“AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM”

A Project Report Submitted To

Rajiv Gandhi Prodyogiki Vishwavidhyalaya, Bhopal

Towards Partial Fulfilment for the Award of

Bachelor of Engineering
In
Mechanical Engineering

Submitted by: Ankit Kumar Maravi (0820EC151003)

Anish Gupta (0820ME151004)
Shivam Sharma (0820ME151040)
Shivanshu Chobey (0820ME151041)
Yogendra Mohan Dubey (0820ME151049)

Under The Supervision of : Er. Mrigendra Singh

Estd.2004

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Lakshmi Narain College of Technology, Indore

Session : 2018-2019
 .

LAKSHMI NARAIN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, INDORE

CERTIFICATE
2018-2019

This is certify that the Minor Project entitled “Automatic Braking System”,
submitted to the Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidhyalaya, Bhopal by Ankit
Kumar Maravi (0820EC151003), Anish Gupta (0820ME151004), Shivam
Sharma (0820ME151040), Shivanshu Chobey (0820ME151041), Yogendra
Mohan Dubey (0820ME151049) during the academic year 2018-2019 is a
record of his own work and is accepted in the partial fulfillment for the award of
the degree of Bachelor of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering
of Lakshmi Narain College of Technology, Indore (M.P).

Internal Examiner HOD External Examiner

Date:- Date:- Date:-
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
After the completion of this report, words are not to express my feelings about
all those who helped me to reach my goal; feeling above this is my indebtedness
to the almighty for providing me this moment in life.
I would like to take this moment to express my deepest gratitude to the group of
people without whose help and support I would not have been able to compete
this project.
It is a great pleasure and moment of immense satisfaction for me to express my
profound gratitude to my project guide, Er. Mrigendra Singh, Head of
Department, Mechanical Engineering, Lakshmi Narain College of Technology,
Indore (M.P) whose constant encouragement enabled me to work
enthusiastically, his patience and excellent expertise in discussion have
benefited me, which beyond expression the trust she placed in my abilities was
always a great source of motivation.
I also extend my deepest gratitude to Principle and Managing Director of LNCT
Indore, for providing me all the academic facilities in the Institute.
I would like to acknowledge all the staff member of Mechanical Engineering
department who has contributed directly or indirectly in this thesis Work finally.
I owe my special thank to beloved parents for moral support they extended to
me in the completion of this Minor project it is not an individual effort. It is an
outcome of cumulative of number of persons, each having their importance to
the objective.

Ankit Kumar Maravi (0820EC151003)

Anish Gupta (0820ME151004)
Shivam Sharma (0820ME151040)
Shivanshu Chobey (0820ME151041)
Yogendra Mohan Dubey (0820ME151049)
 ABSTRACT

I.C Engines have been advanced a lot such that its speed is becoming a major

catastrophe. Advanced automatic braking system improves braking techniques in

vehicles. It changes complete braking systems in an automotive and deals with the

concept of Automatic Braking System giving the solution.

This project is designed with ultrasonic transmitter, ultrasonic receiver,

Arduino UNO R3 board with PIC microcontroller, DC gear motor, Servomotor and

mechanical braking arrangement. The Ultrasonic Sensor generates (0.020-20) KHz

frequency signal. It is transmitted through ultrasonic transmitter. The ultrasonic

receiver is used to receive the reflected wave present in front of the vehicle, then the

reflected waves is given to the ultrasonic wave generator unit in which the incoming

wave is amplified and compared with reference signals to maintain a constant ratio

and this signal is given to microcontroller and through which the working of DC gear

motor and Servomotor may takes place, which results in application of brakes.

The prototype has been prepared depicting the technology and tested as per the simulated

conditions. In future the actual model may be developed depending on its feasibility.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS Page No.

I. Table of contents I

II. List of tables II

III. List of figures III

IV. List of plates IV

V. List of abbreviations V

CHAPTERS Page No.

1. Introduction

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Objective 2

1.3 Scope of project 3

1.4 Methodology 3

1.5 Principal components of Automatic Braking System 5

1.5.1 Sensor 5

1.5.2 Transducer 6

1.5.3 Ultrasonic Sensor 6

1.5.4 Operational amplifier and ADC 8

1.5.5 Braking Circuit 8

1.5.6 DC gear motor 9

1.5.7 Servomotor 9

1.6 Advantages of Automatic Braking System 11

2 Review of Literature

2.1 Fundamental list of sensors

2.1.1 Ultrasonic Sensor 12

2.1.2 Ultrasonic sensing and control 14

2.2 Measurement principle and effective use of ultrasonic sensor 14

2.3 Advantages of ultrasonic sensors 15

2.4 Disadvantages of ultrasonic sensors 16

2.5 Target angle and beam spread 16

2.6 Effect of environmental factors on ultrasonic sensor 16

2.6.1 Temperature 17

2.6.2 Air turbulence and convection current 17

2.6.3 Atmospheric pressure 17

2.6.4 Humidity 18

2.6.5 Acoustic interference 18

2.7 Sensor’s target considerations 18

2.7.1 Composition 18

2.7.2 Shape 19

2.7.3 Target orientation 19

2.8 DC gear motor 19

2.8.1 Applications 20

2.9 Servo operation 21

2.10 Arduino UNO R3 22

 3. Sensing and controlling unit

3.1 Components of sensing and controlling unit 24

3.1.1 Arduino Uno R3 24

3.1.2 Ultrasonic transducer 27

3.1.3 DC gear motor 33

3.1.4 Servomotor

4. Result

4.1 Result

4.2 Final overview of project

CONCLUSION

FUTURE SCOPE

REFERENCES
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE No. TITLE Page No.

1.1 Maximum and minimum ranging of ultrasonic sensor 4

3.1 Specifications of Arduino Uno 25

3.2 Specifications of Ultrasonic sensor 31

3.3 Specifications of DC gear motor 34

3.4 Specifications of Servomotor 36

 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE No. TITLE Page No.

1.1 Block diagram of the Automatic Braking System 3

1.2 Reduction in speed of vehicle 4

1.3 Ultrasonic transmitter 7

1.4 Ultrasonic receiver 8

2.1 Ultrasonic ranging 14

2.2 Basic ultrasonic operation 15

2.3 Servomotor movement timing 22

3.1 Arduino Uno Layout 25

3.2 Ultrasonic transducer HC-SR04 (Front and back view) 30

3.3 Timing diagram for the ultrasonic transducer HC-SR04 32

3.4 Target angle range test of ultrasonic transducer 32

3.5 DC gear motor 34

3.6 Servomotor 36
 LIST OF PLATES

PLATE TITLE Page No.

1.1 Automatic Braking System 5

3.1 Bottom view of Automatic Braking System 37

3.2 Final project front view 37

 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADC Analog to digital converter

PIC Programmable Interface Controller

DC Direct Current

IDE Integrated Development Environment

 CHAPTER –1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND

Driving is a common activity for most of the people. The number of vehicles

is increasing day by day. Now a days, the technology has got vast changes which

leads increase in speed. The speed plays a vital role to maintain time for longer

distances. But, this speed also getting a major problem for causes of road accidents.

The common braking is not sufficient for avoidance of accidents when driver is not

active. Further improvement has to done in braking system in order to brake a vehicle

when driver is not able to brake i.e., it may needs automatic braking system. This

automatic braking system allows the vehicle to brake without support of the driver.

The main target of the ultrasonic braking system is that, vehicles should

automatically brake when the sensors sense the obstacle. This is a technology for

automobiles to sense an imminent forward collision with another vehicle or an

obstacle, and to brake the vehicle accordingly, which is done by the braking circuit.

This system includes two ultrasonic sensors viz. ultrasonic wave emitter and

ultrasonic wave receiver. The ultrasonic wave emitter provided in front portion of an

automatic braking system vehicle, producing and emitting ultrasonic waves in a

predetermined distance in front of the vehicle. Ultrasonic wave receiver is also

provided in front portion of the vehicle, receiving the reflected ultrasonic wave signal

from the obstacle. The reflected wave (detection pulse) is measured to get the distance

between vehicle and the obstacle. The DC gear motor is connected to the wheels of

vehicle and power input is given to it from Arduino board. Then PIC microcontroller

is used to control the servo motor based on detection pulse information and the servo

motor in turn automatically controls the braking of the vehicle. Thus, this new system

is designed to solve the problem where drivers may not be able to brake manually
exactly at the required time, but the vehicle can stop automatically by sensing the

obstacles to avoid an accident.

In order to reduce the emission levels, more work is going on for the

modification of engine work functions and all. There are several kinds of braking

mechanism systems that would only can be applicable mechanically, to move the

ideology more deep and brief the automatic braking system will be more sufficient

and satisfactory in addition to mechanical braking system.

In present generation, number of vehicles are coming into existence with

newer technologies for implementation of human comfort and other conditioning. To

extend the ideology in more brief manner and to take the step in different way, may

automatic braking system would fulfill the methods of extension of technical

existences.

1.2 OBJECTIVE

The objective of this project is to design the automatic braking system in

order to avoid the accident. To develop a safety vehicle braking system using

ultrasonic sensor and to design a vehicle with less human attention to the driving.

This project is necessary to be attached to every vehicle. Mainly it is used

when drive the vehicles in night time. Mostly the accident occurred in the night time

due to long travel the driver may get tired. So the driver may hit the front side vehicle

or road side trees. By using this project the vehicle is stopped by automatic braking

system. So we can avoid the accident.

1.3 SCOPE OF PROJECT

The scope of this project is to develop an ultrasonic sensor to detect the

obstacle and to process the output from the ultrasonic sensor to drive the servomotor

as an actuator.

Vehicles can automatically brake due to obstacles when the sensor senses the

obstacles. The focus of this project is designing an automatically braking system that

can help us control the braking system of a vehicle. The automatically braking

system also needs to work with an ultrasonic sensor, which produce sound pulse by a

buzzer. The ultrasonic wave is generated from a transmitter and sends to a receiver.

1.3 METHODOLOGY

1.4 Figure 1.1 Block Diagram of the Automatic Braking system

Ultrasonic Sensor signals Range

Maximum 1 metre

Minimum 2 centimetres

Table 1.1 Maximum and minimum ranging of Ultrasonic Sensor

Fig 1.2 Reduction in speed of vehicle

 Plate 1.1 Automatic Braking System

1.5 PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF AUTOMATIC BRAKING SYSTEM

∑ SENSOR

∑ TRANSDUCER

∑ ULTRASONIC SENSOR

∑ OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND ADC

∑ BRAKING CIRCUIT

∑ DC GEAR MOTOR

∑ SERVOMOTOR

1.5.1 SENSOR

A sensor is an electrical device that maps an environmental attribute to a

quantitative measurement. Each sensor is based on transduction principle which is

conversion of energy from one form to another form. There are two important terms

related to any sensor –

• Target Angle – This term refers to the ‘tilt response’ limitations of a given sensor.

Since the ultrasonic waves reflect off the target object, target angles indicate

acceptable amounts of tilt for a given sensor.

• Beam Spread – This term refers to the maximum angular spread of the ultrasonic

waves as they leave the transducer.

1.5.2 TRANSDUCER

A transducer is an energy conversion device which converts one form of

energy into another. In the ultrasonic sensors they are used to convert electrical

energy into ultrasonic energy and vice-versa. In this system piezoelectric transducers

are used, which create ultrasonic vibration through use of piezoelectric materials such

as certain forms of crystals or ceramic polymers. Their working is based on the

piezoelectric effect. This effect refers to the voltage produced between surfaces of a

solid, (non-conducting substance) when a mechanical stress is applied to it.

Conversely, when a voltage is applied across surfaces of a solid that exhibits

piezoelectric effect, the solid undergoes mechanical distortion.

1.5.3 ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Ultrasonic ranging and detecting devices use high frequency sound waves

called ultrasonic waves to detect presence of an object and its range. Normal

frequency range of human ear is roughly 20Hz to 20,000Hz. Ultrasonic sound waves

are sound waves that are above the range of human ear, and thus have frequency

above 20,000Hz. An ultrasonic sensor necessarily consists of a transducer for

conversion of one form of energy to another, a housing enclosing the ultrasonic

transducer and an electrical connection. These sensors are of two types:

• Ultrasonic Transmitter – Before transmitting the ultrasonic wave, there is a part

which is ultrasonic wave generator that functions to generate ultrasonic wave. In that

part, there is timing instruction means for generating an instruction signal for

intermittently providing ultrasonic waves. This signal will send to an ultrasonic wave

generator for generating ultrasonic waves based on the instruction signal from said

timing instruction means (transform electrical energy into sound wave). After

ultrasonic wave was produced, ultrasonic transmitter transmits the ultrasonic waves

toward a road surface to find out the obstacle. The range that obstacle detected is

depends on the range of ultrasonic sensors that used.

Fig 1.3 Ultrasonic Transmitter

• Ultrasonic Receiver – If the ultrasonic wave detects the obstacle, it will produce a

reflected wave. An ultrasonic receiver is used for receiving the ultrasonic waves

reflected from the road surface to generate a reception signal. There is ultrasonic

transducer that will transform back the sound wave to electrical energy. This signal

amplified by an amplifier. The amplified signal is compared with reference signal to

detect components in the amplified signal due to obstacles on the road surface. The

magnitude of the reference signal or the amplification factor of the amplifier is

controlled to maintain a constant ratio between the average of the reference signal

and the average of the amplified signal.

Fig 1.4 Ultrasonic Receiver

1.5.4 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND ADC

An operational amplifier, usually referred to as op-amp, is a high gain voltage

amplifier with differential inputs and a single output. The amplifier’s differential

inputs consist of an inverting input and a non-inverting input. The op-amp amplifies

only the difference in the voltage between the two inputs called the ‘differential input

voltage’. The output voltage of the op-amp is controlled by feeding a fraction of

output signal back to the inverting input. This is known as negative feedback. Due to

the amplifier’s high gain, the output voltage for any given input is only controlled by

the negative feedback.

The amplified signal is a square pulse which is given to the ADC. ADC (Analog to

Digital Converter) converts input analog signal to corresponding digital signal. The

digital signal is given to the microcontroller.

1.5.5 BRAKING CIRCUIT

The processed i.e. the amplified digital signal is sent to the braking circuit.

PIC (Peripheral Interface Controller (or) Programmable Interface Controller) – The

microcontroller used is PIC 16F84 which is 8-bit microcontroller. PIC

microcontrollers are made by microchip technology. PICs are used in this system due

to their low cost and wide availability. The numbers of instructions to perform a
variety of operations vary from 35 instructions in low-end PICs to about 70

instructions in high-end PICs. It is programmed by using C language.

The signal from the ADC is processed by the PIC microcontroller, and it gives

an instruction as an output, based on the condition of the signal, to the servo motor.

The signal received from the ADC can also be displayed on the LCD display (which

gives an audio-visual warning on the windshield in the driver’s field of view), and it

gives the distance between the front of the vehicle and the obstacle. The distance

value at which automatic braking should start is already stored in the microcontroller.

When the measured distance reaches this value, the PIC automatically sends the signal

to the servo motor which in turn controls braking through mechanical arrangements.

1.5.6 DC GEAR MOTOR

A DC gear motor is a fairly simple electric gear motor that uses electricity,

gear box and magnetic field to produce torque, which turns the motor. At its most

simple, DC gear motor requires two magnets of opposite polarity and an electric coil,

which acts as an electric magnet. The repellent and attractive electromagnetic forces

of the magnets provide the torque and causes the DC gear motor to turn. A gear box is

present just after the DC motor and a rotary shaft is connected to it, with the help of

this DC gear motor setup the vehicle wheels can be rotated in this project.

1.5.7 SERVO MOTOR

The output of the PIC is the input of the servo motor. The servo motor allows

for precise control of angular position, velocity and acceleration. It consists of a motor

coupled to a sensor for position feedback. Thus, it is a closed loop mechanism that

uses position feedback to control its motion and final position. The input is a signal,
either analog or digital, representing the position commanded for the output shaft. The

measured position of the output shaft is compared to the command position (the

external input to the motor). If the output position differs from that required, an error

signal is generated which then causes the motor to rotate in either direction as needed,

to bring the output shaft to the appropriate position. As the required position

approaches, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops.

The output shaft of servo motor is capable of travelling somewhere around

180 degrees. A normal servo motor is used to control an angular motion between 0

and 180 degrees, and it is mechanically not capable of turning any farther due to a

mechanical stop built on to the main output gear. The angle through which the output

shaft of the servo motor need to travel is determined according to the nature of the

signal given to the motor as input from the PIC.

The servo motor controls the braking through mechanical arrangements. This

is done by using a pair of crossed helical gears and a grooved cylindrical component.

The larger gear is mounted on the output shaft of the servo motor and the smaller is

mounted on the master cylinder piston rod. Thus, when the output shaft of the

servomotor gets signals and hence the larger gear rotates in say anticlockwise

direction, the smaller gear and hence the master cylinder piston rod rotates in

clockwise direction. Due to the groove on the cylindrical component translatory

motion is also produced. This is due to a pin, one end of which is inserted in the

groove and the other end is fixed rigidly to a support. Thus, a combination of

translatory as well as rotary motion is produced.

 Hence, the fluid pressure is applied due to stretching out of the master

cylinder piston thus resulting in braking of the vehicle. The piston returns to the

original position when the servo motor output shaft rotates in clockwise direction.

Thus, the speed of the vehicle reduces for clockwise rotation of the smaller

gear (i.e. anticlockwise rotation of larger gear and hence the servo motor output

shaft). Thus, the servo motor is used to control the brakes, when the PIC gives the

signal to the servo motor, based upon the distance measured by means of sensors. This

constitutes the braking circuit.

1.6 Advantages of Automatic Braking System

∑ Discrete distances to moving objects can be detected and measured.

∑ Resistance to external disturbances such as vibration, infrared

radiation, ambient noise, and EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference)

radiation.

∑ Measures and detects distances to moving objects.

∑ Impervious to target materials, surface and colour.

∑ Solid-state units have virtually unlimited, maintenance free lifespan.

∑ Detects small objects over long operating distance.

∑ Ultrasonic sensors are not affected by dust, dirt or high moisture

environments.
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Fundamentals of Sensors

In the broadest definition, a sensor is an object whose purpose is to detect

events or changes in its environment, and then provide a corresponding output. A

sensor is a type of transducer; sensors may provide various types of output, but

typically use electrical or optical signals. For example, a thermocouple generates a

known voltage (the output) in response to its temperature (the environment). A

mercury-in-glass thermometer, similarly, converts measured temperature into

expansion and contraction of a liquid, which can be read on a calibrated glass tube.

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons

(tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, besides

innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in

micro-machinery and easy-to-use micro controller platforms, the uses of sensors have

expanded beyond the most traditional fields of temperature, pressure or flow

measurement, for example into MARG (Magnetic, Angular Rate, and Gravity)

sensors. Moreover, Analog sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors

are still widely used. Applications include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes

and aerospace, cars, medicine, and robotics. It is also included in our day-to-day life.

2.1.1 Ultrasonic Sensor

Ultrasonic ranging and detecting devices use high-frequency sound waves to

detect the presence of an object and its range. The systems either measure the echo

reflection of the sound from objects or detect the interruption of the sound beam as

the objects pass between the transmitter and receiver.

An ultrasonic sensor typically utilizes a transducer that produces an electrical

output in response to received ultrasonic energy. The normal frequency range for

human hearing is roughly 20 to 20,000 hertz. Ultrasonic sound waves are sound
waves that are above the range of human hearing and thus, have a frequency above

about 20,000 hertz. Any frequency above 20,000 hertz may be considered ultrasonic.

Most industrial processes, including almost all source of friction, create some

ultrasonic noise.

The ultrasonic transducer produces ultrasonic signals. These signals are

propagated through a sensing medium and the same transducer can be used to detect

returning signals. Ultrasonic sensors typically have a piezoelectric ceramic transducer

that converts an excitation electrical signal into ultrasonic energy bursts. The energy

bursts travel from the ultrasonic sensor, bounce off objects, and are returned toward

the sensor as echoes. Transducers are devices that convert electrical energy to

mechanical energy, or vice versa. The transducer converts received echoes into

Analog electrical signals that are output from the transducer.

The piezoelectric effect refers to the voltage produced between surfaces of a

solid dielectric (non-conducting substance) when a mechanical stress is applied to it.

Conversely when a voltage is applied across certain surfaces of a solid that exhibits

the piezoelectric effect, the solid undergoes a mechanical distortion. Such solids

typically resonate within narrow frequency ranges. Piezoelectric materials are used in

transducers e.g., phonograph cartridges, microphones, and strain gauges that produce

an electrical output from a mechanical input. They are also used in earphones and

ultrasonic transmitters that produce a mechanical output from an electrical input.

Ultrasonic transducers operate to radiate ultrasonic waves through a medium such as

air. Transducers generally create ultrasonic vibrations through the use of piezoelectric

materials such as certain forms of crystal or ceramic polymers.

 Fig 2.1 Ultrasonic ranging

2.1.2 Ultrasonic sensing and control

Ultrasonic signals are like audible sound waves, except the frequencies are

much higher. Our ultrasonic transducers have piezoelectric crystals which resonate to

a desired frequency and convert electric energy into acoustic energy and vice versa.

The illustration shows how sound waves, transmitted in the shape of a cone, are

reflected from a target back to the transducer. An output signal is produced to perform

some kind of indicating or control function. A minimum distance from the sensor is

required to provide a time delay so that the "echoes" can be interpreted. Variables

which can affect the operation of ultrasonic sensing include, target surface angle,

reflective surface roughness or changes in temperature or humidity. The targets can

have any kind of reflective form - even round objects.

2.2 Measurement principle and effective use of Ultra Sonic Sensor

Ultrasonic sensor transmits ultrasonic waves from its sensor head and again

receives the ultrasonic waves reflected from an object. Basically, in our project

ultrasonic sensor ranges of about 2 centimetres to 1 metre. By measuring the length of

time from the transmission to reception of the sonic wave, it detects the position of the

object. The ultrasonic transducer produces ultrasonic signal. These signals are
propagated through a sensing medium and the same transducer can be used to detect

returning signals. In most applications, the sensing medium is simply air. An

ultrasonic sensor typically comprises at least one ultrasonic transducer which

transforms electrical energy into sound and in reverse sound into electrical energy, a

housing enclosing the ultrasonic transducer, an electrical connection and optionally, an

electronic unit for signal processing also enclosed in the housing.

Figure 2.2 Basic Ultrasonic operation

2.3 Advantages of Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic have a lot of advantages for using in real application. The

advantages of ultrasonic sensor are:

∑ Discrete distances to moving objects can be detected and measured.

∑ Less affected by target materials and surfaces, and not affected by

colour. Solid-state units have virtually unlimited, maintenance free

life. Ultrasonic can detect small objects over long operating

distances.

∑ Resistance to external disturbances such as vibration, infrared

radiation, ambient noise, and EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference)

radiation.
 ∑ Measures and detects distances to moving objects.

∑ Impervious to target materials, surface and colour.

∑ Solid-state units have virtually unlimited, maintenance free

lifespan.

∑ Detects small objects over long operating distance.

∑ Ultrasonic sensors are not affected by dust, dirt or high moisture

environments.

2.4 Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Sensors

Some disadvantages of ultrasonic sensor are:

∑ Overheating of a wave emitter precludes the energy of ultrasonic waves

emitted there from being enhanced to a practical level.

∑ Interference between the projected waves and the reflected waves takes place,

and development of standing waves provides adverse effects.

∑ It is impossible to discern between reflected waves from the road surface and

reflected waves from other places or objects.

2.5 Target Angle and Beam Spread

This term refers to the "tilt response" limitations of a given sensor. Since

ultrasonic sound waves reflect off the target object, target angles indicate acceptable

amounts of tilt for a given sensor.

This term is defined as the area in which a round wand will be sensed if

passed through the target area. This is the maximum spreading of the ultrasonic sound

as it leaves the transducer.

2.6 Effect of Environmental factors on Ultrasonic sensor

There are many factors present in the environment which can affect the

working of ultrasonic sensor. They are:

2.7 Sensor’s Target Considerations

For detecting a target, the ultrasonic sensor takes into consideration the

various properties of the target. They are:

2.7.1 Composition

Nearly all targets reflect ultrasonic sound and therefore produce an echo that

can be detected. Some textured materials produce a weaker echo, reducing the

maximum effective sensing range. The reflectivity of an object is often a function of

frequency. Lower frequencies can have reduced reflections from some porous targets,

while higher frequencies reflect well from most target materials. Precise performance

specifications can often be determined only through experimentation.

2.7.3 Target Orientation

To produce the strongest echoes, the sensor's beam should be pointed toward

the target. If a smooth, flat target is inclined off perpendicular, some of the echo is

deflected away from the sensor and the strength of the echo is reduced. Targets that

are smaller than the spot diameter of the transducer beam can usually be inclined

more than larger targets. Sensors with larger beam angles will generally produce

stronger echoes from flat targets that are not perpendicular to the axis of the sound

beam. Sound waves striking a target with a coarse, irregular surface will diffuse and

reflect in many directions. Some of the reflected energy may return to the sensor as a

weak but measurable echo. As always, target suitability must be evaluated for each

application.

2.8 DC gear motor

Geared DC motors can be defined as an extension of DC motor which already

had its insight details demystified here. A geared DC Motor has a gear assembly

attached to the motor. The speed of motor is counted in terms of rotations of the shaft

per minute and is termed as RPM. The gear assembly helps in increasing the torque
and reducing the speed. Using the correct combination of gears in a gear motor, its

speed can be reduced to any desirable figure. This concept where gears reduce the

speed of the vehicle but increase its torque is known as gear reduction. This insight

will explore all the minor and major details that make the gear head and hence the

working of geared DC motor.

DC Gear motor is also called DC Geared Motor, Geared Dc Motor and gear head

motor or gearbox motor. It consists of a electric DC motor and a gearbox or gear

head; these gear heads are used to reduce the DC motor speed, while increase the DC

motor torque. Therefore user can get lower speed and higher torque from gear motor.

2.8.1 Applications

1) Home Appliance

2) Office Automation

3) Robotics: Robotics arm, cars, Robotic toy, Teaching Robotics, etc

4)Sanitary Automations: Paper/Towel Dispensers, Soap dispenser, Air Freshener

Dispenser, Toilet Lid opener, Seat-Changer, Sensor Sanitary Bin, Feminine Hygiene...

5) Safe and Security: electronic lock, door lock, safe, door locker, latch closer

6) Coffee Machine and Coffee Make, Coffee Bean grinder

7) Vending Machine: Beverage vending, hot and cold drink dispenser, Juicer Maker

8) Bank Automation: ATM, Coin Counter, Coin Selector, Coin Validator, Bank note

counter

9) Automotive

10) Electric Valve, Gas Meter, Water Meter

11) Electric Curtain and Blinds, etc.

2.9 Servo Operation

The servo motor has some control circuits and a potentiometer (a variable

resistor) that is connected to the output shaft. In the picture above, the pot can be seen

on the right side of the circuit board. This pot allows the control circuitry to monitor

the current angle of the servo motor. If the shaft is at the correct angle, then the motor

shuts off. If the circuit finds that the angle is not correct, it will turn the motor to the

correct prototype direction until the angle is correct. The output shaft of the servo is

capable of travelling somewhere around 180 degrees. Usually, it is somewhere in the

210 degree range, but it varies by manufacturer. A normal servo is used to control an

angular motion of between 0 and 180 degrees. A normal servo is mechanically not

capable of turning any farther due to a mechanical stop built on to the main output

gear.

The amount of power applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it

needs to travel. So, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full

speed. If it needs to turn only a small amount, the motor will run at a slower speed.

This is called proportional control.

The control wire is used to communicate the angle. The angle is determined

by the duration of a pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is called Pulse

Coded Modulation. The servo expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (0.02

seconds). The length of the pulse will determine how far the motor turns. A 1.5

millisecond pulse, for example, will make the motor turn to the 90 degree position

(often called the neutral position). If the pulse is shorter than 1.5 millisecond, then the

motor will turn the shaft to closer to 0 degrees. If the pulse is longer than 1.5ms, the

shaft turns closer to 180 degrees.

 Figure 2.3 Servo Motor movement timing

From the figure above, the duration of the pulse dictates the angle of the

output shaft (shown as the blue circle with the arrow). Note that the times here are

illustrative and the actual timings depend on the motor manufacturer. The principle,

however, is the same..

 CHAPTER 3

SENSING AND CONTROLLING

UNIT
 The Sensing and Controlling unit, is that part of this system which senses the

object or obstruction in front of the car, measures the distance and the approaching

velocity and then sends necessary signals to the servo motor and hence to the

Automatic Braking Unit. Its components consist of Arduino as a microcontroller,

Servo motor, Ultrasonic Transducer and a power source to keep the system running.

The Arduino is coded by a software called Arduino 1.6, a language promoted by the

company of the same name, which acts as a free source coding, just like Android.

3.1 Components of Sensing and Controlling Unit (SCU)

3.1.1 Arduino Uno R3

The Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P. It has 14

digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 Analog inputs, a

16 MHz quartz crystal, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header and a reset

button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it

to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get

started. You can tinker with your UNO without worrying too much about doing

something wrong, worst case scenario you can replace the chip for a few dollars and

start over again.

"Uno" means one in Italian and was chosen to mark the release of Arduino

Software (IDE) 1.0. The Uno board and version 1.0 of Arduino Software (IDE) were

the reference versions of Arduino, now evolved to newer releases. The Uno board is

the first in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino

platform.

The structure of Arduino is its disadvantage as well. During building a project

you have to make its size as small as possible. But with the big structures of Arduino
we have to stick with big sized PCB’s. If you are working on a small micro-controller

like ATmega8 you can easily make your PCB as small as possible.

Figure 3.1 Arduino Uno Layout

Brand name Arduino

Height 25 Millimetres

Width 5.5 Centimetres

Weight 91 Grams

Dimensions 8 x 5.5 x 2.5 Centimetres

RAM Size 8 kb

Voltage 5 Volts

Digital Pins 14

Table 3.1 Technical Specification of Arduino Uno

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external

power supply. The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power
can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be

connected by plugging a 2.1mm centre-positive plug into the board's power jack.

Leads from a battery can be inserted in the GND and VIN pin headers of the POWER

connector.

The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with

less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may

be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage

the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. The power pins are as follows:

∑ VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power

source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated

power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying

voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.

∑ 5V: The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and other

components on the board. This can come either from VIN via an on-board

regulator, or be supplied by USB or another regulated 5V supply.

∑ 3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current

draw is 50 mA.

∑ GND: Ground pins.

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output. They

operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an

internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50 k-Ohms. In addition, some

pins have specialized functions:

 ∑ Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial

data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2

USB-to-TTL Serial chip.

∑ External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an

interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the

attachInterrupt( ) function for details.

∑ PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the

analogWrite( ) function.

∑ SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI

communication, which, although provided by the underlying hardware, is not

currently included in the Arduino language.

∑ LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is

HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

3.1.2 Ultrasonic Transducer

Ultrasonic transducers are transducers that convert ultrasound waves to

electrical signals or vice versa. Those that both transmit and receive may also be

called ultrasound transceivers; many ultrasound sensors besides being sensors are

indeed transceivers because they can both sense and transmit. These devices work on

a principle similar to that of transducers used in radar and sonar systems, which

evaluate attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes from radio or sound waves,

respectively. Active ultrasonic sensors generate high-frequency sound waves and

evaluate the echo which is received back by the sensor, measuring the time interval

between sending the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance to an

object. Passive ultrasonic sensors are basically microphones that detect ultrasonic
noise that is present under certain conditions, convert it to an electrical signal, and

report it to a computer.

Ultrasonic probes and ultrasonic baths are used to apply sound energy to

agitate particles in a wide range of laboratory applications. An ultrasonic transducer is

a device that converts AC into ultrasound, as well as the reverse, sound into AC. In

ultrasonic, the term typically refers to piezoelectric transducers or capacitive

transducers. Piezoelectric crystals change size and shape when a voltage is applied;

AC voltage makes them oscillate at the same frequency and produce ultrasonic sound.

Capacitive transducers use electrostatic fields between a conductive diaphragm and a

backing plate.

The beam pattern of a transducer can be determined by the active transducer

area and shape, the ultrasound wavelength, and the sound velocity of the propagation

medium. The diagrams show the sound fields of an unfocused and a focusing

ultrasonic transducer in water, plainly at differing energy levels.

Since piezoelectric materials generate a voltage when force is applied to them,

they can also work as ultrasonic detectors. Some systems use separate transmitters

and receivers, while others combine both functions into a single piezoelectric

transceiver.

Ultrasound transmitters can also use non-piezoelectric principles such as

magneto-striction. Materials with this property change size slightly when exposed to a

magnetic field, and make practical transducers.

A capacitor ("condenser") microphone has a thin diaphragm that responds to

ultrasound waves. Changes in the electric field between the diaphragm and a closely

spaced backing plate convert sound signals to electric currents, which can be

amplified.
 Ultrasonic sensors are widely used in cars as parking sensors to aid the driver

in reversing into parking spaces. They are being tested for a number of other

automotive uses including ultrasonic people detection and assisting in autonomous

UAV navigation.

(a)
 (b)

Figure 3.2 (a) and (b) Ultrasonic Transducer HC-SR04 (Front and Back view)

Ultrasonic ranging module HC - SR04 provides 2cm - 400cm non-contact

measurement function, the ranging accuracy can reach to 3mm. The modules includes

ultrasonic transmitters, receiver and control circuit.

The basic principle of work:

∑ Using IO trigger for at least 10us high level signal,

∑ The Module automatically sends eight 40 kHz and detect whether there

is a pulse signal back.

∑ IF the signal back, through high level , time of high output IO duration

is the time from sending ultrasonic to returning. Test distance = (high

level time * velocity of sound (340M/S) / 2.

Wire connecting direct as following:

∑ 5V Supply
 ∑ Trigger Pulse Input

∑ Echo Pulse Output

∑ 0V Ground

Working Voltage DC 5V

Working Current 15mA

Working Frequency 40Hz

Max Range 4m

Min Range 2cm

Measuring Angle 15 degree

Trigger Input Signal 10uS TTL pulse

Echo Output Signal Input TTL lever signal and the range in

proportion

Dimension 45 X 20 X 15mm

Timing Diagram

The Timing diagram is shown below. You only need to supply a short 10uS

pulse to the trigger input to start the ranging, and then the module will send out an 8

cycle burst of ultrasound at 40 kHz and raise its echo. The Echo is a distance object

that is pulse width and the range in proportion .You can calculate the range through

the time interval between sending trigger signal and receiving echo signal. Formula:

µS / 58 = centimetres or µS / 148 =inch;

Or

The range = high level time * velocity (340M/S) / 2

It is always suggested to use over 60ms measurement cycle, in order to prevent trigger

signal to the echo signal.

Figure 3.3 Timing diagram for the Ultrasonic Transducer HC-SR04

Figure 3.4 Target angle range test of Ultrasonic Transducer

3.1.3 DC gear motor

DC geared motors are essentially a DC shunt motor which has been specially

designed for low inertia, symmetrical rotation and smooth low-speed characteristics.

Geared motor is a motor with a closed feedback system in which the position of the

motor will be communicated back to the control circuit in the motors. Geared motors

are formed from four different elements: a DC motor, a position-sensing device (a

potentiometer), a gear reducing part and a control unit. All of these components work

together to make the motor to accept control signals that represent the desired output

of the motor shaft and power the DC motor until its shaft is turned to the right

position. The shaft in geared motors doesn’t rotate as freely as those in regular DC

motors; it is only able to rotate around 200 degrees in both directions. The position-

sensing device in a geared motor determines the rotation of the shaft and thus the way

the motor needs to turn in order to arrive at the desired position. The sliding mode

control is robust to plant uncertainties and insensitive to external disturbances. It is

commonly used to get good dynamic performance of controllable systems. Even then,

the chattering phenomena due to the finite speed of the switching devices can affect

the system behaviour significantly. Besides, the sliding control needs the knowledge

of mathematical model of the system with bounded uncertainties. Reduced chattering

may be achieved without sacrificing robust performance by combining the attractive

features of fuzzy control with SMC.

 Fig 3.5 DC gear motor

Length 80mm

Volts 12v

Stall Torque 12kg-cm

Speed 100rpm

Shaft Diameter 6mm

Weight 281g

Table 3.3 Specifications of DC gear motor

3.1.4 Servo Motor

A servo system mainly consists of three basic components - a controlled

device, a output sensor, a feedback system. This is an automatic closed loop control

system. Here instead of controlling a device by applying the variable input signal, the

device is controlled by a feedback signal generated by comparing output signal and

reference input signal. When reference input signal or command signal is applied to

the system, it is compared with output reference signal of the system produced by

output sensor, and a third signal produced by a feedback system.

 This third signal acts as an input signal of controlled device. This input signal

to the device presents as long as there is a logical difference between reference input

signal and the output signal of the system. After the device achieves its desired output,

there will be no longer the logical difference between reference input signal and

reference output signal of the system. Then, the third signal produced by comparing

theses above said signals will not remain enough to operate the device further and to

produce a further output of the system until the next reference input signal or

command signal is applied to the system. Hence, the primary task of a

servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system at the desired value in the

presence of disturbances.

A servo motor is basically a DC motor (in some special cases it is AC motor)

along with some other special purpose components that make a DC motor a servo. In

a servo unit, you will find a small DC motor, a potentiometer, gear arrangement and

an intelligent circuitry. The intelligent circuitry along with the potentiometer makes

the servo to rotate according to our wishes. As we know, a small DC motor will rotate

with high speed but the torque generated by its rotation will not be enough to move

even a light load. This is where the gear system inside a servomechanism comes into

the picture. The gear mechanism will take high input speed of the motor (fast) and at

the output, we will get an output speed which is slower than original input speed but

more practical and widely applicable.

The output shaft of servomotor SG 90 is capable of travelling somewhere

around 180 degrees. A normal servomotor is used to control an angular motion

between 0 and 180 degrees, and it is mechanically not capable of turning any farther

due to a mechanical stop built on to the main output gear. The angle through which

the output shaft of the servomotor need to travel is determined according to the nature
of the signal given to the motor as input from the PIC microcontroller. Due to rotation

of servomotor in 180 degrees, the brakes can be applied and released through given

brakes mechanism.

Fig 3.6 Servomotor

Weight 9 gram

Gear Type Plastic

Operating speed 0.12second/ 60degree

Operating voltage (3.0-7.2)V

Angle of rotation (0-180) degrees

Table 3.4 Specifications of servomotor

Plate 3.1 Bottom view of Automatic Braking System

Plate 3.2 Final Project front view

CHAPTER 4

RESULT
4.1 Result

As a result of this automatic braking system, the function of each part is

working well and the whole system is successfully accomplished. The safety distance

is determined then the vehicle system is braked when the obstacle is detected. The

ranging accuracy of ultrasonic sensor in this prototype is about 2cm to 1m and works

effectively within the prescribed limit.

4.2 Final Overview of Project

In this project, we have checked the working of our project, we connected it

with a batteries and whose braking system is controlled by a DC gear motor and

servomotor. This technique is eco-friendly and this work is an attempt to reduce

accidents while in critical driving conditions. We have tested the working of the

system by placing various objects ahead as obstacles. The system responded by

reducing the speed of the vehicle when the obstacle is placed at various distances

from it. Also the system stopped automatically in restricted areas. It gave very

accurate measurement according to limit of values interpreted.

CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION

We have successfully completed the fabrication of automatic braking system

model prototype and this project presents the implementation of an Automatic Braking

System for Forward Collision Avoidance, intended to use in vehicles where the drivers

may not brake manually, but the speed of the vehicle can be reduced automatically

due to the sensing of the obstacles. It reduces the accident levels and tends to save the

lives of so many people. By doing this project practically we gained the knowledge

about working of automatic braking system and with this future study and research,

we hope to develop the system into an even more advanced speed control system for

automobile safety, while realizing that this certainly requires tons of work and

learning, like the programming and operation of microcontrollers and the automobile

structure. Hence we believe that the incorporation of all components in Automatic

Braking System will maximize safety and also give such system a bigger market space

and a competitive edge in the market.

FUTURE SCOPE
FUTURE SCOPE

The future scope is to design and develop a control system based on an

automotive braking system is called “Automatic Braking System”. The Automatic

Braking System with ultrasonic sensor would alert the driver when the distance

between vehicle and obstacle is in within the sensing range zone then the brakes are

applied. This is the new function in this prototype design that could be possibly used

for all the vehicles. By making it safer, this system will provide better guarantee for

vehicle’s safety and avoid losses. Therefore, the safety system of vehicles will be

developed and may have more market demands.

It can be further used for large type of heavy vehicles like buses, trucks,

cranes, tractors, etc. We can surely get the information about the obstacle detection

sense zone according to vehicle condition. It is verily useful to public sector and

users. It is also avoids the accidents in large or metropolitan cities. So we feel it is a

better idea for automatically braking of vehicle with moderate cost.

REFERENCES
REFERENCES

 www. Wikipedia.com

 www.google.com

 www.optms.com

 www.galco.com