Chemistry

Chemistry - is the study of matter, its properties, how and why substances combine
or separate to form other substances, and how substances interact with energy.
Many people think of chemists as being white-coated scientists mixing strange
liquids in a laboratory, but the truth is we are all chemists. Understanding basic
chemistry concepts is important for almost every profession. Chemistry is part of
everything in our lives.

Every material in existence is made up of matter — even our own bodies. Chemistry
is involved in everything we do, from growing and cooking food to cleaning our
homes and bodies to launching a space shuttle. Chemistry is one of the physical
sciences that help us to describe and explain our world.

Five branches
There are five main branches of chemistry, each of which has many areas of study.

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Analytical chemistry uses qualitative and quantitative observation to identify and

measure the physical and chemical properties of substances. In a sense, all
chemistry is analytical.
Physical chemistry combines chemistry with physics. Physical chemists study how
matter and energy interact. Thermodynamics and quantum mechanics are two of the
important branches of physical chemistry.
Organic chemistry specifically studies compounds that contain the element carbon.
Carbon has many unique properties that allow it to form complex chemical bonds
and very large molecules. Organic chemistry is known as the “Chemistry of Life”
because all of the molecules that make up living tissue have carbon as part of their
makeup.
Inorganic chemistry studies materials such as metals and gases that do not have
carbon as part of their makeup.
Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes that occur within living organisms.

Matter

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This article is about the concept in the physical sciences. For other uses, see Matter
(disambiguation). In classical physics and general chemistry, matter is any substance that
has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that can be touched are
ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic particles, and in
everyday as well as scientific usage, "matter" generally includes atoms and anything made up of
them, and any particles (or combination of particles) that act as if they have both rest mass and
 volume. However it does not include massless particles such as photons, or other energy
phenomena or waves such as light or sound. Matter exists in various states (also known
as phases). These include classical everyday phases such as solid, liquid, and gas – for
example water exists as ice, liquid water, and gaseous steam – but other states are possible,
including plasma, Bose–Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates, and quark–gluon plasma.

Usually atoms can be imagined as a nucleus of protons and neutrons, and a surrounding "cloud"
of orbiting electrons which "take up space". However this is only somewhat correct, because
subatomic particles and their properties are governed by their quantum nature, which means
they do not act as everyday objects appear to act – they can act like waves as well as
particles and they do not have well-defined sizes or positions. In the Standard Model of particle
physics, matter is not a fundamental concept because the elementary constituents of atoms
are quantum entities which do not have an inherent "size" or "volume" in any everyday sense of
the word. Due to the exclusion principle and other fundamental interactions, some "point
particles" known as fermions (quarks, leptons), and many composites and atoms, are effectively
forced to keep a distance from other particles under everyday conditions; this creates the
property of matter which appears to us as matter taking up space.
For much of the history of the natural sciences people have contemplated the exact nature of
matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks, the so-called particulate theory
of matter, was first put forward by the Greek philosophers Leucippus (~490 BC)
and Democritus (~470–380 BC).

The Structure of Matter

 The Structure of Matter
 Neutral vs. Charged Objects
 Charge Interactions
 Conductors and Insulators
 Polarization
There is a large overlap of the world of static electricity and the everyday world that
you experience. Clothes tumble in the dryer and cling together. You walk across the
carpeting to exit a room and receive a door knob shock. You pull a wool sweater off
at the end of the day and see sparks of electricity. During the dryness of winter, you
step out of your car and receive a car door shock as you try to close the door.
Sparks of electricity are seen as you pull a wool blanket off the sheets of your bed.
You stroke your cat's fur and observe the fur standing up on its end. Bolts of
lightning dash across the evening sky during a spring thunderstorm. And most tragic
of all, you have a bad hair day. These are all static electricity events - events that
can only be explained by an understanding of the physics of electrostatics.
Not only do electrostatic occurrences permeate the events of everyday life, without
the forces associated with static electricity, life as we know it would be impossible.
Electrostatic forces - both attractive and repulsive in nature - hold the world of
atoms and molecules together in perfect balance. Without this electric force,
material things would not exist. Atoms as the building blocks of matter depend upon
these forces. And material objects, including us Earthlings, are made of atoms and
the acts of standing and walking, touching and feeling, smelling and tasting, and
even thinking is the result of electrical phenomenon. Electrostatic forces are
foundational to our existence.
One of the primary questions to be asked in this unit of The Physics Classroom is:
How can an object be charged and what affect does that charge have upon other
objects in its vicinity? The answer to this question begins with an understanding of
the structure of matter. Understanding charge as a fundamental quantity demands
that we have an understanding of the structure of an atom. So we begin this unit
with what might seem to many students to be a short review of a unit from a
Chemistry course.

All matter is made from atoms. Every substance (oxygen, lead, silver, neon ...) has a
unique number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Oxygen, for example, has 8
protons, 8 neutrons, and 8 electrons. Hydrogen has 1 proton and 1 electron.
Individual atoms can combine with other atoms to form molecules. Water molecules
contain two atoms of hydrogen H and one atom of oxygen O and is chemically
called H2O. Oxygen and nitrogen are the major components of air and occur in
nature as diatomic (two atom) molecules. Regardless of the type of molecule,
matter normally exists as either a solid, a liquid, or a gas. We call this property of
matter the phase of the matter. The three normal phases of matter have unique
characteristics which are listed on the slide.

Solid
In the solid phase the molecules are closely bound to one another by molecular
forces. A solid holds its shape and thevolume of a solid is fixed by the shape of the
solid.

Liquid

In the liquid phase the molecular forces are weaker than in a solid. A liquid will take
the shape of its container with a free surface in a gravitational field. In microgravity, a
liquid forms a ball inside a free surface. Regardless of gravity, a liquid has a fixed
volume.

Gas

In the gas phase the molecular forces are very weak. A gas fills its container, taking
both the shape and the volume of the container.

Fluids (Liquids and Gases)

Liquids and gases are called fluids because they can be made to flow, or move. In
any fluid, the molecules themselves are in constant, random motion, colliding with
each other and with the walls of any container. The motion of fluids and the reaction
to external forces are described by the Navier-Stokes Equations, which express a
conservation of mass,momentum, and energy. The motion of solids and the reaction
to external forces are described by Newton's Laws of Motion.

Any substance can occur in any phase. Under standard atmospheric conditions,
water exists as a liquid. But if we lower thetemperature below 0 degrees Celsius, or
32 degrees Fahrenheit, water changes its phase into a solid called ice. Similarly, if
we heat a volume of water above 100 degrees Celsius, or 212 degrees Fahrenheit,
water changes its phase into a gas called water vapor. Changes in the phase of
matter are physical changes, not chemical changes. A molecule of water vapor has
the same chemical composition, H2O, as a molecule of liquid water or a molecule of
ice.

When studying gases , we can investigate the motions and interactions of individual
molecules, or we can investigate the large scale action of the gas as a whole.
Scientists refer to the large scale motion of the gas as the macro scale and the
individual molecular motions as the micro scale. Some phenomenon are easier to
understand and explain based on the macro scale, while other phenomenon are
more easily explained on the micro scale. Macro scale investigations are based on
things that we can easily observe and measure. But micro scale investigations are
based on rather simple theories because we cannot actually observe an individual
gas molecule in motion. Macro scale and micro scale investigations are just two
views of the same thing.

Plasma - the "fourth phase"

The three normal phases of matter listed on the slide have been known for many
years and studied in physics and chemistry classes. In recent times, we have begun
to study matter at the very high temperatures and pressures which typically occur on
the Sun, or during re-entry from space. Under these conditions, the atoms
themselves begin to break down; electrons are stripped from their orbit around the
nucleus leaving a positively charged ion behind. The resulting mixture of neutral
atoms, free electrons, and charged ions is called a plasma. A plasma has some
unique qualities that causes scientists to label it a "fourth phase" of matter. A plasma
is a fluid, like a liquid or gas, but because of the charged particles present in a
plasma, it responds to and generates electro-magnetic forces. There are fluid
dynamic equations, called the Boltzman equations, which include the electro-
magnetic forces with the normal fluid forces of the Navier-Stokes equations. NASA is
currently doing research into the use of plasmas for an ion propulsion system.

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Matter

Everything around us has mass and volume

and they occupy space, and we called them

as matter. It can be in four sate, like solid,

liquid, gas and plasma. We will talk about main properties of matter in this unit

like, mass, volume, density, elasticity, inertia...Etc. You can classify matters with

their physical or observable properties and chemical or unobservable properties, for example their smells,

colors, shapes give you an idea about it. On the contrary unobservable properties like conductivity of the

matter cannot be understood from appearance or smells of the matter.

Mass

Mass is the quantity of the matter in a substance. We show mass

with m, and unitsof mass can be gram (g) or kilogram (kg). It is not the

distinguishing property but common property of matters, because

different matters can have same mass.

Inertia

Inertia is one of the properties of matter. It is the resistance of the matter to change its state of motion. An

unbalanced force can only change the state of motion of the matter.

Volume

Volume is the space occupied by the matter. It is also common property of matter and does not help us in

distinguishing them. We show it with Vand unit used in SI system is m ³.

Volume formulas for some geometric shapes are given below.

Composition of matter

In United States patent law, a composition of matter is one of the four principal categories of
things that may be patented. The other three are a process (also termed a method), a machine,
and an article of manufacture. In United States patent law, that same terminology has been in
use since the first patent act in 1790 (with the exception that processes were formerly termed
"arts").
The United States Supreme Court has defined "composition of matter" to mean "all compositions
of two or more substances and all composite articles, whether they be the results of chemical
union, or of mechanical mixture, or whether they be gases, fluids, powders or solids." That
definition is problematic, however, because composite articles can be articles of manufacture—
as in the case of a piece of plywood, a concrete sidewalk, a road, a fibreglass bathtub, a
(kitchen) countertop, or a flitch beam.
Robinson on Patents has defined "composition of matter" in these terms:
A composition of matter is an instrument formed by the intermixture of two or more ingredients,
and possessing properties which belong to none of these ingredients in their separate state.
...The intermixture of ingredients in a composition of matter may be produced by mechanical or
chemical operations, and its result may be a compound substance resolvable into its constituent
elements by mechanical processes, or a new substance which can be destroyed only by
chemical analysis.
A newly synthesized chemical compound or molecule may be patented as a composition of
matter. Patents have been allowed on transitory products, such as short-lived chemical
intermediates.

Separation of Mixtures

Not everyone is out searching for gold (and not many of those searchers is going to
get much gold, either). In a chemical reaction, it is important to isolate the
component(s) of interest from all the other materials so they can be further
characterized. Studies of biochemical systems, environmental analysis,
pharmaceutical research – these and many other areas of research require reliable
separation methods.

Here are a number of common separation techniques:

Chromatography

Chromatography is the separation of a mixture by passing it in solution or

suspension or as a vapor (as in gas chromatography) through a medium in which the
components move at different rates. Thin-layer chromatography is a special type of
chromatography used for separating and identifying mixtures that are or can be
colored, especially pigments.
Distillation

Distillation is an effective method to separate mixtures comprised of two or more

pure liquids. Distillation is a purification process where the components of a liquid
mixture are vaporized and then condensed and isolated. In simple distillation, a
mixture is heated and the most volatile component vaporizes at the lowest
temperature. The vapor passes through a cooled tube (a condenser), where it
condenses back into its liquid state. The condensate that is collected is called
distillate.

Figure 2.11

Distillation apparatus.

In the Figure above , we see several important pieces of equipment. There is a heat
source, a test tube with a one-hole stopper attached to a glass elbow and rubber
tubing. The rubber tubing is placed into a collection tube which is submerged in cold
water. There are other more complicated assemblies for distillation that can also be
used, especially to separate mixtures, which are comprised of pure liquids with
boiling points that are close to one another.

Evaporation

Evaporation is a technique used to separate out homogenous mixtures where there

is one or more dissolved solids. This method drives off the liquid components from
the solid components. The process typically involves heating the mixture until no
more liquid remains, Prior to using this method, the mixture should only contain one
liquid component, unless it is not important to isolate the liquid components. This is
because all liquid components will evaporate over time. This method is suitable to
separate a soluble solid from a liquid.

In many parts of the world, table salt is obtained from the evaporation of sea water.
The heat for the process comes from the sun.
Figure 2.12

Once the sea water in these evaporation ponds has evaporated, the salt can be
harvested.

Filtration

Filtration is a separation method used to separate out pure substances in mixtures

comprised of particles some of which are large enough in size to be captured with a
porous material. Particle size can vary considerably, given the type of mixture. For
instance, stream water is a mixture that contains naturally occurring biological
organisms like bacteria, viruses, and protozoans. Some water filters can filter out
bacteria, the length of which is on the order of 1 micron. Other mixtures, like soil,
have relatively large particle sizes, which can be filtered through something like a
coffee filter.
International System of Units

The SI base units

Symbol Name Quantity

A ampere electric current

K kelvin Temperature

s second Time
 m metre Length

kg kilogram Mass

cd candela luminous intensity

mol mole amount of substance

The International System of Units (SI, abbreviated from the French Système international
(d'unités)) is the modern form of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of
measurement. It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement built on seven base
units, which are the ampere, kelvin, second, metre, kilogram, candela, mole, and a set of
twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying multiples
and fractions of the units. The system also specifies names for 22 derived units, such
as lumen and watt, for other common physical quantities.
The base units are derived from invariant constants of nature, such as the speed of light in
vacuum and the triple point of water, which can be observed and measured with great accuracy,
and one physical artefact. The artefact is the international prototype kilogram, certified in 1889,
and consisting of a cylinder of platinum-iridium, which nominally has the same mass as one litre
of water at the freezing point. Its stability has been a matter of significant concern, culminating in
a revision of the definition of the base units entirely in terms of constants of nature, scheduled to
be put into effect on 20 May 2019.
Derived units may be defined in terms of base units or other derived units. They are adopted to
facilitate measurement of diverse quantities. The SI is intended to be an evolving system; units
and prefixes are created and unit definitions are modified through international agreement as the
technology of measurement progresses and the precision of measurements improves. The most
recent derived unit, the katal, was defined in 1999.
The reliability of the SI depends not only on the precise measurement of standards for the base
units in terms of various physical constants of nature, but also on precise definition of those
constants. The set of underlying constants is modified as more stable constants are found, or
may be more precisely measured. For example, in 1983 the metre was redefined as the distance
that light propagates in vacuum in a given fraction of a second, thus making the value of the
speed of light in terms of the defined units exact.
The motivation for the development of the SI was the diversity of units that had sprung up within
the centimetre–gram–second (CGS) systems (specifically the inconsistency between the
systems of electrostatic units and electromagnetic units) and the lack of coordination between
the various disciplines that used them. The General Conference on Weights and
Measures (French: Conférence générale des poids et mesures – CGPM), which was established
by the Metre Convention of 1875, brought together many international organisations to establish
the definitions and standards of a new system and standardise the rules for writing and
presenting measurements. The system was published in 1960 as a result of an initiative that
began in 1948. It is based on the metre–kilogram–second system of units (MKS) rather than any
variant of the CGS. Since then, the SI has been adopted by all countries except the United
States, Liberia and Myanmar.

Conversion Factors
The easiest way to do stoichiometric calculations involves using conversion factors.
A conversion factor is a ratio (or fraction) which represents the relationship between
two different units. A conversion factor is ALWAYS equal to 1. Here are some
examples of conversion factors:

All these conversion factors are equal to 1. If it doesn't seem obvious at first, think about it
for a second. Realize that 1 minute is equivalent to 60 seconds. Simply replace 1 minute in
the fraction with its equivalent 60 seconds and it becomes clear that 60 seconds / 60
seconds = 1. Numerator and denominator are equivalent; they are just expressed differently.

As you can see it is extremely important to keep track of your units when using
conversion factors. Without units, the first fraction would be 1 / 60. This is not equal
to 1 and could very easily lead to wrong answers.
Furthermore, when you use units, you make it very easy to check your work. For
example, perhaps you are trying to find out how many dozen eggs you have to buy
to make three cakes. If you're getting an answer of 12 dozen eggs you might want to
check your work. Could you even fit 12 of those cartons in your refrigerator? If you
look back on your calculations you may immediately see the incorrect conversion
factor: 1 egg / 12 dozen. It is easy to see that this is where the error occurred since
this does NOT equal 1.
How do you use Conversion Factors?

We all know from elementary school math that if you multiply any quantity by 1 you
get the same quantity back. You can do this as many times as you want. For
example, 2×1 = 2, and 18×1×1×1 = 18.
Multiplication by 1 is what you do whenever you do a problem involving conversion
factors. The best way to explain how to solve using conversion factors is to work
through some simple examples.

Problem: How many days are there in 3 years? (Assume none of these years are
leap years)

Solution: Here we basically want to convert years to days. Our conversion factor is:
Since this is equivalent to 1, multiplication of this ratio with our original value will only change
its units and not its magnitude. Therefore:

3 years× = 1, 095 days

Notice that years is on the bottom of the conversion factor. This is VERY important. You
always want to have the units of what you currently have on the bottom of the conversion
factor and the units you want on the top.

Conversion Factor =

In this case we are multiplying our conversion factor by years. We therefore put years on the
bottom of the conversion factor. When multiplied together, the resulting fraction has years in
both numerator AND denominator. These units can now "cancel each other out". How? You
might want to think about it like this. When you see the fraction 2 / 2, you cancel the 2s in
both numerator and denominator. You can do the same thing with units.

When doing any type of problem involving conversion factors, feel free to draw a line
through any unit you see on the top and bottom of the fraction to make it visually
obvious that the units cancel.

3 years× = 1, 095 days

Canceling units in this way makes it much easier to check your work. The units you
want in your answer should be the only unit not to cancel. If your calculations yield
other units, which cannot be cancelled, you have made a mistake likely resulting
from a missing conversion factor or an upside down conversion factor that needs to
be flipped. Solution: It is easiest to use multiple conversion factors for this problem.
Starting with the units you are given, find the conversion factor needed to express to
current unit in terms of the next smaller unit.

3 years× × × × = 94, 608, 000 seconds