ACUTE EFFECTS OF LOADED HALF-SQUAT JUMPS ON

SPRINT RUNNING SPEED IN TRACK AND FIELD

ATHLETES AND SOCCER PLAYERS
MARIÁN VANDERKA,1 MATÚŠ KRČMÁR,2 KATARÍNA LONGOVÁ,1 AND SIMON WALKER3
1
Department of Track and Field, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia;
2
Department of Physical Education and Sport, Constatine the Philosopher University, Nitra, Slovakia; and 3Department of
Biology of Physical Activity, Neuromuscular Research Center, University of Jyva¨skyla¨, Finland

ABSTRACT A relatively new training mode to enhance power is contrast,

also known as complex training (5). Contrast or complex
Vanderka, M, Krčmár, M, Longová, K, and Walker, S. Acute ef-
training combines performing a high-load, low-velocity exer-
fects of loaded half-squat jumps on sprint running speed in track
cise (i.e., the conditioning exercise) with a low-load, high-
and field athletes and soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 30(6):
velocity exercise (i.e., the performance exercise). When
1540–1546, 2016—The purpose of the study was to determine
investigating contrast training, some researchers have
the acute responses to a jump squat protocol designed to induce
observed acute improvements in power production because
postactivation potentiation on sprint running performance in expe-
of the preceding conditioning exercise (1,6,7).
rienced track and field athletes and soccer players. Twenty-five It has been proposed that the cause of the acute enhance-
regional level athletes (12 track and field: ;17 years; ;177 cm; ment of power is postactivation potentiation (PAP) (8), and
;73 kg and 13 soccer: ;18 years; ;175 cm; ;72 kg) per- this term has become synonymous with contrast/complex
formed 2 test sessions assessing 40-m sprint running perfor- training. There are many factors that influence whether the
mance in a balanced, crossover design. Dual-beam light timing conditioning exercise will induce potentiated power perfor-
gates measured 0–20 and 20–40 m sprint times before and after mance, including muscle fiber composition, training status,
either 9 minutes of sitting (control) or 2 sets of 6 repetition half- intensity of the conditioning exercise, and rest between con-
squat jump with the load eliciting maximum power (experimental) ditioning and performance exercises (9,10) among others.
conditions. Sprint performance was significantly enhanced over From a practical stand-point, protocols that elicit potentiated
power performance with rest intervals of 2–8 minutes
both 0–20 m (3.09 6 0.07 to 3.04 6 0.08 seconds; D ;1.5%;
(1,6,7,11,12) would be most useful and indeed seem to induce
p # 0.05) and 20–40 m (2.42 6 0.09 to 2.39 6 0.09 seconds;
the greatest increases in performance (10). With this in mind,
D ;1%; p # 0.05) in track and field athletes only. Also, the
it may be appropriate to perform the conditioning exercise at
magnitude of enhanced sprint performance was related to base- the load that results in maximum power output (13).
line 0–20 m sprint performance (r = 0.44; p = 0.028; n = 25). It Although contrast training protocols have been relatively
seems that using loaded half-squat jumps to enhance sprint per- successful in eliciting potentiated vertical jump performance,
formance could be used in training of high-level young athletes. inducing potentiation in sprint running has led to mixed
results (14–17). Although many factors may have led to these
KEY WORDS contrast training, complex training, performance
mixed findings, as noted above, some specific considerations
enhancement, power, PAP
would be (a) the type of conditioning exercise, as Sleivert
and Taingahue (18) argue that power during the jump squat
INTRODUCTION

H
exercise matches that needed in acceleration running speed
igh muscular power output is required in many (e.g., 5–20 m), (b) that potentiated power performance may
athletic endeavors to achieve success (1). Train- be more likely if the exercise is event specific (i.e., sprinters
ing programs aiming to enhance power have vs. game players (14,15)), and (c) multiple sets of the condi-
focused on resistance training (2), plyometric tioning exercise may increase the likelihood of acute poten-
training (3), or a combination of both training modes (4). tiated sprint performance (10).
Consequently, the purpose of this study was to determine
Address correspondence to Marián Vanderka, [email protected]. the acute responses to a 2 set–loaded jump squat protocol
30(6)/1540–1546 designed to induce acute power enhancement on sprint run-
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research ning performance in experienced track and field athletes and
Ó 2015 National Strength and Conditioning Association soccer players. The study also investigated whether
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subjects prior to the investiga-

tion. Once full details of the
study procedures including pos-
sible risks were explained to the
subjects, they or their guardians
signed an informed consent
form. All subjects had at least
3 years of experience with
strength training; however,
although the track and field
group practiced strength train-
ing in a periodized manner
throughout the year, the soccer
players only practiced strength
training twice per year for a total
Figure 1. Placement of the FiTRO Dyne Premium device on the floor and attachment through its nylon cord to the of 12 weeks. Subjects should be
Olympic barbell during half-squat jumps (left) and individually adjusted foam cubes to control for range of motion considered as young athletes
(right). with a mean age of 17 years.
Before testing, all subjects
were assessed for correct squat
potentiated sprint performance occurred during the acceler- technique and instructed how to perform the half-squat
ation phase (0–20 m) and/or the maximal sprint running jumps by descending to a 908 knee angle and then explo-
phase (20–40 m) in these athletes. sively extending the legs. The local ethics committee
approved the study, and it was performed according to the
METHODS Declaration of Helsinki. The study conforms to the Code of
Ethics of the World Medical Association (approved by the
Experimental Approach to the Problem
ethics advisory board of Swansea University) and required
Two sets of athletes (track and field and soccer) performed 2
players to provide informed consent before participation.
test sessions in a randomized order. One session was a control
condition examining 40 m sprint performance (measured over Measurements
0–20 and 20–40 m) before and after 9 minutes of quiet sitting, One week before testing, the subjects performed a familiarization
whereas the other was an experimental session examining session including a series of loaded squat jumps to determine
sprint performance before and after a loaded jump squat pro- the individual load corresponding to maximal average. Subjects
tocol. The aim was that the loaded jump squat would induce performed half-squat jumps holding a barbell on the shoulders
PAP and subsequently enhance sprint performance in these (i.e., standard barbell position during the squat exercise)
athletes. Before the control and experimental sessions, the beginning with a load of 30 kg and increasing in 10 kg steps
subjects performed a familiarization session that recorded their until average power during the repetition no longer increased.
anthropometric characteristics and determined the external Maximum jump squat power in this study was defined from the
load that resulted in maximum concentric power. Testing took highest measured average concentric power. The squat depth
place during the off-season for soccer players and between the (908 knee angle) was controlled using foam cubes that would
indoor and outdoor seasons for track and field athletes. contact the hamstrings at the correct depth (Figure 1). Two-
Subjects minutes rest was given between each load and 2 attempts at
Twenty-five regional level athletes volunteered to take part in each load were given, with the best repetition recorded. Average
this study, 12 track and field athletes (16–18 years; height 177 concentric power was determined using a FiTRO Dyne diag-
6 6 cm; body mass 73 6 4 kg) and 13 soccer players (17–19 nostic device (FiTRO Dyne Premium; FiTRONiC Diagnostic
years; height 175 6 4 cm; body mass 72 6 3 kg). The track and Training Systems Ltd., Bratislava, Slovakia) attached to the
and field group was composed of 4 sprint (sub-11.5 seconds barbell grip to measure displacement. The system’s sensor unit
100 m; 22.64 seconds 200 m; 53.3 seconds 400 m) and 3 is connected to a personal computer, and the accompanying
middle-distance runners (sub-2 minutes 800 m), 3 jumpers software (FiTRO Premium; FiTRONiC Diagnostic and Train-
(610 and 625 m long jump; 185 cm high jump), and 2 javelin ing Systems Ltd.) gives instantaneous feedback regarding force,
throwers (52.69 and 56.97 m). The soccer players played for velocity, and power and has been shown to be a reliable mea-
teams in the highest division. This study was approved by the sure of power (19). The determined maximum average power
Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Physical Education and for the track and field group was 1502 6 126 W, and the soccer
Sports, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia. An group was 1354 6 104 W (between-group difference, p =
informed consent form was read and signed by each of the 0.004), which corresponded to barbell loads of 70.8 6 19.3

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 Effect of Half-Squat Jumps on Sprint Running in Athletes

and 63.9 6 11.9 kg, respectively. These individual loads were

used during the experimental test session.

0.021
During both experimental and control test sessions, sprint

0.06z
0.04

0.09
D20–40 m (s)
running speed was measured over a distance of 40 m with
dual-beam light timing gates (Vanel-gates; Vanel Ltd., Nizna,

6
6
6
6
20.023
0.038
0.003
0.071
Slovakia) positioned at 20 m (i.e., acceleration phase) and 40
m (i.e., maximal sprint speed phase). Subjects began with the
front foot 50 cm behind the first timing gate (i.e., 20.5 m) and
ran as fast as possible throughout the entire 40 m distance.
20–40 m after (s)

The subjects began from a stationary standing start and were

0.09†
0.09†

0.22†
0.21

*nota bene track and field group was significantly faster than soccer group at all measurement points in both experimental and control conditions.
instructed to set off volitionally. All subjects performed 2 at-
tempts with the best time recorded for analyses.
6
6
6
6
TABLE 1. Sprint running times for track and field athletes and soccer players before and after a half-squat jump protocol or rest.*

2.39
2.45
2.63
2.68

Procedures
Using a randomized crossover design, subjects performed an
experimental and a control test session. The experimental
20–40 m before (s)

test session consisted of 2 series of sprint runs before and

0.09
0.09
0.21

after half-squat jumps, whereas the control session consisted

0.2

of 2 series of sprint runs before and after seated rest. All 4 test
6
6
6
6

sessions were completed within 2 weeks, and all subjects

2.42
2.42
2.62
2.61

refrained from training and competition 48 hours before

testing. The ingestion of ethyl alcohol and caffeine was
prohibited for 24 and 3 hours pretesting, respectively.
On arrival to the laboratory, a standardized warm-up was
0.025z

0.061
0.02

0.02

performed. This consisted of 5-minute slow jogging followed

D0–20 m (s)

by 5-minute dynamic stretching, and then three 40-m sprint

6
6
6
6

runs with submaximal effort. Two minutes after completing

20.046
0.027
20.012
0.022

the warm-up, the sprint tests began on an indoor track. Each

subject completed 2 sprints and then rested for 3 minutes
before either performing 2 sets of 6 repetition jump squats
(experimental condition) or continued to rest (in a seated
0–20 m after (s)

0.08†
0.08†
0.21
0.2†

position) for further 6 minutes (control condition, 9 minutes

quiet sitting in total). Six-minutes rest was chosen to match
6
6
6
6

the time to complete the experimental protocol. During each

3.04
3.13
3.36
3.34

repetition, subjects performed the eccentric phase in a con-

trolled manner and then gave maximal concentric effort to
jump “as high as possible.” The rest between sets was 3 mi-
0–20 m before (s)

nutes, and the time between completing the second set and
0.07
0.08
0.18
0.18

the sprint runs was 4 minutes. After the allocated rest time,
all subjects performed a further two 40-m sprint runs.
6
6
6
6
3.09
3.10
3.37
3.32

Statistical Analyses
Traditional methods were used to determine mean values and
SDs, and Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients. To
zp # 0.05 compared with control.
†p # 0.05 compared with before.
Experimental

Experimental

evaluate the statistical significance of differences, a repeated-

Condition

Control

Control

measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) (2 group 3 2

condition 3 2 time) was used. To evaluate absolute change
in sprint running time precondition to postcondition, a 1-way
ANOVA was used. Bonferroni post hoc tests were performed
for all variables. Alpha was set at # 0.05. Effect sizes are
Track and field

described by Cohen’s d, whereby ,0.2 is a small, 0.2–0.8 is

a moderate, and .0.8 is a large effect. All descriptive statistics
Soccer
Group

and difference testing were performed using IBM SPSS 20.

The sprint run variables demonstrated good reliability in this
study with intraclass correlation coefficients of 0.82 and 0.97
for 0–20 and 20–40 m, respectively.
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Figure 2. Sprint running times over 0–20 m (left) and 20–40 m (right) in track and field athletes and soccer players during the experimental and control
sessions.
TF = track and field athletes; SOC = soccer players.
*p is less than or equal to 0.05.

RESULTS p = 0.002; effect size = 0.28) were observed. Again, the track
A significant time 3 condition interaction was observed (F = and field group was significantly quicker over 20–40 m com-
10.03; p , 0.001; effect size = 0.4) and also a significant main pared with the soccer player group at all measurement points
effect for group (F = 13.7; p , 0.001; effect size = 0.47) for and in both conditions (see Table 1 for values).
the 0–20 m acceleration phase. Post hoc tests revealed that Over time, the track and field group significantly improved
the track and field group was significantly quicker over 0–20 their maximal running phase (F = 14.2; p = 0.003; effect size =
m compared with the soccer player group at all measure- 0.56; 95% CI = 20.037 to 20.01 seconds) during the experi-
ment points and in both conditions (see Table 1 for values). mental condition but significantly worsened their maximal run-
Over time, the track and field group significantly improved ning phase (F = 13.3; p = 0.004; effect size = 0.55; 95% CI =
their acceleration phase (F = 40.2; p , 0.001; effect size = 0.015–0.061 seconds) during the control condition (Figure 1).
0.79; 95% CI = 20.062 to 20.03 seconds) during the exper- There was again no significant difference in maximal sprint
imental condition but significantly worsened their accelera- speed in the soccer player group during the experimental con-
tion phase (F = 16.7; p = 0.002; effect size = 0.6; 95% CI = dition, but this worsened during control condition (F = 7.8; p =
0.013–0.042 seconds) during the control condition (Figure 2). 0.016; effect size = 0.39; 95% CI = 0.015–0.126 seconds).
The soccer player group showed no significant difference Comparisons between experimental and control condi-
during the experimental condition but worsened their accel- tions for change in sprint time revealed significant differ-
eration phase during control condition (F = 11.7; p = 0.005; ences in the track and field group (Figure 3) for the
effect size = 0.49; 95% CI = 0.008–0.035 seconds). acceleration phase (p , 0.001; 95% CI = 20.115 to
In maximal sprint speed, significant main effects for 20.0311) but not for maximal sprint speed (p = 0.089;
time (F = 6.9; p = 0.012; effect size = 0.13), group (F = 7.2; 95% CI = 20.129 to 0.0055). Conversely in the soccer player
p , 0.001; effect size = 0.32), and time 3 condition (F = 5.9; group (Figure 2), there was no significant different between

Figure 3. Absolute change in 0–20 and 20–40 m in track and field athletes (left) and soccer players (right) during the experimental and control sessions.
*p is less than or equal to 0.05.

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 Effect of Half-Squat Jumps on Sprint Running in Athletes

Figure 4. Associations between 0–20 m sprint time and improved 0–20 m sprint time (A), barbell load and 0–20 m sprint time (B), half-squat power and 0–20 m
sprint time (C), and half-squat power and 20–40 m sprint time (D).

conditions for the acceleration phase (p = 0.169; 95% CI = program variables (20) may allow PAP to be realized and
20.073 to 0.0072), but there was a significant difference for that this particular combination was appropriate for the
maximal sprint speed (p = 0.035; 95% CI = 20.132 to track and field group. In particular, the subjects who gained
20.0032). the most benefit from this conditioning exercise protocol
Statistically significant relationships were observed were the best sprinters over 0–20 m at baseline. This is in
between 0–20 m sprint time and change in 0–20 m sprint agreement with recent findings by Turner et al. (21). Given
time (r = 0.44; p = 0.028; Figure 4A), barbell load (r = 20.45; the reliance on strength and power capabilities on sprint
p = 0.023; Figure 4B), half-squat power (r = 20.75; p , performance, shown in this study and also others
0.001; Figure 4C), and between 20–40 m sprint time and (18,22,23), it seems that these types of conditioning exercises
half-squat power (r = 20.76; p , 0.001; Figure 4D). will benefit athletes with higher strength and power charac-
teristics (9,10) even those who may not be fully mature.
DISCUSSION In this study, a relatively short recovery time between the
This study demonstrated that 9 minutes of passive rest after conditioning exercise and performance exercise (3 minutes)
sprint running led to decrements in subsequent sprint was used. This period was chosen because of the interaction
performance in both young track and field athletes and between fatigue and potentiation caused by the intensity of
soccer players. Conversely, performing 2 sets of 6 repetition the conditioning exercise (9) and matches the improved jump
jump squats 3 minutes after sprint running led to enhanced performance observed by Gilbert and Lees (13) when the load
sprint performance over 0–20 and 20–40 m in track and field equaling maximum power was used. Furthermore, a 3-minute
athletes only. Statistically significant inverse relationships recovery time was similar to protocols used by Young et al.
were observed between squat jump strength (i.e., barbell (7), Webber, et al. (24), and Walker et al. (6) among others to
load) and power and sprint running performance, indicating acutely enhance power performance. It is not clear whether
that the best sprinters were also the more powerful athletes the slower/weaker athletes, in particular the soccer players,
regardless of sporting background. Finally, and importantly, would have benefitted from a longer recovery period (12) or
a statistically significant relationship was observed between whether the entire protocol would require modification to
absolute 0–20 m sprint performance and the improvement in elicit enhanced power performance in those athletes.
0–20 m sprint performance after the jump squat protocol. Only the track and field athletes in this study demon-
The conditioning exercise protocol used in this study was strated improved sprint running performance. Enhanced
2 3 6 half-squat jumps with the load equal to maximum sprint performance after conditioning exercises has been
power and 3 minutes rest. These findings, combined with observed over 20 m (21), 30 m (25), 40 m (26), and 100 m
previous findings (29), show that various combinations of (15). Of the studies that showed statistically nonsignificant
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differences at a group level (14,16,17), there was evidence of the specific conditions of the competition and the individual
high intraindividual responsiveness. It is difficult to attribute athlete. In other words, it would not always be practical to
cause to the nonsignificant improvements/large variations elicit acute performance enhancement responses 3 minutes
observed previously, but 1 factor may be the sprint perfor- after a conditioning exercise if athletes need to wait longer
mance level of the subjects because we observed a significant (e.g., in call rooms), especially because we observed signif-
relationship between 0–20 m sprint time and the acute icantly reduced performance after 9 minutes of sitting.
improvement in 0–20 m sprint time (r = 0.44; p = 0.028). Preparation and maintaining an optimal state are critical in
Nevertheless, it is pertinent to remember that stable perfor- this case, as quiet sitting may reduce neuromuscular and
mance at baseline after a thorough warm-up is essential in psychological “preparedness” regardless of the sporting
studies assessing acute performance enhancement to dis- background of the athletes. Further study is necessary to
count possible confounding factors (e.g., the effect of muscle determine whether utilization of PAP on sprint running dur-
temperature on performance). ing training can induce greater long-term gains in sprint
In this study, improved sprint acceleration (0–20 m) was running performance. To the authors’ knowledge, there are
observed in young track and field athletes; however, no im- no well-controlled, intensity and volume–matched training
provements in 20–40 m sprint time occurred. Perhaps, owing interventions that have addressed this research question.
to longer ground contact times during the acceleration phase Practitioners should be aware, however, that power was
compared with maximum sprint running (27,28), the influ- calculated using a single linear position transducer in this
ence of concentric force production of the knee and hip study. Although moderate-to-strong relationships (r = 0.62–
extensors is considered the main factors influencing perfor- 0.82) have been demonstrated compared with force plate data
mance (29). The emphasis then shifts during maximum (30), this may have caused slight alterations to the power
sprint running to the contributions of swing-phase speed curves of the different athletes, which may then have influ-
and stretch-shortening cycle, for example. Therefore, it enced the external load used and the protocol’s efficacy in
seems logical that the effect of PAP on muscular force gen- eliciting PAP. Although this may seem like a small likelihood,
eration would likely influence the acceleration phase of we cannot entirely attribute enhanced or nonenhanced sprint
sprint running more than during maximum sprint running. performance to the protocol or athlete’s power capabilities
It should be noted that 40-m sprint performance (i.e., the based on the methods of present study alone.
sum of 0–20 and 20–40 m times, data not shown) was In conclusion, performing 2 sets of 6 repetition half-squat
acutely increased in this study, but this was due to the jump exercises with a load eliciting maximum power led to
improved 0–20 m sprint time. Nevertheless, it may be that acutely enhanced acceleration (0–20 m) and maximal (20–40 m)
the improvements to sprint acceleration carry over to sprint running speed in young track and field athletes. The
improved performance over slightly longer sprint distances same protocol did not enhance sprint running performance
(i.e., 40–100 m), which would be meaningful for competition. in soccer players. Furthermore, acute enhancement of sprint
In terms of the magnitude of enhanced sprint running, this performance was greatest in the fastest sprinters across the
study observed a 1.5 6 0.8 and 1 6 0.9% improvement in 0–20 whole subject group. It seems that acute enhancement of
and 20–40 m time, respectively, in track and field athletes. Sim- sprint performance could be used in training of athletes.
ilarly, McBride et al. (26) reported a ;0.9% (p # 0.05) improve-
ment in 40-m sprint running after 1 set of 3 repetition back PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
squats with 90% one repetition maximum (1RM) and
The particular conditioning protocol used in this study
a ;0.5% improvement after 1 set of 3 repetition squat jump
demonstrated enhanced sprint performance in those athletes
with 30% 1RM (nonsignificant). Interestingly, Chatzopoulos
who were the fastest sprinters. Therefore, it seems a good
et al. (25) did not observe improved sprint performance over
conditioning protocol for (even young) athletes and can be
0–10 m, but a significant improvement over 0–30 m (;1.8%;
incorporated into their sprint training program. It is unclear
p # 0.05) 5 minutes after 10 sets of 1 repetition half-squat with
whether athletes who do not possess relatively high-level sprint
90% 1RM. Even over a longer distance of 100 m, a relative
abilities would derive the same benefit from this type of protocol,
improvement in sprint performance was observed to be
and coaches would be advised to test their individual athletes for
;1.1% (p # 0.05) in nontrained college females (15). Sprint
responsiveness when using different protocols (i.e., different
improvements of 1–2% are quite meaningful in competition as
recovery times, different bar loads, etc.). The current protocol
this represents a difference of approximately 0.065–0.07 and 0.1–
seems very useful in a training setting as it requires relatively
0.15 seconds in elite level male and female 60 and 100 m per-
short rest periods but may not be optimal in competitions
formance, respectively. In terms of sprint running velocity (vs.
because of the longer time between preparation and race time.
time as reported by the aforementioned studies), Turner et al.
(21) observed improvements of ;2.2–2.9% when using body
mass plus 10% load 4–8 minutes after the conditioning stimulus. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Ultimately, if these techniques are to be used to enhance The results of this study do not constitute endorsement of
competition performance, protocols should be adapted to suit the product by the authors or the National Strength and

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 Effect of Half-Squat Jumps on Sprint Running in Athletes

Conditioning Association. The authors declare no conflict of 15. Linder, EE, Prins, JH, Murata, NM, Derenne, C, Morgan, CF, and
interest. Solomon, JR. Effects of preload 4 repetition maximum on 100-m
sprint times in collegiate women. J Strength Cond Res 24: 1184–1190,
2010.
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