EEL 101 – Electrical Engineering

Electrical Components:
1. Resistor

2. Inductor
3. Capacitor
4. Voltage Source 5. Current Source
DC AC
+ +
- - ~
Terminal
Terminal “A” Terminal “B”
Element
Node
Any point in the circuit where the terminals of two or
more elements are connected together

Node
Branch
Portion of the circuit between two nodes
Closed Path
Any path along various branches which finishes at the
point where it started

Mesh
Any path which contains no other paths within it, is
called a mesh.

Loop
A path which contains more than two meshes,
is called a loop.
 a b c d e

+ +
- -
g g g g g

Voltage Sources = Two Nodes = a, b, c, d, g

Current Source = One Branches = ag, ab, bg, bc,
Resistors = 4 cg, cd, dg, de
Inductors = Two Meshes = abga, bcgb, cdgc,degd
Capacitor = One Some Loops = abcga, bcdgb, cdegc
Some Conventions
Polarity of a Voltage Source

+ +
Rise - Fall
-

+ = Higher Potential - = Lower Potential

From – to + = Voltage Rise
From + to - = Voltage drop
Polarity of a Resistor
a R b
+ -
I
+ = Higher Potential - = Lower Potential
From – to + = Voltage Rise, Vba = - IR
From + to - = Voltage drop, Vab = + IR

+ sign = entering current

- sign = leaving current
Ohm’s law

Georg Simon Ohm, German physicist

16 March 1789 - 6 July 1854 (aged 65)
Physics (Electricity)
Ohm’s law
The current through any conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference between its
end
(assuming temp, length and cross sectional area of
conductor remaining constant)
If V = voltage in volts
I = current in amperes, then
I α V, 1
I= V
R
R is called resistance of the conductor
It is measured in ohms
 Symbol of ohm = Greek letter Omega Ω
The equation V = RI is known as mathematical
form of Ohm’s law
Other forms of Ohm’s law
and

Resistance – electrical property - opposes the current

Physical device – is called as RESISTOR
Resistor is an electrical circuit element
RESISTOR: Types: 1. Wire Wound,
2. Carbon Deposition (Moulding)
3. Metal Film
4. Diffused (IC)
Rheostat: Tapped Resistor: 1. Single Core
R 2. Double Core
I b
a
+ V -
a is at higher potential, b is at lower potential
Va = potential at a Vb = potential at b
Then voltage across the resistor Vab = Va - Vb
By ohm’s law, Vab = RI I
The curve between V and I, is called
Volt-ampere characteristics V
It is a straight line, if resistor obeys Ohm’s law.
Linear resistor
If resistor does not obey Om’s law, then it is called as
non-linear resistor. For example:
1. Resistors made up from semiconductor materials
(diode, transistor).
2. Incandescent Lamp Filament
3. Thyrite Resistor
Resistance:
Property of a substance which opposes the flow of
electric current.
One ohm is defined as the resistance of a conductor
when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied which
produces a current of 1 ampere. (condr not a source of emf)
Law of Resistance:
Resistance of a wire or conductor is
1. Directly proportional to its length, l
2. Inversely proportional to cross sectional area, a

where ρ (rho) (ohm – meter) is specific resistance or

resistivity of the material
1. Silver = 1.6 x 10-8 5. Iron = 12 x 10-8
2. Copper = 1.724 x 10-8 6. Carbon=3000 – 7000 x 10-8
3. Aluminium = 2.82 x 10-8
4. Brass = 6 – 8 x 10-8
Conductance:
The reciprocal of resistance ie., 1 / R is called as
conductance. Denoted by G.
It is also the inducement offered by the conductor to
the flow of current.
The unit of conductance is Siemens or Mho
(Ω)

σ - Sigma

σ = Specific Conductance or conductivity

The unit of σ or conductivity is Siemens/meter (S/m)
or Mho/meter ( /m)
Ω
Alternative forms of Ohm’s law: I = GV or G = I / V
 DC CIRCUIT
The closed path followed by electric current is called
Electric Circuit.
The essential parts of electric circuit are:
1. Source of Power (Battery , Generator)
2. Conductor (to carry current)
3. load (Lamp, heater, motor etc.)
The device which utilizes electrical energy is called
load.
The closed path followed by Direct Current (DC) is
called a DC Circuit.
Simple DC Circuit
B I C
+
_ V V=Voltage
across the lamp
A D
The direct current starts from the + terminal of the
battery and through switch and load comes back to
starting point.
ABCDA is a DC Circuit.
The load for a DC circuit is usually a resistance which
is a active element. Other passive elements like
inductance and capacitance are relevant in AC circuit.
The DC circuits are classified as
1. Series circuit: (loads are connected in series)
2. Parallel circuit: (loads are connected in parallel)
3. Series - Parallel circuit: (loads are connected in
combination of series and parallel)
1. Series circuit:
When two or more resistors are connected end to
end to form one path for the flow of same current
then the resistors are said to be connected in
series circuit.
 R1 R2 R3
a b c d
V1 V2 V3
I I
+ -
V
 R1 R2 R3
a b c d
V1 V2 V3
I I
+ -
V
If current through R1 is I1, R2 is I2 and R3 is I3, then
Current through R1, R2 and R3 = I = I1 = I2 = I3
a R s d

The equivalent I I
circuit is V
+ -
 R1 R2 R3
a b c d
V1 V2 V3
I I
+ -
V
If current through R1 is I1, R2 is I2 and R3 is I3, then
Current through R1, R2 and R3 = I = I1 = I2 = I3
a R s d

The equivalent I I
circuit is V
+ -
 R1 R2 R3
a b c d
V1 V2 V3
I I
+ -
By Ohm’s Law V
V1 = R1I, V2 = R2I, V3 = R3I,
Now,V = R1I + R2I + R3I
= (R1 + R2 + R3) I

= Rs
where Rs is total or equivalent resistance
 R1 R2 R3
a b c d
V1 V2 V3
I I
+ -
Voltage Division V
Let us determine V1 , V2 and V3 in terms of V.
V R3
I= V3 = R3I = V
RS R
R1 S
V1 = R1I = V Theses are voltage
RS
R2 divider equations.
V2 = R2I = V No current in the equation
RS
Consider two resistors
First write down current equation
I
V
I=
+ R 1+ R 2
R1 V1 Now, Voltage equN
+ -
V -
+ V1 = R1 I = V
R2 V2
- V
V2 = R2 I =
Thus voltage across that resistor is equal to the applied
voltage times the ratio of that resistance to the total
resistance
Open Circuit and Short Circuit
Open means gap, break or interruption
Rs d
a
R 
I I= 0
V
+ -

Current is zero regardless voltage value

As per Ohm’s law

Thus, open circuit may be considered as a resistor of
INFINITE resistance.
Open Circuit and Short Circuit
a Rs d

I I =High
V
+ -
Short circuited means
1. shorting by a wire (tree falling ,snakes, birds etc)
2. zero voltage (across short) regardless current value

As per Ohm’s law

Thus, short circuit may be considered as a resistor of

ZERO resistance.
Thus in series circuit, the total resistance is equal to
The Arithmatic Sum of their individual resistances.
The following points may be noted:
1. Same current flows through the circuit.
2. Applied voltage is equal to the sum of voltage drops
across the different parts of the circuit.
3. Different resistors have their individual voltage
drops.
4. The voltage drops α resistance and current.
5. The voltage drops are additive.
6. Resistances are additive (resultant is always more).
7. Powers are additive.
Total Power
PT = I2 R1 + I2 R2 + I2 R3
Use:
1. All protective elements such as
Thermostat,
Fuse,
current limiting devices and
switches
are connected in series.
2. Series circuit is useful for decorative lighting.
Disadvantages
1. If a BREAK occurs in any parts of the circuit, then
NO CURRENT will flow and circuit becomes USELESS.
2. Series circuit is not practicable for home lighting.

+
_ V

Incorrect Lamp Connection

3. All devices connected in series must have same
current rating.
Operate ALL or
A series circuit is an ALL or None circuit.
Operate None
Example 1
Calculate the voltage across each of the resistors
shown and hence calculate the supply voltage V.
R1=2Ω R2=3Ω R3=8Ω

V1 V2 V3
I = 1.5A I
+ -
V
V1 = R1I, = 2x1.5 = 3 V V= V1+ V2 +V3
V2 = R2I, = 3x1.5 = 4.5 V = 19.5 V
V2 = R3I, = 8x1.5 = 12 V
Example 2
In figure shown, R2= 100 Ω, V=30 V and output
voltage is 10 V. Calculate the resistance R1.

I = V/ (R1+R2)
R1 = 30/ (R1+100)
+
V V2 = R2I,
-
R2 10 V 10 = 100x[30/ (R1+100)]
R1 = 200 Ω
2. Parallel circuit: (loads are connected in parallel)

+
_ V

Incorrect Lamp Connection

+
_ V

Correct Lamp Connection

2. Parallel circuit: (loads are connected in parallel)
When number of resistors are connected to one
common point on one end and to another common
point on other end.
Such circuits are known as parallel circuits.

All elements I1 R1
will have same I2 R2
voltage across I3 R3
them I
V=V1=V2=V3
+ -
V
The same circuit can also be drawn as follows:

I I1 I2 I3 I
+ +
V R1 R2 R3 V RP
- -
V1 V2 V3

The elements are connected between the same two

points = Parallel circuit
According to Ohm’s Law
Current in
Current in resistor R1;
resistor R3;

Current in resistor R2;

Now ;

1 1 1 
V   
 R1 R2 R3 
1 1 1 
V   
 R1 R2 R3 
1 1 1 1 
    
RP  R1 R2 R3 
Thus, when resistors are connected in parallel, the
reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is given by the
arithmetic sum of reciprocals of their individual
resistances.
Consider only two resistors, then
1 1 1   R1  R2 
    
RP  R1 R2   R1 R2 
PRODUCT
RP 
SUM
If there are N resistors, then
1 1 1 1 1 
    .... 
RP  R1 R2 R3 RN 

In terms of conductance
GP  G1  G2  G3  ....  GN 
Thus equivalent conductance in parallel circuit is
equal to the sum of individual conductances.
Current Division Consider two resistors in parallel.
I Total resistance of the circuit
+ I1 I2
RP =
V
- R1 R2
Now, Total current equN
I=
Individual current equN
R2
I1 = = =
For n resistors
R1
IN = I I2 =
Conclusions:
1. Same Voltage acts across all parts of the circuit.
2. Different resistors have their individual currents.
3. Total current is equal to the sum of individual
currents (Currents are additive)
4. Conductances are additive.
5. Powers are additive.
6. Resultant Resistance is always less.
( The reciprocal of resultant resistance is equal to the
sum of reciprocals of the resistances).

Parallel circuits are very common in use.

Advantages:
1. The appliances for same voltage but different
powers can be connected in parallel without
disturbing each other performance.
2. If the break occurs in any one of the branch circuit,
it will have no effect on other branch circuit
3. Independent individual control is possible.
Example 1
Calculate the effective resistance, current in each
resistor and the supply current.
I I1 I2 I3
+
V=12V- 6.8Ω 4.7Ω
2.2Ω
V1 V2 V3
1 1 1 1  1 1 1  R  1.23 
        P
R P  R1 R2 R3   6.8 4.7 2.2 
V 12 12 12 12
I1    1.76 A I 2    2.25 A I 3   5.45 A
R1 6.8 R2 4.7 2.2
V 12
I    9.76 A
RP 1.23
Example 2
A current of 8 A is shared between two resistors.
Calculate the current in the 2 Ω resistor, given
a) R1= 2 Ω b) a) R1= 4 Ω R1 2
a) I 2 I 8
R1  R2 22
I=8A I1 I2 4A
+
V- R1 R2=2 Ω
R1 4
b) I 2  I  8
R1  R2 42
 5.3 A
3. Series - Parallel circuit:
Circuit is a combination of series and parallel circuit.
I2 R2
R1
I3 R3
I I1
1

+ -
V
R2 and R3 are connected in parallel and that both
together are connected in series with R1.
For solving
First reduce parallel branch to an equivalent
Then solve simple series circuit

I2 R2
R1 RS
I R3
3
I1 I1

+ -
V
Then solve simple series circuit
R2 R3
For parallel combination, RS 
R2  R3
R1 RS

I1 I1

+ -
V R2 R3
Total circuit resistance, RT  R1 
R2  R3
Voltage across parallel combination,
R2 R3
I1 RS or I1
R2  R3
Now
V V
I1  
R1  RS RT
R1 RS

I1 I1

+ -
V
R3 R2
I 2  I1 I 3  I1
R2  R3 R2  R3
Applications:
1. In automobile starting, lighting and ignition circuits
are joined to make series parallel circuits.
2. Radio and television receivers contain tuning circuit
amplifier, oscillator, detector and tube. The receiver
as a whole is a series parallel circuit.
3. Power supplies are connected in series to get
higher voltage and in parallel to get higher current.
Example 1:
A 150 Ω resistance coil AB is connected across 240V
dc supply. Calculate the value of resistance which,
when connected between the midpoint and end A,
will carry a current of 0.8A
0.8 A R

75Ω 75Ω
A B
I1 M
I I

+ -
240 V
Voltage across RMB =RMBI=75I
VAM=VAB-VMB=240 -VMB =240 -75I
Now, I = I1+0.8
VAM 240 - 75I
  0.8   0.8  I I  2A
75 75
0.8 A R VAM=240 -75x2 = 90
VAM
R
75Ω 75Ω 0.8
A B
90
I1 M 
I I 0.8
 112.5 
+ -
240 V
Example 2:
A DC circuit comprises two resistors, A of 25 Ω and B
of unknown value, connected in parallel, together with
a third resistor C of value 5 Ω connected in series with
the parallel group. The potential difference across C is
found to 90 V. If the total power in the circuit is 4320W
Calculate: a) the value of resistor B
b) the voltage applied to the end of the
whole circuit
c) the current in the each resistor
 IB B
C=5Ω
IA A=25Ω
90V I
I
+ -
90
a) I   18A
5
If R is the total resistance of the circuit, then
I 2 R  4320W 40 25B
 5
4320 40 3 25  B
R 2
 
18 3  B  12.5 
 IB B
C=5Ω
IA A=25Ω
90V I
I
+ -
b) Voltage applied to the ends of the whole circuit
40
RI  18  240 V
3
c) Current in C = I =18 A Current in B,
Current in A, 240 - 90
240 - 90 IB   12 A
IA   6A 12.5
25
Example 3: c

3Ω 5Ω
a b
Terminal C
4Ω 6Ω

Determine the resistance between the terminals a-b

in the network shown.
Example 3: c

3Ω 5Ω
a b

4Ω 6Ω

3Ω
a c
Example 3: c

3Ω 5Ω
a b

4Ω 6Ω

3Ω
a c

4Ω
Example 3: c

3Ω 5Ω
a b

4Ω 6Ω

3Ω 5Ω
a c b

4Ω
Example 3: c

3Ω 5Ω
a b

4Ω 6Ω

3Ω 5Ω
a c b

4Ω 6Ω
Example 3:
3  4 12
RAC   
3 4 7
5  6 30
RBC   
5  6 11
12 30
RAB  RAC  RBC    4.44 
7 11

3Ω 5Ω
a c b

4Ω 6Ω
Kirchhoff’s Law

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

(12 March 1824 – 17 October 1887)
German physicist
fundamental electrical circuits.
Kirchhoff’s First Law or Current Law or Point Law
The algebraic sum of currents entering or leaving a
junction point at any instant is equal to zero.
or
The algebraic sum of currents entering into a node
is equal to the algebraic sum of currents leaving the
same node.
Kirchhoff’s First Law or Current Law or Point Law
The algebraic sum of currents entering or leaving a
junction point at any instant is equal to zero.
or
The algebraic sum of currents entering into a node
is equal to the algebraic sum of currents leaving the
same node.
I1
I2 I5
I3 I4
Kirchhoff’s First Law or Current Law or Point Law
The algebraic sum of currents entering or leaving a
junction point at any instant is equal to zero.
or
The algebraic sum of currents entering into a node
is equal to the algebraic sum of currents leaving the
same node.
I1
I2 I5
I3 I4
n

I
i 0
i 0
Kirchhoff’s First Law or Current Law or Point Law
The KCL is based on the conservation of charge at a
node.
The charge flowing into a node is equal to the charge
flowing out of a node.
Kirchhof’s Second Law or Voltage Law
At any instant, the algebraic sum of all the emf
(electromotive force) and the voltage drops in a
closed circuit is zero.
or
the algebraic sum of all the voltages around a closed
path is zero.
Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Voltage Law
V1

R1
+
V- R2 V2
n
R3
V
i 0
i 0
V3
KVL is an alternative method of stating the law of
conservation of energy.
The dissipating energy in resistors must be supplied
by the battery.
Kirchhoff’s Second Law or Voltage Law

Work per unit charge is voltage

Application V1
C R3 R4 D

I2 I2
I3 R1 R2
B E
I1 I1

A R5 F
V2
Application V1
C+ - - R3 + - R4 + D

I2 I2
B
I3 + R1
- + R2 - E
I1 I1
+ -
A - R5 + F
V2
Application V1
C+ - - R3 + - R4 + D

I2 I2
B
I3 + R1
- + R2 - E
I1 I1
+ -
A - R5 + F
V2
For Kirchhoff’s Current Law, consider node B and E

For Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, consider closed ckt ABEFA

Application V1
C+ - - R3 + - R4 + D

I2 I2 By using eqNs
B
I3 + R1
- + R2 - E (1), (2) and (3),
I1 I1 I1, I2 and I3 are
+ - calculated.
A - R5 + F
V2
For Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, consider closed ckt BCDEB

Now consider closed circuit ABCDEFA

Kirchhoff’s Law for AC:
We have seen
Voltage source Battery Fixed magnitude
Constant current
Now consider Voltage source Time varying quantity
Time varying current - AC
iR i - instataneous
R value of current
i
Voltage across resistor = i R
~ AC = e L
Voltage across
C
inductor
Voltage across
capacitor
Kirchhoff’s Law for AC:
By Kirchhoff’ law, we can write
e = iR

iR
i R

~ AC = e L

C
Example 1: 4V
X B
2Ω - +
2V 3Ω 3Ω 5Ω
+ 5V -
A Y
Calculate the potential difference between X and Y
Solution:
Current flowing through 2Ω and 3Ω resistors

Current flowing through 3Ω and 5Ω resistors

Example 1: 4V
X B
2Ω - +
2V 3Ω 3Ω 5Ω
+ 5V -
A Y
Voltage between X and Y
 I -I
Example 2: B 4Ω 1 2
D 1A

2Ω I2 3Ω 5Ω
I1 1-I1+I2
1A
A C
1-I1 1Ω
Find the current distribution in the network.
Solution:
Applying KVL to ABCA and BDCB
and

Solve the equations

 I -I
Example 2: B 4Ω 1 2
D 1A

2Ω I2 3Ω 5Ω
I1 1-I1+I2
1A
A 1Ω C
1-I1
11
Current in AB Current in BD  A
21
4 10
Current in AC  A Current in CD  A
7 21
2
Current in BC I 2  A
21
Example 3: 7Ω B
I I- (I1+I2)
A C
I1 I2 7Ω
+
60V - 12Ω 6Ω
5Ω
D
Obtain a) total power supplied by 60V source and
b) power absorbed in each resistor
Solution: a)
Resistance between points C & D, RCD = 12 Ω
12  6
Resistance between points B & D, RBD=  4Ω
12  6
Example 3: 7Ω B
I I- (I1+I2)
A C
I1 I2 7Ω
+
60V - 12Ω 4 Ω6Ω 12 Ω
5Ω
D
Obtain a) total power supplied by 60V source and
b) power absorbed in each resistor
Solution: a)
Resistance between points C & D, RCD = 12 Ω
12  6
Resistance between points B & D, RBD=  4Ω
12  6
Example 3: 7Ω B
I I- (I1+I2)
A C

+
60V - 4Ω 3Ω 12 Ω

D
12  4
Resistance due to RCD & RBD =  3Ω
12  4
Example 3: 7Ω B
I
A C

+
60V - 3Ω

D
12  4
Resistance due to RCD & RBD =  3Ω
12  4
Total equivalent resistance, RT = 7+3 = 10 Ω
60
Total current flowing =  6A
10
Total Power absorbed = I2 RT= 62 x10= 360 W
Example 3: I=6A 7Ω B I- (I1+I2)
A C
4.5A
I1 I2 7Ω
+
60V - 12Ω 6Ω
5Ω
D
Solution: b)
RCD 12
Current flowing through BD = I 6
RBD  RCD 4  12
=4.5A
Example 3: I=6A 7Ω B I- (I1+I2) =1.5A
A C
4.5A
I1=1.5A I1 I2=3A 7Ω
+
60V - 12Ω 6Ω
5Ω
D
Current flowing through CD = 6 - 4.5 =1.5A
6
Current I1= 4.5   1.5A
18
Current I2= 3A
Power absorbed in 7 Ω resistor = 62x7= 252 W
Example 3: I=6A 7Ω B I- (I1+I2) =1.5A
A C
4.5A
I1=1.5A I1 I2=3A 7Ω
+
60V - 12Ω 6Ω
5Ω
D
Power absorbed in 12 Ω resistor = (1.5)2x12= 27 W
Power absorbed in 6 Ω resistor = (3)2x6= 54 W
Power absorbed in 7 Ω resistor = (1.5)2x7= 15.75 W
Power absorbed in 7 Ω resistor = (1.5)2x5= 11.25 W
Total Power = 360 W
Example 4: R1=30 Ω
A C

B D
R3=10 Ω

Find the input resistance at AB for the network shown

when the terminals CD are a) open circuited
b) Short circuited
Example 4: R1=30 Ω
A C

B D
R3=10 Ω
Solution: A
a) From A there are
two paths AC and AD
Then from C to B D C
and from D to B
Hence RAB= R2+R3 ‖ R1+R4 B
=30 ‖ 40 =17.143 Ω
Example 4: R1=30 Ω
A C

B D
R3=10 Ω
b) C and D are A
short circuited
Hence RAB= R1 ‖ R2 + R3 ‖ R4
D C
=30 ‖ 20 + 10 ‖ 10
=17 Ω
B
Star ↔ Delta (or T ↔ Π) Transformation
There are some networks other than series & parallel
Three terminal network
Star (Y) network and Delta (Δ) network

A A

RA
RC RB

C B C RBC B
 C RC RB B C RBC B

RA RCA RAB
T Network
A A
A A Π Network
A A

RA
RC RB

C B C RBC B
Equivalent resistance
Resistance between Resistance between
A & B of star A & B of delta
RAB (RBC+RCA)
RA+RB = (1)
RAB+RBC+RCA

A A
RBC

RA
RC RB

C B C B
Equivalent resistance
Resistance between Resistance between
B & C of star B & C of delta
RBC (RCA+RAB)
RB+RC = (2)
RAB+RBC+RCA

A A

RA
RC RB

C B C RBC B
Equivalent resistance
Resistance between Resistance between
C & A of star C & A of delta
RCA (RAB+RBC)
RC+RA =
RAB+RBC+RCA (3)

A A

RA
RC RB

C B C RBC B
Delta to star transformation Similarly
EquNs (1) – (2) + (3) RBC RAB
R = (5)
RAB RCA B RAB+RBC+RCA
RA = (4)
RAB+RBC+RCA
RCA RBC
RC = (6)
RAB+RBC+RCA

A A

RA
RA
RC RB RC
RB

C B C RBC B
Delta to star transformation
Thus
Any arm of star Product of two adjacent arms of Delta
=
connection Sum of all arms of Delta

A A

RA
RA
RC RB RC
RB

C B C RBC B
Star to Delta transformation
Consider equations 4, 5 & 6
Dividing eq 4 by 5
RA RCA
=
RB RBC
RA
 RCA = RBC (7)
RB
Deviding eq 4 by 6
RA RAB
=
RC RBC
RA
 RAB = RBC (8)
RC
Star to Delta transformation
RA RA
Substitute eqns 7 & 8 in 4 RBC RBC
RAB RCA RC RB
RA = = R RA
RAB+RBC+RCA A
RBC+ RBC+ RBC
RA 2 RC RB
RB RC
= RBC
RA RA
+1+
RC RB
RA 2
= RBC
RA RB+ RB RC+ RC RA
RA RB+ RB RC+ RC RA
 RBC =
RA
 RB RC A
RBC = RB + RC + (9)
RA
Similarly
RC RA RA
RCA = RC + RA + (10) RC
RB
RB
RA RB
RAB = RA + RB + (11) C B
RC RBC
Thus, equivalent Delta resistance betN two terminals =
Sum of two star resistances connected to those
terminals plus the product of the same two star
resistances divided by the third star resistance
Example 1 11Ω A
I 8Ω I2 I1
E 11Ω 15Ω
13Ω
B
C
A battery of unknown emf is connected across the
resistances as shown.
The voltage drop across 8Ω resistor is 20V. What will
be the value of I1 and I2? What is the emf of battery.
Solution:
The voltage drop across 8Ω resistor is 20V.
The current through 8Ω resistor is 20/8= 2.5A
Example 1 11Ω A
I 8Ω I2 I1
E 11Ω 15Ω
13Ω
B
C
11
Current I1= 2.5   0.705 A
11  28
Current I2= 1.8 A
11 28
Total circuit resistance, RT= 8  11   26.9 
11  28

EMF of the battery, E= 2.5x26.9 = 67.25V

Example 2 Simplify the network given.
2Ω Solution:
A ABC is Delta connection.
C B
Convert it to Star
5Ω 3Ω RAB RCA
RA =
0.5Ω RAB+RBC+RCA
2x 5
D RA = = 1Ω
2+3+5
2x 3
2Ω
A 1Ω B RB = = 0.6Ω
A B 10
0.6Ω 5x 3
5Ω 3Ω RC = = 1.5Ω
1.5Ω 10
C C
Example 2 A 1Ω B
2Ω
0.6Ω
A B
C 1.5Ω
5Ω 3Ω C
0.5Ω 0.5Ω

D D
A B
1Ω 0.6Ω
2Ω

D
Example 3
Find the current drawn from a battery of 10 V
connected to the circuit shown.
A

10Ω
10Ω
10Ω

C 10Ω B

10V
Example 3
Find the current drawn from a battery of 10 V
connected to the circuit shown.
A A

10Ω
10Ω
10Ω
30Ω
C 10Ω B C 10Ω B
RA RB
RAB = RA + RB +
RC
10V = 30 Ω
First convert inner star to delta
Example 3

A A

30Ω
C 7.5Ω B C 10Ω B
300
= 7.5 Ω
10V 40

Two delta are in parallel.

Example 3
Total resistance between B &C
15x7.5
=5Ω
22.5
A
Current drawn from supply
10
= 2A
5

C 7.5Ω B C 5Ω B

10V 10V
Example 4
Find the resistance between 11’ of the circuit shown

A
1

2Ω
B C

1’
D

First convert ABC delta to star

Example 4
Find the resistance between 11’ of the circuit shown
1 A
A 2Ω
1

2Ω
B C
B C

1’
D 1’
D
RAB RCA 24 8
RA = RA = = 2Ω RB = = 0.66Ω
RAB+RBC+RCA 12 12
12
RC = = 1Ω
First convert ABC delta to star 12
Example 4
Find the resistance between 11’ of the circuit shown
1 A
Total resistance RT =
2Ω
10.66x15
2+ = 8.231Ω
10.66+15

B C

1’
D
Voltage Source:
An ideal independent voltage source is a 2 terminal circuit
element that maintains a CONSTANT voltage irrespective of
current drawn from it.
A constant voltage source is called dc source or an ideal
battery

Voltage source with

+ + zero voltage =
E Vs(t)= E
- - Short Circuit

The independent ideal voltage source is a concept and not a

real world device.
Real or Non-ideal Voltage Source
It is not possible to construct an ideal voltage source, because
an real voltage source has small but finite internal resistance.
If load resistance
rvs
Es
+ V E + R VL
RL is connected
- S
- L Then current
starts flowing and
VL = Es – rvs I

A practical voltage
source is represented by SC
Dependent or Controlled Voltage Source
If the output voltage depends
on the other variables then
+
the source is called a kVs -
Controlled Voltage Source.

Grouping of Voltage Sources

1. Series Grouping
2. Parallel Grouping and
3. Series Parallel Grouping
Grouping of Voltage Sources rvs
Es
1. Series Grouping
rvs
Es
V=3Es Es
Es rvs
rS=3rvs Es
Es
Current rating same = I
1. Parallel Grouping

V=Es 1 1 1 1
Es = + + IT=3I
rP rvs rvs rvs

Two voltage sources of different voltages cannot be

connected in parallel.
Current Source:
An ideal independent current source is a 2 terminal circuit
element that supplies SAME current to any resistance
connected.
The current is independent of voltage at the terminals.
i(t)
+ is(t) = Source Current
i (t) = terminal Current
is(t) v (t) v (t) = Terminal Voltage
- Current source with zero
current = Open Circuit

The independent ideal current source is a concept and not a

real world device.
Real or Non-ideal Current Source
It is not possible to construct an ideal current source, because
an real current source has some internal resistance Rcs.
A practical current
source is represented by
Is Rcs
OC Rcs

Dependent or Controlled Current Source

If the current depends on the other
variables (other voltage or current) then
the source is called a kIs
Controlled Current Source.
Source Transformation
Replacing one source by an equivalent source.
For equal
rvs load current
RL
RL Is Rcs VL Rcs = rvs,
Es VL
Es
Is = r
Current source vs
Voltage source
Current source can
VL VL be replaced by
VL=Es - rvsIL Is = +
Rcs RL voltage source
VL E s VL
= - IL
rvs rvs Is = + IL Es = Is Rcs
E s VL Rcs
IL = r - r VL Voltage source can
vs vs IL = Is - be replaced by
Rcs
current source
Source Transformation
Thus voltage source Es in series with R is equivalent to a
current source Is in parallel with R.

R RL
Es RL VL Is R VL

Es
Is = or Es = R Is
R
Example 1
Find current I with the use of source transformation
2Ω 2Ω
5Ω - + 5Ω
+ I + I
10mV
20mV 3Ω 20mV 3Ω
- 2mA -

2mA current source is equivalent to

Es = R Is = 2x5 = 10mV
Now apply KVL
20 - 2I + 10 - 5I- 3I = 0

I = 3mA
Example 2
Find current I and voltage across the resistor 5 Ω
with the use of source transformation
3Ω 6Ω 3Ω
i
+
6V 6Ω 1.5A 5Ω
-

6Ω 3Ω
i
2A 3Ω 6Ω 1.5A 5Ω
 6Ω 3Ω
i
2A 2Ω 5Ω

2Ω 6Ω 3Ω

+ i
4V 1.5A 5Ω
-
 8Ω 3Ω
i
+
4V 1.5A 5Ω
-

3Ω
i
0.5A 8Ω 1.5A 5Ω
 3Ω
i
2A 8Ω 1.5A 5Ω

8Ω 3Ω
i
+
16V 5Ω
-
16
i =
16
= 1A Voltage across 5 Ω resistor
=5V