1:Electron Beam Welding:

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VQGk6LlQQPc
Electron beam welding is a liquid state welding process. Liquid state
welding are those welding processes in which, the metal to metal
joint form in liquid or molten state. This is also classified as a new
welding process because it uses electrons kinetic energy to fuse two
metal work pieces. This welding is developed
by the German physicist Karl-Heinz in 1958. In this welding process,
a high jet of electrons strikes at welding plates where its kinetic
energy converts into heat energy. This heat energy is sufficient to
melt the work pieces and fuse them into one piece. This whole
process carried out in vacuum otherwise the electrons collides with
air particles and loses its energy.

Principle:
This welding works on same principle of electron beam machining.
This process uses kinetic energy of electrons to produce heat. This
heat is further used to weld two welding plates. When a high jet of
electrons strike at welding plates, its kinetic energy converts into heat
energy. This heat energy is sufficient to fuse two metal plates together
to form a weld joint.
Equipment’s:

Power Supply:
This process uses a power source to supply continuous beam of
electrons for welding process. The voltage range of welding is about 5
– 30 kV for low voltage equipment’s or for thin welding and 70 – 150
kV for high voltage equipment’s or for thick welding.

Electron Gun:
It is heart of electron beam welding. It is a cathode tube (negative
pole) which generates electrons, accelerate them and focus it on a
spot. This gun is mostly made by tungsten or tantalum alloys. The
cathode filament heated up to 2500 degree centigrade for continuous
emission of electrons
Anode:
Anode is a positive pole which is just after the electron gun. Its main
function is to attract negative charge, (in this case electron) provide
them a path and don’t allow them to diverge from its path.

Magnetic Lenses/Grid cup:

There are a series of magnetic lenses which allows only convergent
electrons to pass. They absorb all low energy and divergent electrons,
and provide a high intense electron beam.

Electromagnetic lens and deflection coil:

Electromagnetic lens used to focus the electron beam on work piece
and deflection coil deflect the beam at required weld area. These are
last unit of EBW process.

Work holding device:

EBW uses CNC table for hold work piece which can move in all three
direction. The welding plates are clamped on CNC table with the use
of suitable fixtures.

Vacuum Chamber:
As we know, whole thisprocess takes place in a vacuum chamber.
Vacuum is created by mechanical or electric driven pump. The
pressure ranges in vacuum chamber is about 0.1 to 10 Pa.

Working:
Its working can be summarized as follow.
 First the electron gun, which is a cathode, produces electrons.
These electrons move towards anode which is positive charged
and placed right after electron gun.
 The anode accelerates the electrons and form a electron jet which
is further move towards magnetic lenses.
 The magnetic lenses are a series of lenses which are used to absorb
low energy electrons and does not allow to divergent electron to
passes through it. It provides a high intense electron jet.
 Now this electron beam passes through electromagnetic lens and
defecting coil which are used to focus and deflect the electron beam
at the required spot. This unit direct high velocity electron beam to
the weld cavity where its kinetic energy converts into heat energy
due to collision. This heat energy is used to create weld by fusion.
This whole welding process carried out in a vacuum chamber
otherwise the electrons collides with air particle in the way and
loses its energy.

Advantages
 High welding speed.
 Welding of dissimilar metal can be done.
 High weld quality and precision.
 Less operating cost.
 Materials with high welding temperature can be welded easily.
 Less distortion due to less affected heat zone.
 Cost of cleaning is negligible.
 It welds thicker sheets, ranges from .025 mm to 100 mm.
 It is capable of welding inaccessible joints.
Disadvantages
 Cost of equipment is very high.
 High skilled operator is required to operate it.
 High vacuum is required.
 Due to operation in vacuum, large jobs can not welded.
 High safety measures are need to work with it.
Application`
 It is used in aerospace industries for manufacturing jet
components, parts of structures, transmission parts and sensors.
 It is used in power generation industries.
 It is used in space industries to build titanium tanks and sensors.
 It is used in automobile industries to manufactures transmission
system, gears and turbochargers.
 It used in electrical and electronical industries to manufactures
parts of copper structures.
 The other areas where it is used are nuclear industries, medical,
research centres etc .

2:Laser Beam Welding – Equipment, Principle,

Working with Advantages and Disadvantages
Laser beam machining is a thermal machining process which uses laser beam to produce heat. In this
machining process metal is removed by melting and vaporization of metal particle from surface of
work piece. It is a non-conventional machining process in which no tool is used. It is used to machine
both metallic and non-metallic material. It is mostly used in cutting and drilling operation.

Laser Beam Machining:

Principle:
The word laser stands for Light amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation. When an electron of atom absorbed energy form an
external source, the electron which are in its original energy level,
jump to a higher energy level. This is not a stable condition of atom so
this electron emits the absorbed energy in form of photons and come
back to its original state. If an atom which is already at higher energy
level absorbs energy, it will emit double energy to return at its original
state. The energy emitted by the atom has same frequency and
wavelength as the stimulating energy. This is fundamental of laser.
When the laser material placed in presence of some other energy
source, it absorb energy at some extant and release it when reaches
its absorbing limit. This high amplified light beam is called laser.
 Principle of Laser Beam Welding

This machining process works on basic property of laser. It uses a laser

beam, which is a narrow, monochromatic high intense light which can
cut or machine any metal and non-metal. It can use to cut any material
irrespective to hardness of work piece. It can also use to cut diamond
which is hardest known material on earth.
Equipment’s:

Laser Beam Machining

Power Supply:
It provides the energy for excitation of electron from lower energy
level to higher energy level. This gives power to xenon flash lamps,
which produce light energy. The laser material are exposed in light
energy to keep storing energy.

Laser Discharge Tube:

The laser material filled in lased discharge tube. The excitation of
electron and come back to its original state process takes place in it.
 It’s one side is partially transparent for laser opening and other side is
100% reflected. It is situated between flash lamp.

Laser Material:
There are many different type of laser material available but in later
machining mostly CO2(Pulsed or continuous waves) and Nd: YAG is
Used. Carbon die oxide is a laser material that emits light in infrared
region. It can provide up to 25 KW power in continuous wave mode.
The other one is called Neodymium doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet
is a solid state laser which can delivery light through optical fiber. It
can generate about 50 KW power in pulsed mode and 1 KW power in
continuous mode.

Focusing Lens:
A focusing lens is used in laser machining operation. It is a convex lens
which focus is at work piece.

Working:
As we know in laser energy is used to remove metal from workpiece.
Its process can be summarized as follow.

 First laser material CO2 or other gases filled into laser discharge
tube.
 Now switch on the power supplied which is connected by flash
lamp. This lamps produce light energy which used to excite
electrons of atom.
 The atoms of laser material absorb energy from the light energy
produced by flash lamp. It leads jump of orbital electron of atom
form low energy level to high energy level. This is unstable
condition of atom.
 This energy initially blind up in laser material. When the atoms
absorb sufficient energy it start emit energy continuously. This is
high amplified same frequency and same wavelength coherent
light.
 This laser light collected by the focus lens and directed toward the
work piece.
 Now the laser impinging on work piece start machining process
by melting or vaporize material from contact surface.

This is whole process of laser beam machining.

Application:
 Used to drill small hole of diameter about 0.005 mm in refectory
and ceramic materials.
 It is used in drilling and cutting for both metals and non-metals.
 It is extensively used in electronic and automotive industries.
 It is mostly used in aerospace industries.
 Used to machine complex profile where machining by tool is not
possible.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:
 It can cut all material.
 No tooling cost because no physical tool is required.
 It produces finish part or high surface finish.
 No tool wear because no physical tool is used.
 Micro holes can be drilled accurately.
 Complex shape can be machined easily because laser can be move
in any path.
 Very hard material can be cut through laser beam machining.
 High accuracy can be achieved.
 It can be easily automated and flexible.
 Disadvantages:
 It is uneconomical when high volume of same shape to be cut
compare to stamping.
 High capital and maintenance cost.
 It cannot use to produce blind hole.
 Laser can leads to safety hazards.

3: Thermit Welding Process – Main

Parts, Working Principle with
Application
Link: https://youtu.be/gXp3aRKO4Yc
Thermit Welding is a welding process in which heat produced
during an exothermic reaction is used to weld two metal pieces
(conductors) together. No external heat source is required during
this welding process, but only an external heat source is needed
to initiate the process. thermite material ( mixture of a metal
oxide, aluminium powder and fuel) is used for the welding
process. In this type of welding, a mixture of aluminum and iron
oxide is used in ratio 1:3 by weight. The chemical reaction that
produces heat is an aluminothermic reaction. The reaction of
aluminium powder with a metal oxide to produce heat is called
aluminothermic reaction.
 This welding process is also known as exothermic welding,
exothermic bonding and thermite welding.
 It was invented in the year 1898 by Hans Goldschmidt when
he improved the aluminothermic reaction.
Working principle
In thermit welding process, a thermite material which is a
composition of a metal oxide, aluminium and fuel is used to
achieve exothermic reaction. A reaction between the metal oxide
(mostly iron (iii) oxide) and aluminium powder is takes place.
During reaction the metal oxide reduces to free elemental metal
and aluminium get oxidized to aluminium oxide with production
of a large amount of heat (about 3310 oC). The heat generated
melts the elemental metal ( Fe) and then this molten metal
poured into the mold to join the two metal pieces together.
During the aluminothermic reaction, the reduction of iron oxide
and oxidation of Al takes place. The large amount of heat
generated during the process melts the iron and aluminium oxide
and we get molten iron and refractory slag of aluminium oxide.
The density of the aluminium oxide slag is much less than the
liquid iron, so it floats above the molten iron.
So during the welding process the molten iron present at the
bottom of the crucible and slag floats above it.
If we talk about composition of the metal oxide and aluminium
powder, than 5 parts of iron oxide and 3 parts of aluminium
powder by weight is mixed before initiating the welding process.
Also Read: How Submerged Arc Welding Works?
Main Parts of Thermit Welding

1. Crucible: It is that part which is capable to withstand in high

temperature condition. In thermite welding process, the
crucible contains thermite material. The exothermic process
during the welding process takes place in the crucible. The
molten iron present at the bottom of the crucible and slag of
aluminium oxide floats over the molten metal. The crucible
contains a taping device to discharge the molten metal to the
mold for the welding.
 2. Thermite mixture: It is a pyrotechnic composition of metal
oxide, aluminium powder and fuel.
3. Mold: A mold is created around the section to be welded.
The mold consists of runner, riser, slag basin, heating gate.
The molten metal is poured into the mold for the joining of
the metal.
4. Taping device: It is device which is used to discharged or
pour molten metal form the crucible to the mold.
Working
1. A mold is formed over and around the section to be welded.
After the mold is formed thermite material is placed in the
crucible.
2. The thermite material is ignited by the use of flint sparker or
magnesium ribbon. An exothermic reaction takes place in
the crucible called as aluminothermic reaction.
3. During the reaction metal oxide i.e. iron oxide reduces to
iron and Al gets oxidised and forms aluminium oxide. A large
amount of heat is generated. This heat generated melts the
iron and aluminium oxide and form molten iron and slag of
aluminium oxide.
Exothermic Reaction:
8 Al + 3 Fe3O4 –> 9 Fe + 4 Al2O3 + Heat
4. The molten metal so formed is poured into the mold through
taping device. As the molten metal reaches the section, it
fuses with the metal pieces to be joined. After solidification it
forms a very strong weld.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
 In thermit welding, the weld formed has high mechanical
strength, and excellent corrosion resistance as compared with
other forms of weld.
 It is highly stable to repeated short circuit pulses and the
electrical resistance remains unchanged over lifetime of the
installation.
 It does not require any external power source.
 It can be used at the place where power supply is not easily
available.
 Disadvantages
 It is costlier welding process in comparison with other welding
processes.
 It requires the supply of replaceable molds.
 Lack of repeatability.
 It cannot be used in wet conditions or bad weather when working
outdoors.
Application

 It is mostly used to weld railroad at the site.

 It was used to weld thick plate before introduce electroslag
welding.
 They are used to repair heavy castings.
 It is used to weld cable connectors of copper.
 It is used to make structure joints in large ships etc.
 It is used to joint pipe, thick plate etc. where power supply is not
available.

4: Plasma Arc Welding Process-

Principle, Main Parts, Working,
Advantages and Disadvantages with
Application
Link: https://youtu.be/588EJInHLsc

The the Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) and cutting process was
invented by Robert M.Gage in 1953 and patented in 1957. This
process was unique because it could do precision cutting on both
thick and thin metal. It is also capable of spray coating hardening
metal on other metals.
Principle
PAW is process where a coalescence is produced by the heat
which is developed from a special setup between a tungsten alloy
electrode and the water cooled nozzle (Non transferred ARC ) or
between a tungsten alloy electrode and the job (transferred ARC) .
This process employs two different gases for two different
purposes –
 One gas is used to form the Arc plasma.
 Second gas is used to shield the arc plasma.

Equipment:
 1. Power supply: A DC power source with a drooping
characteristics and open circuit’s voltage of 70 volts or
above is very much suitable for plasma arc welding.
Typical welding parameters:
Current: 50-350A
Voltage: 27-31v
Gas flow rate: 2-40l/minute
1. High frequency generator and current limiting
resistors: These both are used for arc ignition.
2. Plasma torch:The torch has an electrode and water cooling
system which saves the life of the nozzle and the electrode
from melting due to excessive heat produced while welding.
3. Fixture: It is required to avoid atmospheric contamination
of the molten metal under bead.
4. Shielding gas: An inert gas ,either Argon,helium,or a
mixture,is used for shielding the arc area from the
atmosphere.argon is more common because it is heavier and
provides better shielding at lower flow rates.
5. Filler Material:Mostly no filler material is used in this
welding process. If filler material is used, it is directly feed
into weld zone.

Working Concept of Plasma Arc Welding:

The process works by ionizing gas.when gas gets ionized it can
conduct electricity.The gas is used to transfer an electric arc to the
piece of job being welded.The gas can be argon plus a secondary
gas helium which shield arc weld puddle.
Working Process:
The plasma arc welding process is normally compared to the
Tunsten Inert Gas(TIG) process :
1. The plasma torch contains an electrode made out of
tungsten fixed in a nozzle which is made of copper . The arc
is started between the electrode and the tip of nozzle. Then
the arc or flame is transferred to the material to be welded.
2. The small opening forces the gas to travel through a
constricted opening or orifice. This concentrates the heat to
smaller area. This ability allows welder to produce a very
high quality weld .
3. The result is a process that gives higher welds speed ,less
distortion, more consistent welds ,less spatter and more
control on the weld area.
Plasma welding process has two different modes that is :
1. Non transferred arc mode: In Non transferred arc mode
the current flow is from the electrode inside the torch to the
nozzle containing the orifice and back to the power supply. It
is used for plasma spraying.
2. Transferred arc mode: In transferred arc mode the current
is transferred from the tungsten electrode inside the
welding torch through the orifice to the workpiece and back
to power supply. It is used in welding metals.
Advantages :
1. Constricted opening or orifice gives you more concentrated
heat in smaller area.
2. It is more stable and does not gets deflected from the base
metal.
3. Plasma arc welding has deeper penetration capabilities and
produces a weld.
4. It gives high speed welds.
5. Less distortion of base metals.
6. More control on the small welding areas.
Disadvantages :
1. Orifice replacement is necessary.
 2. It’s equipments are very much expensive.
3. An individual needs more skills to use PAW.
4. Nozzle gets melt which has to be change frequently .
Applications:
1. It is used in manufacturing tubing (steel tubes)
2. Used to weld small components of metal.
3. Used to make butt joints of wall tubing.
4. Used in thin electronic chips and medical setups.