Systematic ongoing collection and analysis of data for planning,
implementation, and evaluation of practices and then timely
dissemination of information to those who need to know so that
action can be taken timely.

Survey Surveillance
The act of surveying; a general view Systematic close and continuous
observation and monitoring of
suspected area
 POPULATION SAMPLING
 OBJECTIVES OF SURVEILLANCE
• Understand the pest activities
• Paramount principle of pest management
 Surveillance
 the monitoring of behavior, activities, or other changing information
 Systematic ongoing collection and analysis of data for planning,
implementation, and evaluation of practices and then timely dissemination of
information to those who need to know so that action can be taken timely.

Survey Surveillance
The act of surveying; a general view Systematic close and continuous
observation and monitoring of
suspected area
INDIRECT SURVIELLANCE TECHNIQUES
• TO make inference about pest population,
different surveillance technique are indirectly
used. These are:
ABSOLUTE ESTIMATES (AEs)
Total number of insects pests per unit area i.e.,
hec., Acre, 1 m row, 1 m2 quadrate, plant, leaf,
shoot, etc. This is use to:
Prepare life table
Study population dynamics
Calculate birth or death rates
Different Methods are uded for AEs
INDIRECT SURVIELLANCE TECHNIQUES
 METHODS FOR ABSOLUTE ESTIMATES (AEs)
CAPTURE MARK RELEASE AND RECAPTURE METHODS
AREAL SAMPLING
CROP SAMPLING
REMOVAL BY TRAPPING
INDIRECT SURVIELLANCE TECHNIQUES
RELATIVE ESTIMATES(REs)
REs represent an unknown constant proportion
of population from unit area i.e., hec., Acre, 1 m
row, 1 m2 quadrate, plant, leaf, shoot, etc.
Different Methods are used for Aes
 Visual Observation
 Sweet net Catch
 Trapping
 INDIRECT SURVIELLANCE TECHNIQUES
 POPULATION INDICES(PIs)
Measures of population size is based on magnitude of their products, effects, loss-symptoms etc.
from unit area i.e., hec., Acre, 1 m row, 1 m2 quadrate, plant, leaf, shoot, etc.
Relation of PIs to absolute population
 Equivalence (PIs from Exuvia counts)
 Approximate correlation (PIs from damage)

INSECT PRODUCTS
 Frass or excrement
 Larval or Pupal Exuvia
 Webs
INDIRECT SURVIELLANCE TECHNIQUES
 POPULATION INDICES(PIs)
Measures of population size is based on magnitude of their products,
effects, loss-symptoms etc. from unit area i.e., hec., Acre, 1 m row, 1
m2 quadrate, plant, leaf, shoot, etc.
Relation of PIs to absolute population
 Equivalence (PIs from Exuvia counts)
 Approximate correlation (PIs from damage)

INSECT PRODUCTS

Different Methods are uded for PI are:

 Visual Observation
 Sweet net Catch
 Trapping
INDIRECT SURVIELLANCE TECHNIQUES
POPULATION INDICES(PIs)
PLANT DAMAGE
Damage by Direct Insects
 Number of damaged bolls per plant
 Number damage fruits per tree
 Damage pod per rowm
 Enterance/Exit Holes
 Empty stem tunnels
 Leaves ragging

Damage by Indirect Insects

 Extent of leaf defoliation

 Decoloration of leaves
 Reduction in plant vigour and yield
 Reduction in plant size
 POPULATION FLUCTUATION AND
ITS MEASUREMENT
What is Population?
What is population system?
The variables that determine the abundance and distribution of a
population
Basic elements of population system
Individual members of the population,
Variables describing population size and structure,
Processes that affect population size and structure,
Environment
 POPULATION FLUCTUATION AND
ITS MEASUREMENT
Basic elements of population system
Individual members of the population,
Variables describing population size and structure
A. Density: Population density is the number of individuals per
unit of geographic area, e.g., number per m2, per ha, or per
km2
B. Dispersion: spatial pattern of distribution of individuals
– Regular (uniform) dispersion pattern (territorial species like bark
beetle and antlion): less competition, easy monitoring
– Random dispersion pattern
– Aggregated (or clumped) dispersion Pattern (Gregarious sawfly
larvae and tent caterpillars; dragonfly larvae or water scorpions;
Aphids; Mealybug)
• The pattern of dispersion can change during
– Insect development:
 larval stages of tent caterpillars and gregarious sawflies are
aggregated at the plant branch level, but adults are randomly
dispersed at this scale
– Change in population density:
 Aphids are randomly dispersed at low population densities,
but become more aggregated as scattered colonies increase
in size
– Across spatial scales:
 Many host-specific insects are aggregated on particular hosts in
diverse communities, but are more regularly or randomly
dispersed in more homogeneous communities dominated by
hosts.
 ladybird beetle, Hippodamia convergens, aggregate for
overwintering purposes and disperse in the spring.
 Bark beetles show a regular dispersion pattern on a tree bole,
due to spacing behavior, but are aggregated on injured or
diseased trees.
C. Age Structure
Age structure reflects the proportions of individuals at
different life stages. It is an important indicator of
population status
 Growing populations generally have larger
proportions of individuals in younger age classes,
whereas declining populations typically have smaller
proportions of individuals in these age classes.
 Stable populations typically have relatively more
individuals in reproductive age classes. \
 However, populations with larger proportions of
individuals in younger age classes also may reflect
low survival rates in these age classes, whereas
populations with smaller proportions of individuals in
younger age classes may reflect high survivorship.

D. Sex Ratio
The proportion of females indicates the reproductive
potential of a population
 Population processes
Three population processes
A.Natality (birth rate)
• Natality is the population birth rate,
i.e., the per capita production of
new individuals per unit time.
• It determines the population density
and dispersion. It is affected by:
– Resource quality
– Number of Male
– Availability of oviposition
sites
– Population density (Low,
intermediate and high
density)
– Reproductive potential of
species
 Population processes
B. Mortality (death rate)
• Mortality is the population
death rate, i.e., the per capita
number of individuals dying per
unit time.
• Mortality agents
– Unsuitable habitat conditions
(e.G., Extreme temperature or
water conditions),
– Toxic or unavailable food
resources,
– Competition,
– Predation (including
cannibalism),
– Parasitism
– Disease
– Survival potential
 L.R. CLARK (1967)
 CAUSES OF MORTALITY INTO 7 MAJOR
CATEGORIES
 Aging

 Low vitality

 Accidents

 Physiochemical Condition

 Natural Enemies

 Food Shortage

 Lack of Shelter
 Population processes

C. Dispersal (rate of movement of individuals into or out of the

population).
Spread/trivial movement
Migration
Emigration
immigration
Boundary layer
 LIFE HISTORY STRATEGIES
ATTRIBUTES R-STRAREGY K-STRATEGY
(Opportunistic) (Equilibrium)
Homeostatic ability Limited Extensive
Developmental time Short Long
Life span Short Long
Mortality rate High Low
Reproductive mode Often asexual sexual
Age at first brood Early Late
Offsprings/brood Many Few
Broods/lifetime usually one Often several
Size of offspring small Large
Parental care None Extensive
Dispersal ability High Limited
Numbers dispersing Many Few
Dispersal mode Random Oriented
POPULATION FLUCTUATION

 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS RESPONSIBLE

FOR POPULATION CHANGE
 THREE GENERAL PATTERNS OF POPULATION
FLUCTUATION
Irruptive Population
Non-Irruptive Population
Cyclic Population
PHASES OF POPULATION FLUCTUATION

Changes in population size can be described by

four distinct phases
ENDEMIC PHASE

RELEASE THRESHOLD

RELEASE PHASE

DECLINE
 FACTOR AFFECTING POPULATION SIZE
or
REGULATION OF INSECT POPULATION
Milne’s Theory (1957): three types of natural factors which
regulate insect population

Density Independent Factors

Density Dependent Factors
Perfectly Density Dependent Factors
These factors never fails to control the increase in population
number e.g. Intraspecific competition
Imperfectly Density Dependent Factors
These factors some times may fails to control the increase in population
number e.g. predator, parasites, diseases
 FACTOR AFFECTING POPULATION SIZE
or
REGULATION OF INSECT POPULATION
Milne’s Theory (1957): three types of natural facgors which regulate insect population
 Density Independent Factors
 Density Dependent Factors
 Perfectly Density Dependent Factors
 Imperfectly Density Dependent Factors
 Regulatory Mechanisms
• Density-independent factors modify population size, but only density-dependent
factors can regulate population size, in the sense of stabilizing abundance near
carrying capacity.
• Nicholson (1933, 1954a, b, 1958) first postulated that density-dependent biotic
interactions are the primary factors that determine population size.
• Andrewartha and Birch (1954) challenged this view, suggesting that density-
dependent processes are generally of minor importance in determining
abundance. This debate was resolved with the recognition that regulation of
population size requires density-dependent processes, but abundance is
determined by all factors that affect the population
– “BOTTOM–UP” (or Resource Concentration) Hypothesis
– “TOP–DOWN” (or Trophic Cascade) Hypotheses
 INSECT POPULATION FLUCTUATION
ZONES
• Milne’s theory also divides insect population numbers
into three zones
Upper Extinction Level (rarely reaches due to PDDF)

Rise by DIF & Failure of IDDF Decline by PDDF or

ZONE-III combination with other
(Very High number) factors

Number fluctuate due to DIF & IDDF

ZONE-II
(Usual numbers)

ZONE-I Rise by
(Very low numbers) favourable
Decline by unfavorable DIF DIF

Lower Extinction Level (seldom reaches due to change in DIF)

CYCLIC POPULATION DYNAMICS
INSECT SEASONAL CYCLES
Progression of one or more life cycles occurring in
a year period is called seasonal cycle
 A way od adaptation and survival
 Take advantage of environmental resources
 Avoid unfavorable extremes
 By behavioral and physiological ways/changes to time
their activities

TYPES OF SEASONAL CYCLES

On the basis of voltinity

1.Univoltine Cycle
SC

LC
 Mutivoltine Life Cycle
SC

LC LC LC LC LC LC

I II III IV
V VI VII VIII IX X XI
 CALCULATION OF POPULATION CHANGE

Nt = No e (b-d)t – E t + It

Nt= Number at the end of specific time period

No= Number at the beginning e= base of natural logarithm (2.7)
b= birth rate d= death rate t = time period
E= emigrant I= immigrant
r = (N + I) − (M + E)
where N = natality, I= immigration, M= mortality, and E= emigration
MODELS OF POPULATION CHANGE

• Exponential and Geometric Models

• Logistic Model

• Complex Models

• Computerized Models
 MODELS OF POPULATION CHANGE
• Exponential and Geometric Models
• The simplest model of population growth describes
change in numbers as the product of initial population
size and the per capita rate of increase. It represents
population growth in term of instantaneous or
intrinsic rate of increase.
 r = (N + I) − (M + E)
where N = natality, I= immigration, M= mortality, and E= emigration
• If cohort life table data logeR0
r= -------------
where R0 is replacement rate, and T is generation time. T
 MODELS OF POPULATION CHANGE
• Exponential and Geometric Models
• If rate of change for populations with overlapping generations

Nt+1 = Nt + r Nt
where Nt is the population size at time t
 For insect species with non-overlapping cohorts (generations)

Nt = R0t N0
where Nt is the population size after t generations
 MODELS OF POPULATION CHANGE
• Exponential and Geometric Models
• If rate of change for populations with overlapping generations

Nt+1 = Nt + r Nt
where Nt is the population size at time t
 For insect species with non-overlapping cohorts (generations)

Nt = R0t N0
where Nt is the population size after t generations
 MODELS OF POPULATION CHANGE
• LOGISTIC MODEL
• A mathematical model to account for density-dependent
regulation of population growth was developed by Verhulst in
1838 and again, independently, by Pearl and Reed (1920).
• This logistic model often called the Pearl–Verhulst equation
(Berryman 1981, Price 1997), is expressed as:

(K - Nt)
Nt+1 = Nt + rNt(----------------------)
K
• This model describes a sigmoid (S-shaped) curve
(Fig. 6.8) that reaches equilibrium at K.
If N < K, then the population will increase up to N = K.
If the ecosystem is disturbed in a way that N > K, then
the population will decline to N = K.
 PEST SCOUTING IN COTTON
• PEST SCOUTING OF SUCKING INSECT PESTS
• 1 ACRE FOR FIVE ACRE BLOCK
• 5 ACRES FOR 25 ACRES BLOCK
 OBJECTIVES PEST SCOUTING
• TO KNOW THE TREND OF PEST
• ESTIMATE THE INTENSITY OF LOSSES
• APPRAISAL OF CROP CONDITION AND ITS GRIWTH
RATE AND TREND (PLANT MAPING)
• DETERMINE THE RQUIREMENT INPUTS FOR CROP
• ESTIMATE THE EXPECTED YIELD OF CROP
• ULTIMATE OBJECTIVE IS TO INCREASE THE YIELD
AND AVOIDE INDISCRIMINATE USE OF PESTICIDES
 ADVANTAGES OF PEST SCOUTING
• PEST FORCASTING
• INDICATE THE DAMAGING POINTS/STAGE OF PLANT
• PIN POINT THE WEAK LINKS OF THE LIFECYCLE OF
PESTS
• SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE PESTICIDES, ITS TIME OF
APPLICATION AND APPLICATION TECHNIWUES
• PESTICIDES APPLICATION ONLY ON EFFECTED SITES
• PROVIDE CHANCE FOR USEFUL INSECTS TO GROW
AND MULTIPLY (CONSERVATION OF NON-TARGET
SPECIES)
• AVOID INJUDICIOUS USE OF SPRAY (CONSERVATION
OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY)
• REDUCTION IN COST OF INPUTS (PESTICIDES)
 CONSIDERATION DURING PEST SCOUTING

• WEEKLY PEST SCOUTING

• PEST SCOUTING FROM THE START OF CROP
GROWTH
• PEST SCOUTING SHOUD BE DONE EARLY IN THE
MORNING OR LATE IN THE EVENING
• SEPARATE PEST SCOUTING FOR EVERY CROP
• PEST SCOUTING CAN BE DONE ON LESS OR MORE
THAN ONE ACRE
• HOWEVER,
– 1 ACRE FOR FIVE ACRE BLOCK
– 5 ACRES FOR 25 ACRES BLOCK
 Population sampling
What is Population?

What is sampling?
• Population dynamics is the branch of life
sciences that studies short-term and long-
term changes in the size and age composition
of populations, and
the biological and environmental processes
influencing those changes.
THYSANURA
DIPLURA
PROTURA
COLLEMBOLA
EPHEMEROPTERA
 RANDOM SELECTION METHOD

3RD
1ST

2ND 4TH

7TH

5TH
6TH
8TH

9TH
10TH
DIAGONAL METHOD
 ZIG-ZAG METHOD

14

14
FIVE POINT METHOD
COTTON PEST SCOUTING
OBJECTIVES
 Improve and expand information on:
 Pest trends
 Level of damage
 Crop condition
 Getting higher yield by avoiding indiscriminate use of
pesticides.

COMPONENTS
PRIMARY SECONDARY
Sucking pests population Weed infestation
Bollworm damage Weather
Predator population Pesticide use
Crop condition and development
 PEST SCOUTING TECHNIQUE
Square Field Rectangular Field
U M SP-a L M
LS-1 LS-2 LS-3 LS-4 LS-5

LS-6
U L M SP-b U
LS-10 LS-9 LS-8 LS-7

M
LS-11

SP-c L U M L
LS-12 LS-13 LS-14 LS-15
M U L M SP-d
LS-20 LS-19 LS-18 LS-17

* 52-1/4” stick * 52-1/4” stick

COTTON FIELD OF ABOUT 5 ACRES

SP Sampling Point M Middle Leaf
LS Leaf Sample Number L Lower Leaf
U Upper Leaf
REPORT ON COTTON INSECTS AND PROGRESS
OF THE CROP
DATE ______________________ LOCALITY __________________________
FARMER'S NAME ___________ CHECKER ___________________________

SUCKING PESTS PER LEAF

W.FLIES N/A. ........, ........, ........, ........,........,........,........,........,........,........,........,.......,

........, ........, ........, ........,........,........,........,........,.Total.,........,.Ave.,.......,
JASSIDS N/A ........, ........, ........, ........,........,........,........,........,........,........,........,.......,
........, ........, ........, ........,........,........,........,........,.Total.,........,.Ave.,.......,
THRIPS N/A........., ........, ........, ......,........,........,........,........,........,........,........,.......,
........, ........, ........, ........,........,........,........,........,.Total.,........,.Ave.,.......,
BOLLWORMS AND DAMAGE PER ACRE
NUMBER OF POINTS: 1 2 3 4 Total

PLANTS

PREDATORS

BUDS, FLOWERS AND SMALL GREEN BOLLS

BOLLWORMS DAMAGE

MATURED BOLLS

BOLLWORM DAMAGE

HELICOVERPA EGGS

HELICOVERPA LARVAE

PLANT HEIGHT (INCHES)

 Economic Threshold Levels For Sucking
Pests
Cotton Jassid = 1 – 2 / leaf
Whitefly = 4 – 5 /leaf
Thrips = 8 – 10 / leaf
Aphid = 10 / leaf
Mites = 10 – 15 / leaf
 Economic Threshold Levels For Bollworms

Spotted bollworm = 3 larvae/25 plants or

5-10% damage
Pink bollworm = 5 % damage
American bollworm = 5 brown eggs/3 small larvae
or Both 5/25 plants

Armyworm = At the appearance

A research was conducted on the determination of ETL of Rice stem borers.
Seven levels of infestation (0, 2.5. 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15% deadhearts) were
simulated artificially. The yield obtained was 2914.3, 2852, 2813.6, 2652, 2397.6,
2207.6 and 1996.3 kg/hec, respectively for seven levels of infestation.
 ECONOMIC DECISION LEVELS
• Keystone of pest management
• Indispensable because:
– These indicate the course of action
– Sensible use of pesticides is possible only
– More spending on pest management
• Benefits:
– Increase in profit
– Conserve environmental quality
– Reduction in ecological backlash (3Rs)
DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS OF EDLs
• In 1934, W.D. Pierce
– Is all insect attack to be computed as assessable damage?
– if not, at what point does it become assessable?
– Is control work warranted when damage is below that point?
• In 1959, V.M. Stern and colleagues
• Emergence of EDLs concepts
– Concerns of people
– Problem of pesticides resistance
– Pesticides residues
– Toxic effects on nontarget species
– Concept and terminology of Bioeconomics
– Idea of economic damage, EIL, Economic threshold (ETL)
– EIL concepts
• In 1966, D.L. Chant
– Termed the study of EDLs as Bioeconomics
– Argued that sensible use of pesticides is possible only with an
understanding of insect pests levels that cause economic damages
 CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY OF EDLs
• Economic damage
– Amount of damage which will justify the cost of artificial
control measures
• Distinguish between damage and Injury
– Injury is the pest activity on host physiology that is usually
deleterious
– Damage is the measurable loss of host utility like yield quantity,
quality and aesthetics
– Injury is always centered on the pest and its activities while
damage is centered on crop and its response to injury
• Gain threshold
– Beginning point of economic damage
– GT = Management cost (Rs. per acre)/Market value (Rs.per
unit produce)
• Damage Boundary
– Lowest level of injury where damage can be measures
 DEVELOPMENT OF EIL
• If management action can be taken quickly
and losses can be averted completely then:
– EIL = C/V x I x D
– C = Cost of management per unit area (Rs/Kg)
– V = market value of produce (Rs/Acre)
– I = Injury units per insect per production
unit(percent damage)
– D = Damage per unit injury
• If some losses are unavoidable
– EIL = C/V x I x D x K
– K = proportionate reduction in injury or damage
 DEVELOPMENT OF EIL
• When differentiation of injury and damage is
not possible:
– EIL = C/V x b
– Y = a + bX
• If some losses are unavoidable
– EIL = C/V x b x K
– K = proportionate reduction in injury or damage
 ECONOMIC THRESHOLD
• Pest level that trigger PM
• Action threshold
• based on
– EIL
– Value of economics
– Potential for injury
– Population dynamics and growth rate
• If population dynamics is poorly to understand
and growth rate difficult to predict
– ET below EIL (Fixed ET)
– K = proportionate reduction in injury or damage
 ECONOMIC THRESHOLD
• If population dynamics and growth rate is
known
– Objective ET or Descriptive ET
– F. DuToit for Russian wheat aphid as
–ET = EIL x C-x
• C = Factor on increase per unit time
• X = Time period
 DEGREE DAY (DD)
• METHODS OF DD CALCULATION
– Rectangle or Simple Average Method
• Upper Temperature Threshold
• Lower Temperature Threshold
– Maximum and Minimum Temperature
– Thermal Constant (K)
– Developmental Optimum (Temperature
Preferendum)
 DEGREE DAY (DD)
• RULES OR PRINCIPLES FOR CALCULATING DD
– If the maximum temperature did not exceed the
developmental threshold, no degree day will be
accumulated
• DT = 10 °C Tmax = 9 °C Tmin = 4 °C
– If the maximum temperature exceed the developmental
threshold but minimum below the DT then minimum is set
equal to DT for calculating DD
• DT = 10 °C Tmax = 20 °C Tmin = 8 °C
• Transformed Tmin = 10
– DD = [(Tmax + Tmin )/2] - DT
– If the maximum temperature exceed the developmental
optimum then Tmax is set equal to DO for calculating DD
• DT = 10 °C DO = 27 °C Tmax = 29 °C Tmin = 21 °C
• Transformed Tmax = 27