B.TECH 4TH SEM.

MECHANICAL APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

ENGINEERING
LAB (MU-216)

LAB MANUAL
OF

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
(MU-216)

B.TECH 4TH SEM. MECHANICAL ENGG.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

YMCA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, FARIDABAD

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 B.TECH 4TH SEM. MECHANICAL APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
ENGINEERING
LAB (MU-216)

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. To study low Pressure Boilers and their mountings and accessories.

2. To evaluate high pressure boilers for different applications.

3. To prepare the heat balance sheet for a given boiler.

4. To analyse the working of Impulse and Impulse-Reaction steam turbine.

5. To measure the dryness fraction of steam using throttling calorimeter.

6. To evaluate condensers for various types of applications.

7. To find volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating air compressor.

8. To find out the efficiency of cooling tower.

9. To find calorific value of a sample of fuel using Bomb calorimeter.

10. To study the governing mechanism of steam turbines.

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 B.TECH 4TH SEM. MECHANICAL APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
ENGINEERING
LAB (MU-216)

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

Aim: To study low Pressure Boilers and their mountings and accessories.
Theory: The steam boiler or steam generator is a closed vessel in which water is heated,
vaporized and converted into steam at a pressure higher than the atmosphere pressure.
The heat energy required for steam generation is produced by burning of the fuel in the
furnace. The steam produced in the boiler may be used for producing power, for
industrial process or for heating purposes.
Classification of Boilers:
The boilers may be classified according to following criteria:
1. According to relative position of water and hot gases:
(a) Water tube boiler: A boiler in which the water flows through the tubes
which are surrounded by hot combustion gases i.e. Babcock and Wilcox,
Stirling, Benson boilers etc.
(b) Fire tube boiler: The hot combustion gases pass through the boiler tubes,
which are surrounded by water i.e. Lancashire, Cochran, Locomotive boilers
etc.
2. According to water circulation arrangement:
(a) Natural circulation: Water circulates in the boiler due to density difference
of hot and cold water e.g., Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Lancashire boiler,
Locomotive boiler etc.
(b) Forced circulation: A water pump forces the water along its path, therefore,
the steam generation rate increases e.g. Benson, La Mont, Velox boilers etc.
3. According to position of furnaces:
(a) Internally fired: The furnace is located inside the shell e.g., Cochran,
Lancashire boilers etc.
(b) Externally fired: The furnace is located outside the boiler shell i.e. Babcock
and Wilcox, Stirling boilers etc.
4. According to the use:
(a) Stationary
(b) Portable
(c) Locomotive or marine boiler
5. According to position of the boiler shell:
(a) Horizontal
(b) Inclined or vertical boilers.

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 B.TECH 4TH SEM. MECHANICAL APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
ENGINEERING
LAB (MU-216)

Principle parts and their functions

Generally, a boiler consists of the following parts:
1. Drum: The boiler drum consists of shell and end heads. The shell of the boiler
consists of one or more steel plates bent into the cylindrical form and riveted or
welded together. The ends of the shell are closed by means of the flat or curved
plates called boiler head and boiler drum is formed.
2. Setting: It is also called foundation and constructed of bricks. It supports the
boiler drum and other components. It forms the wall of the furnace, combustion
chamber and passage to flue gases.
3. Grate: It is the space located below the furnace.
4. Furnace: It is the space above the grate and below the boiler shell. It is the
space, where the volatile matter and combustible gases are burnt and flue gases
are generated.
5. Flue gases: It is the hot mixture of products of combustion, generated in the
furnace.
6. Heating Surface: It is the surface of boiler, which is exposed to hot flue gases
on one side and water on other side.
7. Water space: The space of the boiler shell occupied by water is called water
space. The level of water is maintained in the boiler and can be seen through
water level indicator.
8. Steam space: The entire space of boiler shell which is not occupied by water is
called steam space.
9. Feed water: The water supplied to the boiler is called feed water. The pump
which supplies the water is called feed pump.
10. Working pressure: It is the pressure of steam
11. Economizer: The feed water supplied by the feed pump is heated by the waste
hot gases before they escape to the chimney. Therefore, some of the waste heat
is recovered
12. Air preheater: Similar to feed water heating the fresh air going to furnace is
also preheated to improve the combustion process. The device of air heating
system is knows as air pre heater.
13. Super heater: These are the devices which heat the saturated steam generated
in the boiler. The super heaters are located above the furnace and they increase
the heat content of steam without increasing it pressure.
The following low pressure boilers can be studied:
1. Cochran Boiler:
It is a vertical fire tube boiler. The flue gases from the furnace are passed through a
number of small tubes surrounded by water.
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ENGINEERING
LAB (MU-216)

As shown in figure given below, it consists of cylindrical shell, grating, fire box,
combustion chamber, number of smoke tubes, smoke box, chimney and various
mountings.
The fuel is burnt on grate in the fire box. The hot gases pass through a short flue to
combustion chamber, small smoke tubes and then collected in the smoke box, from
where they are discharged to atmosphere through the chimney.
The heat is transferred to water by radiation through the dome of fire place and by
convection from the walls of the smoke tubes. On heating and vaporization the water is
converted into steam. The generated steam is collected in the steam space above the
water. This steam is then taken for use through main steam stop valve.
A man hole is provided in the crown of boiler for periodic cleaning and maintenance.
Mud hole is provided at the bottom for draining out the muddy water from the boiler.
The pressure gauge water gauge, blow off cock, feed check valve, feed pump, fusible
plug and chimney are provided for proper functioning of boiler.

Fig.: Cochran Boiler

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ENGINEERING
LAB (MU-216)

The Cochran boiler are made in sizes from 1 m to 3 m in diameter, 2 m to 6 m height, its
steam generation rate is approximately 3600 kg/h with working pressure limited to 11
bar.
2. Lancashire boiler:
It is horizontal, internally fired, fire tube, stationary boiler. The boiler has cylindrical
shell usually 2 to 3 mm diameter and 7 to 9 m long. This boiler is used for power
generation at moderate steam pressure of 15 bar.
As shown in figure given below, the boiler consists of a large shell supported by
refractory brick masonry. Two large, horizontal and parallel flue gas tubes are passing
through shell. The fire place is located in front of flue tubes. In brick work, a flue
passage, a below the boiler shell, two flue passages at the sides of boiler are formed. The
flue passages are connected to a chamber and then to chimney.

Fig.: Lancashire Boiler

The fuel is burnt on the grate and the hot gases travel along internal flue tubes followed
by flue passage A and then in side passages. The flue gases are then collected in the
chamber before they are lead to atmosphere through a chimney. The hot flue gases
transfer its maximum heat contents to water during it long passages. The water is
converted into steam and collected in the steam space in the shell and it is then taken out
through steam stop valve for use.
The boiler is also provided with usual mountings like pressure gauge, water gauge, blow
off cock, steam stop valve and safety valve. It is also provided with low water and high
steam alarm, which gives audio signal for low water level and high steam pressure.

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LAB (MU-216)

3. Cornish Boiler:
The Cornish boiler is very similar to Lancashire boiler; it is also horizontal, fire tube,
internally fired stationary boiler. However, it differs from Lancashire boiler in two
respects.
a. It is small in size.
b. It has only one flue tube.
4. Locomotive Boiler:
It is also an internally fired, horizontal, fire tube boiler. It is mostly used on Locomotive
for generating steam to drive a steam engine. The locomotive boiler generates the steam
at a pressure of about 25 bar with steam rate of 60-70 kg/h per square meter of the
heating surface.
A view of Locomotive boiler is shown in figure. It consists of the following main parts:
1. Boiler shell 2. Fire box surrounded by water
3. Smoke tubes 4. Super heater tubes
5. Smoke box 6. Chimney
7. Blast pipe 8. Damper
9. Steam Dome with regulator 10. Safety valve and other mountings
The flue gases are formed due to combustion of solid fuel, coal in presence of air on
grate. These gases rise up and are deflected by a brick arch for their proper distribution
to pass through smoke tubes and over super heater tubes and then finally get discharged
into the atmosphere through a short chimney.

Fig.: Locomotive Boiler

The heat is transferred to water through the walls of the furnace, smoke tubes and super
heater tubes. The steam generated is collected in steam space above the water in the
boiler drum. A steam regulator is located in the steam dome and is operated by a long
regulator rod from the engine cabin by a driver. When this valve is opened, the wet
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ENGINEERING
LAB (MU-216)

steam passes through the super heater header to super heated tubes located in a smoke
box. As steam passes through super heated tubes, it picks up additional heat and
becomes superheated. The superheated steam is then supplied to steam engine.
Since on locomotive engine the long chimney cannot be installed thus the sufficient
suction effect (natural draught) cannot be created. Therefore, the exhaust steam from the
engine is discharged through a nozzle at the top of the blast pipe (exhaust pipe). The jet
of steam draws the flue gases to atmosphere through the short chimney thus creates
sufficient suction in the fire box to suck the fresh air.
6. Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:
Babcock and Wilcox boiler is probably first water tube boiler designed and widely used.
A schematic of Babcock and Wilcox boiler is shown in figure given below and its
construction and operation are stated below.

Fig.: Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

Construction:
(1) A horizontal steam and water drum:
This is a main part of boiler. It is supported by steel structure at a certain height and is
independent of brick work. The size of the boiler drum is small as compared with boiler
drum of fire tube boiler of same capacity. It contains water and steam. All safety and
control devices are mounted over the boiler drum.

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ENGINEERING
LAB (MU-216)

(2) A bundle of steel tubes:

The front end of the boiler drum is connected to uptake header (water only) by short tube
and rear end is connected to the down take heater (water box) by a long tube. In between
the headers a number of small diameter steel tubes are fitted at an angle 50 to 150 with
horizontal to promote the water circulation. These steel tubes are arranged in combustion
chamber in zigzag manner so that more surface area of the tube is exposed to hot gases.
(3) Combustion Chamber:
It is the space above the grate below the front end of the drum where combustion of fuel
takes place. This chamber is enclosed by brickworks and it is lined from inside by fire
bricks and doors are provided to give access of cleaning, inspection and repair purpose.
Combustion chamber is divided into three separate compartments by baffles. Thus the
first compartment above the furnace is hottest and last chamber is of lowest temperature.
This makes the longer path of hot gases before leaving the boiler through the chimney.
Dampers are provided at rear end of the chamber to regulate the fresh air supply for
maintaining proper combustion of fuel.
(4) Safety and control devices:
Safety and control devices are called mountings basically these devices are mounted over
a boiler drum. These are safety valve, pressure gauge, water level indicator, feed check
valve, steam stop valve, and blow off cock, fusible plug and man hole.
Operation:
The water is pumped by feed pump and it enters the drum through the feed check valve
upto the prespecified level so that the headers and tubes are flooded always. When the
combustion takes place above the grate the product of hot gases comes out and rushes
through each compartment of combustion chamber. Hence front portion of the tubes
have the highest temperature and rear portion has lowest. When water is heated inside
the tubes, it becomes lighter and rises up in the tube. Due to continuous heat supply,
some of water gets vaporized into steam inside the tubes and the mixture of water and
steam enters the boiler drum through uptake header and the cold water from the boiler
drum comes down through the downtime header and enters the lower end of the water
tubes for getting heated further. This natural circulation of water remains continuous due
to difference in temperature. Such a circulation is called thermo-siphon system.
The steam generated gets collected in the steam space above water space in the boiler
drum. In order to remove all water particles from the steam, it is finally, passed through
the super heater tubes for its superheating. The superheated steam is then available for
use.
Boiler Mountings:
The boiler mountings are the part of the boiler and are required for proper functioning. In
accordance with the Indian Boiler regulations, of the boiler mountings is essential fitting
for safe working of a boiler. Some of the important mountings are:

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LAB (MU-216)

(1) Safety Valve

Safety valves are located on the top of the boiler. They guard the boiler against the
excessive high pressure of steam inside the drum. If the pressure of steam in the boiler
drum exceeds the working pressure then the safety valve allows blow-off the excess
quantity of steam to atmosphere. Thus the pressure of steam in the drum falls. The
escape of steam makes an audio noise to warn the boiler attendant.
There are four types of safety valve.
1. Dead weight safety valve.
2. Spring loaded safety valve
3. Lever loaded safety valve
4. High steam and low water safety valve.
(2) Water level Indicator
Water level indicator is located in front of boiler in such a position that the level of water
can easily be seen by attendant. Two water level indicators are used on all boilers.
(3) Pressure Gauge
A pressure gauge is fitted in front of boiler in such a position that the operator can
conveniently read it. It reads the pressure of steam in the boiler and is connected to steam
space by a siphon tube.
The most commonly, the Bourdon pressure gauge is used.
(4) Fusible Plug
It is very important safety device, which protects the fire tube boiler against overheating.
It is located just above the furnace in the boiler. It consists of gun metal plug fixed in a
gun metal body with fusible molten metal.
During the normal boiler operation, the fusible plug is covered by water and its
temperature does not rise to its melting state. But when the water level falls too low in
the boiler, it uncovers the fusible plug. The furnace gases heat up the plug and fusible
metal of plug melts, the inner plug falls down The water and steam then rush through the
hole and extinguish the fire before any major damage occurs to the boiler due to
overheating.
(5) Blow-Off Cock
The function of blow-off cock is to discharge mud and other sediments deposited in the
bottom most part of the water space in the boiler, while boiler is in operation. It can also
be used to drain-off boiler water. Hence it is mounted at the lowest part of the boiler.
When it is open, water under the pressure rushes out, thus carrying sediments and mud.

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LAB (MU-216)

(6) Feed Check Valve

The feed check valve is fitted to the boiler, slightly below the working level in the boiler.
It is used to supply high pressure feed water to boiler. It also prevents the returning of
feed water from the boiler if feed pump fails to work.
(7) Steam Stop Valve
The steam stop valve is located on the highest part of the steam space. It regulates the
steam supply to use. The steam stop valve can be operated manually or automatically.
Boiler Accessories
The accessories are mounted on the boiler to increase its efficiency. These units are
optional on an efficient boiler. With addition of accessories on the boiler, the plant
efficiency also increases. The following accessories are normally used on a modern
boiler:
(i) Super heater, (ii) Economizer (iii) Air pre heater (iv) Feed water pump (v) Steam
injector.
(1) Super heater
It is a heat exchanger in which heat of combustion products is used to dry the wet steam,
pressure remains constant, its volume and temperature increase. Basically, a super heater
consists of a set of small diameter U tubes in which steam flows and takes up the heat
from hot flue gases.
(2) Economizer
An economizer is a heat exchanger, used for heating the feed water before it enters the
boiler. The economizer recovers some of waste heat of hot flue gases going to chimney.
It helps in improving the boiler efficiency. It is placed in the path of flue gases at the rear
end of the boiler just before air preheater.
(3) Air Preheater
The function of an air preheater is similar to that of an economizer. It recovers some
portion of the waste heat of hot flue gases going to chimney, and transfers same to the
fresh air before it enters the combustion chamber.
Due to preheating of air, the furnace temperature increases. It results in rapid combustion
of fuel with less soot, smoke and ash. The high furnace temperature can permit low
grade fuel with less atmospheric pollution. The air preheater is placed between
economizer and chimney.
(4) Feed Water Pump
It is used to feed the water at a high pressure against the high pressure of steam already
existing inside the boiler.

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(5) Steam Injector

A steam injector lifts and forces the feed water into the boiler. It is usually used for
vertical and locomotive boilers and can be accommodated in small space. It is less
costly. It does not have any moving parts thus operation is silent.

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 B.TECH 4TH SEM. MECHANICAL APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
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LAB (MU-216)

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

Aim: To evaluate high pressure boilers for different applications.

Theory:
The modern trend in central power stations is to generate and use steam at a high pressure
and temperature. The modern high pressure boilers used for power generation are for
steam capacities ranging from 30 to 650 tons/h and above with a pressure up to 200 bar
and maximum steam temperature about 6000C. Now, it is possible to generate steam
above the critical pressure of water (221.2 bar). But these supercritical boilers are
different than sub critical boiler in both design and operation because of the fact that
properties of steam in the critical range are different. The high pressure boilers are
characterized by the following:
(i) Forced circulation of water: In high pressure boilers, circulation of water is
forced instead of natural. Therefore, a pump is used to force the water in the
boiler.
(ii) Arrangement of drums and tubing: In order to avoid any large resistance to
flow of water, these boilers have a parallel set of tubes arrangement. They
have a very small steam separating drum or may be entirely free of drum.
(iii) Improved method of heating: The following methods are used to improve
heating:-
a. Superheated steam is used to heat the water.
b. Saving of latent heat by evaporation of water at pressure above critical.
c. The heat flow through the tube walls may be increased with the use of hot
gases traveling with supersonic velocity.
Advantages of high pressure boilers:
The following are the advantages of high pressure boilers:
(i) Smaller bore and therefore lighter tubes make the unit more compact. The
space and weight requirements are minimized which reduces the erection time
and cost.
(ii) Reduction in the number of drums.
(iii) There is greater freedom for disposing of the heating surface and hence
greater evaporation for a given size.
(iv) Lighter structure for a given output.
(v) The boiler is capable of meeting rapid changes of load without the use of
complicated or delicate control devices.
(vi) All the parts are heated uniformly which eliminate the danger of overheating
and setting up thermal stresses.
(vii) Due to uniform temperature of parts, the differential expansions are
minimized; this reduces the leakage of gas and air.

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(viii) There is complete elimination of high head which is needed for natural
circulation.
(ix) Due to high circulation velocity the tendency to form scales is eliminated to a
large extent.
(x) If an external supply of power is available, very rapid start from cold state is
possible. Hence the boiler is suitable for carrying peak loads. It is also useful
for standby purposes in hydraulic stations.
The system is slightly complicated and a certain percentage of the power is consumed by
the circulating pump. Examples of high pressure boilers are Lamont, Benson, Velox,
Loeffler, etc.
1. Lamont Boiler:
This is a high pressure, forced circulation, water tube type boiler invented by Lamont in
1925. Figure given below shows the details of a Lamont high pressure boiler.

Fig.: La Mont Boiler

The feed water from the hot well is supplied through an economizer to a separating and
storing drum that contains a feed regulator which controls the speed of the feed pump.
Since the economizer is placed in the boiler at a place from where hot combustion gases
pass, the economizer supplies sensible heat to the feed water. Water from the boiler drum
flows by gravity to a circulating pump, which discharges water into a distributing header.
Water from the distributing header flows through long small diameter boiler tubes located
in the walls and roof of the furnace to the drum where the steam is separated and water
returns to the pump. Orifices located at inlet to each circuit on the distributing header
correctly proportions the water among the many parallel circuits, so that, each receives its
proper share. The circulating pump raises the water pressure to about 3.5 bars above the
drum pressure to overcome the resistance to the flow controlling orifices and the long
circuit of small diameter tubing. At normal load, the quantity of water circulated in each
tube is about 3.8 times the steam evaporated in the long circuit of small tubes. This
avoids the overheating of the tubes.

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Since three circuit tubes are placed in the combustion chamber through which the hot
gases are passing upwards, the steam is generated in them. The mixture of water and
steam from these tubes enter the boiler drum where the moisture is separated from the
drum. Now the steam is led to the super heater tubes in which the steam gets
superheated. The superheated steam goes to ultimate destination through the steam stop
valve.
It is essential to maintain a constant level of water in the drum. This is possible by
supplying feed water equivalent to the steam quantity blown-off continuously. The pump
consumes about 0.5 to 0.6 % of the boiler output which is supplied by the power unit
using the steam from boiler. For economic combustion forced air preheated by the flue
gases is used.
2. Benson Boiler:
The Benson high pressure boiler introduced by Mark Benson in 1923 is a forced
circulation water tube boiler. The main feature of this boiler is the absence of the steam
separating drum. The entire process of heating, steam formation and superheating is
done in a single continuous tube but to increase efficiency many parallel circuits are used
The efficiency of this boiler is as high as 90%.
Figure given below, shows the details of a Benson boiler.

Fig.: Benson Boiler

It consists of:
(i) Air preheater in which air is preheated for economical combustion.
(ii) Economizer in which sensible heat is imparted to feed water.
(iii) Radiant surface of tubes in which radiant heat is supplied by combustion.

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(iv) Evaporative surface where the major quantity of water is evaporated

(v) Super heater tubes in which steam is superheated and led to the work.
It is an established fact that the rate of heat transmission from flue gas to water is
seriously impaired by the presence of steam bubbles in contact with the tube, and that, the
release of these bubbles causes the water circulation to pulsate. It was pointed out by
Mark Benson that if the boiler pressure was raised to the critical pressure, the steam and
water would have the same density and, therefore, no bubbles would be formed, thus
eliminating the trouble. But to raise the pressure above critical, a large amount of power
is consumed by the feed pump which lowers the efficiency of the plant. Hence by using
pressure slightly lower than critical improved efficiency is possible. At normal load, this
boiler has an operating pressure of 210 bar with 13500 kg/h evaporating capacity at 4050
C superheating temperature.
The Benson boiler has the following advantages:
(i) There is no pressure limitations and it may be as high as supercritical
(ii) Absence of circulating pump and down comers.
(iii) Absence of drum hence the cost is less.
(iv) Lighter in weight, higher specific output with high safety factor.
(v) Evaporation is quick
(vi) Self-contained unit and can be easily erected.
The disadvantages are:
(i) Evaporation process accompanied by formation of salt and solids in the tubes.
Special arrangements are required to remove this.
(ii) On evaporative surface, there is chance of corrosion of the tubes.
(iii) Overheating of the tubes in case of insufficient water supply.
(iv) Since the storage capacity is small, it requires close coordination between
steam, feed water and fuel input.
3. Loeffler Boiler:
This boiler is a forced circulation, indirect heating type of boiler. In this, water is
evaporated solely by means of superheated steam i.e., steam is used as the heat carrying
and heat absorbing media.
Figure given below shows the details of a Loeffler boiler. It consists of an evaporator
drum which may be placed at any convenient point outside the furnace setting. The feed
water pump is placed where the feed water passes through an economizer on the way to
the drum. Since the economizer is placed in the path of the outgoing hot gases, the
economizer gives sensible heat to water. The steam circulating pump extracts steam from
the evaporator drum and forces it to pass through the radiant and convective surface of
the super heater tubes placed in the path of the hot combustion gases. From the super
heater tube, a big portion (about ¾) of the superheated steam is trapped off for external
use while the remainder (1/4) passes on to the evaporator drum where it gives up it super
heat to the water contained in this drum, this generates an amount of steam equal to that
trapped off.

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Nozzles are provided which distribute steam through out the water contained in the drum.
The nozzles are of special design which avoid priming and noise so that the boiler can
carry a higher salt concentration than any other type of boiler. This makes it very
suitable for marine transport and for power generation.

Fig.: Loeffler Boiler

The air, preheated through the air preheater placed in the path of the outgoing hot gases is
used for economical combustion. The operating pressure of this boiler is 140 bars and
the steaming capacity is 95000 kg/h.
4. Velox Boiler:
The Velox boiler is a high pressure, forced circulation, pressurized or forced combustion
boiler but with the limitation of firing with oil or gas under pressure with little or no ash
problem. The evaporative capacity is limited to 10200 kg/h of steam.
Figure given below, shows the details of a Velox boiler. Air is compressed to about 2.5
bar in an axial compressor (which, at the time of start is driven by a motor) before being
supplied to an oil fuel furnace. The purpose of this compression of air is to secure a high
velocity of gas and also at the same time release of a great amount of heat. The fuel and
the compressed air are injected downwards into a vertical combustion chamber which is
surrounded by hollow evaporator tubes. On reaching the bottom of the combustion
chamber the products of combustion are deflected upward into the evaporator tubes by
means of a spiral water coil. The evaporator tubes consist of an outer annulus through
which 10 to 20 times the water evaporated is circulated at a high velocity. The core of
the lower half of the evaporator tube or element is occupied by a central pipe which
supplies water to the outer annulus, while the upper half is occupied by U-type super

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heater tubes. In the space between the inner pipes and outer annulus, the flue gas rushes
at a speed of about 250 m/s.
There is provision of a ring main (4) which collects the steam and water and discharges it
tangentially into the separating chamber (5). This forms a forced vortex, which, by
centrifugal loading on the water particles, allows steam release, without priming about
two hundred times as great as in boilers of normal design. The dry steam then passes up
the central tube (2) the super heater. The mud drum collects the separated water which is
extracted by means of a circulating pump. This circulating pump also creates a high
water velocity through the evaporator tubes.

Fig.: Velox Boiler

The flue gases, after passing through the superheater enter exhaust gas turbines that
drives the compressor. The exhaust from the turbine passes through the counter flow
feed heater where the feed water is preheated and which is discharged tangentially into
the separating drum.
This boiler is a very compact steam generative plant of great flexibility. It is capable of
quick starting and its thermal efficiency is about 90 to 95%.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3

Aim: To prepare the heat balance sheet for a given boiler.

Theory:
A heat balance sheet shows the complete amount of heat supplied by 1 kg of dry fuel
(equal to the calorific value of fuel) and heat consumed. The heat supplied is mainly
utilized for raising the steam and remaining heat is lost.
Heat utilized in raising steam per kg of fuel = me (h – hf1).
Where me = Mass of water actually evaporated per kg of fuel,
= ms / mf,
ms = Steam condensed (kg/h),
mf = Fuel used (kg/h),
(h – hf1) = Heat required to evaporate 1 kg of water
Note: hf1 is to be taken from steam tables corresponding to feed water temperature
h is to be calculated from steam tables corresponding to a steam pressure
Heat losses in a Boiler:
We know that the efficiency of a boiler is the ratio of heat utilized in producing steam to
the heat liberated in the furnace. Also the heat utilized is always less than the heat
liberated in the furnace. The difference of heat liberated in the furnace and heat utilized in
producing steam is known as heat lost in the boiler. The loss of heat may be divided into
various heads, but the following are important from the subject point of view:
1. Heat lost in dry flue gases:
Heat lost to dry flue gases per kg of fuel,
= mg x cpg (tg – tb) ….. (i)
Where mg = Mass of dry flue gases per kg of fuel,
cpg = Mean specific heat of dry flue gases,
tg = Temperature of flue gases leaving chimney, and
tb = Temperature of boiler room.
This loss is the maximum in a boiler.
2. Heat lost in moisture present in the fuel:
It is assumed that the moisture is converted into superheated steam at atmospheric
pressure (1.013 bar).
Heat lost in moisture present in the fuel:
= mm (hsup – hb) = mm [hg+cp (tg-t)-hh]

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= mm [2676+cp (tg – 100) –hb]

[From steam tables, corresponding to 1.013 bar, hg = 2676 KJ/kg and t = 1000 C]
Where mm = Mass of moisture per kg of fuel,
cp = Mean specific heat of superheated steam in flue gases,
tg = Temperature of flue gases leaving chimney, and
tb = Temperature of boiler room, and
hb = Enthalpy or sensible heat of water at boiler room temperature.
3. Heat lost to steam formed by combustion of hydrogen per kg of fuel:
Let H2 = Mass of hydrogen present per kg of fuel.
Therefore, mass of steam formed = 9 H2
Then heat lost to steam per kg of fuel = 9 H2 [ 2676 + Cp ( tg – 100 ) – hb ]
Note: Heat lost to moisture per kg of fuel = (9 H2+mm) [2676+cp(tg –100) –hb]
Where mm is the mass of moisture per kg of fuel.
4. Heat lost due to unburnt carbon in ash pit:
The heat lost due to unburnt carbon per kg of fuel = m1 x C1
Where m1 = Mass of carbon in ash pit per kg of fuel.
C2 = Calorific value of carbon.
5. Heat lost due to incomplete combustion of carbon to carbon monoxide (CO):
This loss, generally, occurs in a boiler due to insufficient air supply.
Heat lost due to incomplete combustion = m2 x C2
Where m2 = Mass of carbon monoxide in flue gas per kg of fuel, and
C2 = Caloric value of carbon monoxide.
6. Heat lost due to radiation :
There is no direct method for finding the heat lost due to radiation. This loss is
calculated by subtracting the heat utilized in raising steam and heat losses from
the heat supplied.

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Heat Balance Sheet

The heat balance sheet for a boiler trial per kg of fuel is drawn as below:

Heat supplied kJ Heat consumed kJ %

Heat supplied by 1 x 1. Heat utilized in raising steam. x1 ….

kg of dry fuel 2. Heat lost in dry flue gases. x2 ….
3. Heat lost in moisture in fuel. ….
x3
4. Heat lost to steam by ….
combustion of hydrogen. x4
5. Heat lost due to unburnt ….
carbon in ash pit. x5
6. Heat lost due to incomplete ….
combustion. x6
7. Heat lost due to radiation, etc. x - (x1+ x2 +x3
(by difference) ….
+x4+ x5+ x6)
Total x Total x 100%

Exercise:
Draw the heat balance sheet for the boiler where the following observations were made:
Pressure of steam = 10 bar
Steam Condensed = 540 kg/hr
Fuel used = 65 kg/hr
Moisture in fuel = 2% by mass
Mass of dry the gases = 9 kg/kg of fuel
Lower calorific value of fuel = 32,000 KJ/Kg
Temp. of flue gases = 325oC
Temp of boiler house = 28oC
Feed Water Temp = 50oC
Mean specific heat of flow gases = 1 KJ / Kg K
Dryness fraction of steam = 0.95

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Aim: To analyse the working of Impulse and Impulse-Reaction steam turbine.

Theory:
Principle of Operation of Steam Turbine:
Steam turbine is a prime mover which converts the heat energy of steam (at high pressure
and temperature) into mechanical work. The power so produced may be utilized in the
various fields of industry such as electricity generation transport, in driving of pumps,
fans and compressors, etc. The principle of operation of any turbine depends on
Newton’s Second law of motion. The motive power in a turbine is obtained by the change
in momentum of a high velocity jet impinging on a curved blade. The steam from the
boiler is expanded in a passage or nozzle where due to fall in pressure of steam, thermal
energy of steam is converted into kinetic energy of steam, resulting in the emission of a
high velocity jet of steam which impinges on the moving vanes or blades, mounted on a
shaft; here it undergoes a change in direction of motion which gives rise to a change in
momentum and therefore, a force. This constitutes the driving force of the machine.
Types of steam turbines:
(i) On the basis of principles of operation:
a) Impulse turbine
b) Impulse – reaction turbine
(a) Impulse Turbine. If the flow of steam through the nozzles and moving blades of
a turbine take place in such a manner that “the steam is expanded only in nozzles,
and pressure at the outlet side of blades is equal to that at inlet side”, i.e. drop in
pressure of steam takes place only in nozzles and not in moving blades; such a
turbine is termed as Impulse Turbine because it works on the principle of impulse.
This is obtained by making the blade passage of constant cross-sectional area.

Fig.: Principle of impulse turbine

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(b) Impulse-reaction Turbine: If the pressure of steam at the outlet from the
moving blades of a turbine is less than that at the inlet side of blades; this pressure
drop suffered by steam while passing through the moving blade causes a further
generation of kinetic energy within the blades, giving rise to reaction and adds to
the propelling force which is applied through the rotor to the turbine shaft. Such a
turbine is termed as an impulse-reaction, both. This is achieved by varying the
blade passage cross-sectional area (converging type).

Fig.: Principle of Reaction turbine

(ii) On the basis of direction of flow:
a) Axial flow turbines (all power plants turbines are of this type.)
b) Radial flow turbines
The Simple Impulse Turbine:
A De-Level turbine is the simplest type of impulse steam turbine. It has the following
main components:
1. Nozzle: It is a circular guide mechanism, which guides the steam to flow at the
designed direction and velocity. It also regulates the flow of steam. The nozzle is
kept very close to the blades, in order to minimize the losses due to windage.
2. Runner and Blades: The runner of a De-Level impulse turbine essentially consists
of a circular disc fixed to a horizontal shaft. On the periphery of the runner, a number
of blades are fixed uniformly. The steam jet impinges on the buckets, which move in
the direction of the jet. This movement of the blades makes the runner to rotate. The
blades are generally bolted to the runner disc and are made of special steel alloys
with very smooth surface to minimize the losses.
3. Casing: It is the air-tight metallic case, which contains the turbine runner and blades.
It controls the movement of steam from the blades to the condenser.
It can be seen from the figure that the complete expansion of steam from the steam chest
pressure to the exhaust pressure or condenser pressure takes place only in one set of

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nozzles i.e. the pressure drop takes place only in nozzles. It is assumed that the pressure
in the recess between nozzles and blades remain the same. The steam at condenser
pressure or exhaust pressure enters the blade and comes out at the same pressure i.e. the
pressure of steam in the blade passages remains approximately constant and equal to the
condenser pressure.
Compounding of Impulse turbine:
This method is employed for reducing the rotational speed of the impulse turbine to
practical limits. If the high velocity of steam is allowed to flow through one row of
moving blades, it produces a rotor speed of about 30,000 r.p.m. which is too high for
practical use. Not only this, the leaving loss is also very high. It is therefore, essential to
incorporate such improvements in the simple impulse turbine so as to make use of more
than one set of nozzles, blades, rotors, in series, keyed to a common shaft, so that either
the steam pressure or the jet velocity is observed by the turbine in stages. This also
reduces the leaving loss. This process is called compounding of steam turbine. There are
three main types of compound turbines.
(a) Pressure compounded impulse turbine
(b) Velocity-compounded impulse turbine
(c) Pressure and velocity compounded impulse turbine
(a) Pressure compounded Impulse Turbine:
In this type of turbine, the compounding is done for pressure of steam only i.e. to reduce
the high rotational speed of the turbine the whole expansion of steam is arranged in a
number of steps by employing a number of simple impulse turbine in a series on the same
shaft as shown in the figure.
Each of these simple impulse turbine consists of one set of nozzles and a one row of
moving blades is knows as a stage of the turbine, and thus, this turbine consists of several
stages. The exhaust from each row of moving blades enters the succeeding set of
nozzles. Thus we can say that this arrangement is nothing but splitting up of the whole
pressure drop from the steam chest pressure to the condenser pressure into a series of
smaller pressure drops across several stages of impulse turbine, and hence, this turbine is
called pressure-compounded impulse turbine.
The pressure and velocity variation are also shown in figure. The nozzles are fitted into a
diaphragm which is locked in the casing. This diaphragm separates one wheel chamber
from another. All rotors are mounted on the same shaft and the blades are attached on the
rotor.
The expansion of steam only takes place in the nozzles while pressure remains constant
in the moving blades because each stage is simple impulse turbine. It can be seen from
the pressure curve that the space between any two consecutive diaphragms is filled with
steam at constant pressure; the pressure on either side of the diaphragm is different.
Since the diaphragm is a stationary part, there must be clearance between the rotating
shaft and the diaphragm. The steam tends to leak through this clearance for which
devices like labyrinth packing, etc. are used.

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Since the drop in pressure of steam per stage is reduced, the steam velocity leaving the
nozzles and entering the moving blades is reduced which in turn reduces the blade
velocity. Hence for economy and maximum work shaft speed is significantly reduced to
suit practical purposes. Thus rotational speed may be reduced by increasing the number
of stages according to one’s need. The leaving velocity of the last stage of the turbine is,
thus, much less compared to the de Laval turbine and, the leaving loss is not more than 1
to 2 percent of the initial total available energy. This turbine was invented by the late
Prof. L. Rateau and so it is also known as Rateau turbine.

Fig.: Pressure compounded turbine

(b) Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine:
In this turbine, the compounding is done for velocity of steam only i.e. velocity drop is
arranged in many small drops through many moving rows of blades instead of a single
row of moving blades. It consists of a nozzle or a set of nozzles and rows of moving
blades attached to the rotor or wheel and, rows of fixed blades attached to the casing as
shown in figure.
The fixed blades are guide blades that guide the steam to the succeeding rows of moving
blades suitably arranged between the moving blades but set in a reversed manner. In this
turbine, three rows or rings of moving blades are fixed on a single wheel or rotor and this
wheel is termed as the three row wheel. The arrangement consists of two rows of guide
blades or fixed blades placed between the first and the second and the second and the
third rows of moving blades.

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The expansion of steam from the steam chest-pressure down to the exhaust pressure takes
place in the nozzles only. There is no drop in pressure either in the moving blades or the
fixed blades i.e. the pressure remains constant in the blades as in the simple impulse
turbine. The steam velocity from the exit of the nozzle is very high similar to the simple
impulse turbine. The steam with high velocity enters the first row of moving blades, and,
on passing through these blades, the velocity reduces slightly i.e. the steam gives up a
part of its kinetic energy and reissues from this row of blades. It then enters the first row
of guide blades which directs it to the second row of moving blades. A slight drop in
velocity takes place in the fixed or guide blades due to friction. On passing through the
second row of moving blades, there is a slight drop in velocity again i.e. steam gives up
some more of its kinetic energy to the rotor. After this, it is again directed by the second
row of guide blades to the third row of moving blades, again a drop in velocity occurs
and finally the steam leaves the wheel with a much reduced velocity in a more or less
axial direction. Compared to the simple impulse turbine, the leaving velocity is small
being about 2 percent of initial total available energy of steam.

Fig.: Velocity Compounded Turbine

So we can say that this arrangement is nothing more than the splitting up of the velocity
gained from the exit of the nozzles into many small drops through several rows of fixed
and moving blades. This type of turbine is also termed as Curtis turbine. Because of its
low efficiency a three row wheel is used for driving small machines. It may be noted that
a two row wheel is more efficient than the three-row-wheel.

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(c) Pressure Velocity-Compounded Impulse Turbine:

This turbine is a combination of pressure-velocity compounding and is shown
diagrammatically in figure given below. The arrangement in the figure is for two rotors.
There are two wheels or rotors and only two rows of moving blades are attached on each
rotor because two row wheels are more efficient than three-row wheels. The steam on
passing through each wheel or rotor reduces in velocity i.e. drop in velocity is achieved
by the many rows of moving blades and is velocity compounded. The whole pressure
drop takes place in the two sets of nozzles i.e. the whole pressure drop is divided into
small drops, hence it is pressure-compounded.

Fig.: Pressure Velocity compounded turbine

In the set of nozzles, there is a slight decrease in pressure which gives some kinetic
energy to the steam and there is no pressure drop in the two rows of moving blades of the
first wheel and in the first row of fixed blades. However, there is a velocity drop in
moving blades which also occurs in the fixed blade due to friction. In second set of
nozzles, the remaining pressure take place, but the velocity here increases and, the drop
in velocity take place in the moving blades of the second wheel or rotor.
Compared to the pressure-compounded impulse turbine this arrangement was more
popular due to its simple construction, but because of its low efficiency it is rarely used
now a day.

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The Impulse-Reaction Turbine:

This turbine utilizes the principles of impulse and reaction both and is diagrammatically
shown in figure. There are a number of rows of moving blades attached to the rotor with
an equal number of fixed blades attached to the casing. In this turbine, the fixed blades
are set in a reversed manner compared to the moving blades, and correspond to nozzles
mentioned in connection with the impulse turbine. Due to the position of the fixed row
of blades at the entrance, in place of the nozzles, steam is admitted for the whole
circumference and hence there is an all-round or complete admission. In passing through
the first row of fixed blades, the steam undergoes a small drop in pressure and hence its
velocity increases slightly. It then enters the first row of moving blades just as in the
impulse turbine, and suffers a change in direction and, therefore, in momentum. This
momentum gives rise to an impulse on the blades.

Fig.: Impulse-Reaction Turbine

But in this turbine, the passage of the moving blades is so designed that there is a small
drop in pressure of steam in the moving blades which results in an increase in the kinetic
energy of steam. This kinetic energy gives rise to a reaction in the direction opposite to
that of added velocity. Thus, the gross propelling force or driving force is the vector sum
of impulse and reaction of forces. Commonly this type of turbine is known as Reaction
Turbine. The pressure and velocity variations are shown in the figure. It can be seen

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from the figure that there is a gradual drop in pressure in both the moving blades and the
fixed blades.
In this turbine as the pressure falls, the specific volume increases and hence the height of
blades is increased in steps i.e., upto 4 stages it may remains constant, then it may
increase and remain constant for the next two stages.
In this turbine, the steam velocities are comparatively mode-rate and its maximum value
is nearly equal to blade velocity. In general practice, to reduce the number of stages, the
steam velocity is arranged greater than the blade velocity. The leaving loss is about 1 to
2 percent of the total initial available energy. This turbine is popular in power plants. An
example of this type of turbine is the Parsons-Reaction turbine.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5

Aim: To measure the dryness fraction of steam using throttling calorimeter.

Theory:
A throttling calorimeter used to determine the dryness fraction of steam is shown in Fig.
It consists of a separator A into which steam is admitted through a control valve from the
steam main. The pressure and temperature are measured by the pressure gauge and the
thermometer T1 provided in this section. It may be noted that temperature recorded by T1
is same as the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure of steam in
calorimeter B.

Fig.: Throttling Calorimeter

This steam is then throttled through a narrow aperture of restricted valve openings, its
total heat remaining constant. The steam is in the superheated state after throttling at a
lower pressure than previous. The temperature and pressure of steam leaving the
calorimeter B is noted by the thermometer T2 and manometer respectively.
Let P1 = Pressure of steam before throttling, i.e. pressure of steam main,
P2 = Pressure of steam after throttling,
hf1 = Sensible heat of water at pressure P1, … (From steam tables)
hfg1 = Latent heat of steam at pressure P1, … (From steam tables)
hg2 = Total heat of dry steam at pressure P2, … (From steam tables)
tsup = Temperature of superheated steam after throttling,
t2 = Saturation temperature at pressure P2, … (From steam tables)

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cp = Specific heat of superheated steam, and

x = Dryness fraction of steam before throttling.
Since the steam has undergone a throttling process, therefore
Total heat before throttling = Total heat after throttling
hf1+ x hfg1 = hg2 + cp (tsup – t2)
The condition for the successful operation of this calorimeter is that the stam must be
superheated after throttling. This condition requires a high dryness fraction of steam
before throttling. This calorimeter can not be used if the dryness fraction of the steam s
above 0.95. The minimum dryness fraction of the steam can be measured by throttling
calorimeter depends upon the initial pressure of the steam as the pressure after throttling
remains near atmospheric.
Precautions:
1. The whole apparatus must be perfectly dry as the presence of moisture shows
differ results.
2. The connection should be leak proof.
3. The sampling pipe fitting with steam main should be proper.
4. The thermometer should be placed properly.
5. The reading of water thermometer should be read accurately.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 6

Aim: To evaluate condensers for various types of applications.

Theory:
Condenser is a device which condenses the steam exhausted from turbine at lower
pressure than atmosphere pressure. Its purpose is to increase the efficiency of the turbine
and to recover pure water to feed into the boiler.
Functions of Condenser:
1. To increase the output and efficiency of the plant. If the circulating water
temperature in a condenser is low enough, it creates a low back pressure (vacuum)
for the turbine. This pressure is equal to the Saturation Pressure corresponding to
the condensing steam temperature. It is known that the enthalpy drop or turbine
work per unit pressure drop is much greater at the low pressure end than at the
high pressure end turbine.
2. To recover high quality feed water in the form of condensate and feed it back to
steam generator without any further treatment.
Classification of condensers:
The condensers may be broadly classified as:
(i) Jet condenser or mixed type condenser
(ii) Surface condenser
(i) Jet condenser or mixed type condenser: In a jet condenser, the steam to be
condensed, mixes with the cooling water and the temperature of condensate and
cooling water is same when leaving the condenser and condensate cannot be
recovered to use as feed water to the boiler. Heat transfer is by direct conduction.
Jet condenser is further classified as:
a) Counter flow or low level jet condenser
b) Parallel flow jet condenser
c) Barometric or high level jet condenser
d) Ejector condenser
a) Counter flow or low level jet condenser:
In this type of condenser no pump is used to pump the water from cooling pond to
condenser shell. Water from cooling ponds enter in to the condenser shell due to
vacuum created by Air pump section. Therefore, the level of the cooling pond
should not be much below the delivery pipe to the shell. The shell is arranged
with two or three water trays with perforation to break up water in to small jets.
The exhaust steam and any mixed air enters at the lower portion of the shell and
tries to ascends up and cools down.

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The air is removed by a separate suction pump at the top. The mixture of
condensate and cooling water descends down through a vertical pipe to the
extraction pump and pumped to the hot well. From the hot well, the boiler fed
pump delivers water to the boiler and the surplus water overflows to the cooling
pond. This type of condenser may be used only where cheap pure water is
available. The head of low level condenser extraction pump consists of external
from this the submergence head is deduced.

Fig.: Low level jet Condenser (Counter flow type)

b) Parallel flow jet condenser:
The arrangement of this condenser is almost similar to the counter flow type same
direction. Steam enters from the top and just below this there is a entrance of
cooling water. The mixture of exhaust steam and air, if any descends downwards
in the same direction, and comes in contact with the spray of cooling water. The
condensate and the air are removed by two separate pumps namely air and
condensate pumps. Some times one pump is used for both air and condensate
water mixture. The parallel flow condenser is less efficient than counter flow
condenser because heat transfer is more in the counter.
c) Barometric or High level Jet Condenser:
The high level jet condenser is also called the Barometric condenser. The shell is
placed at the height greater than 10.363m. The height of the shell much above the
barometric height necessitates a separate pump for injecting cool water or water
should be available from the source of high head. There is no need of eater
extraction pump. The condensate and water will gravitate to the hot well and

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maintain a column of water in the water leg which depends upon the vacuum in
the condenser.

Fig.: High level jet condenser (counter flow type)

d) Ejector Condenser:
The principle of operation of the ejector condenser is that by discharging a
smooth jet of cold water under a head of about 6 m through a series of converging
guide cones. The steam and associated air are drawn in through the hollow
truncated cones and led to the diverging cone. In the converging cones the
pressure energy is partly converted to kinetic energy. In the diverging cone, the
kinetic energy is again partly converted to the pressure greater than the
atmospheric, to enable the condensate and water mixture to be discharged to the
hot well which is exposed to atmospheric pressure. Thus, at first the steam and air
are drawn in due to partial vacuum after the converging cones. The vacuum is
further increased by condensation of steam. The same is discharged due to
positive pressure after diverging cone.
(ii) Surface condenser: In surface condenser, there is no direct contact between the
steam to be condensed and circulating water.

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Fig.: Surface Condenser

There is a wall interposed between them through which heat must be transferred.
The condensate is recovered as feed water to the boiler. Both the cooling water and
the condensate are at different temperatures.
a) Down flow condenser:
In down flow surface condensers, the exhaust steam enters at the top and flow
downwards over the tubes due to force of gravity as well as suction of the extraction
pump fitted at the bottom. The condensate is collected at the bottom and then pumped
by the extraction pump. The dry air pump suction pipe, which is provided near the
bottom, is covered by baffle so as to prevent the entry of condensed steam into it. As
the steam flows perpendicular to the direction of flow of cooling water, this is also
called a cross-surface condenser.
b) Central Flow condenser:
In central flow type surface condensers, the exhaust steam enters at the top and flow
downwards.

Fig.: Central Flow type

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The suction pipe of the air extraction pump is placed in the centre of the tube nest.
This causes the steam to flow radially inwards over the tubes towards the suction
pipe. The condensate is collected at the bottom and then pumped by the extraction
pump.
c) Regenerative condenser:
In regenerative surface condenser, the condensate is heated by a regenerative method.
The condensate after leaving the tubes is passed through the exhaust steam from the
engine or turbine. It thus, raises its temperature for use as feed water for the boiler.
d) Evaporative condenser:
When the cooling water scarcity is there, its quantity can be reduced by causing the
circulating water to evaporate under a small partial pressure. The principle is adopted
in a evaporative condenser. Essentially these condensers consist of grilled piping,
bent to form many rows as shown in figure given below and placed vertically.

Fig.: Evaporative Condenser

Steam passes through these pipes. Water which is pumped up by means of a pump is
sprayed from the top and descends dawn. The water descending dawn forms thin
films over the pipes as it falls from one level of pipes to the other. This type of
condenser plant is used for small power plants.
Vacuum efficiency:
The vacuum efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual vacuum as recorded by the
vacuum, when the air is absent.
ηvaccum = Actual vacuum / ideal vacuum

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Actual vacuum = Barometric pressure – Actual pressure

Ideal vacuum = Barometric pressure – Ideal pressure
Condenser efficiency:
The condenser efficiency may be defined as the ratio of the actual rise in the temperature
of cooling water.
ηcondenser = tω2 – tω1
ts – tω1

where tw1 - inlet temperature of cooling cooler

tw2 - outlet temperature of cooling water
ts - saturation temperature of steam

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LAB (MU-216)

EXPERIMENT NO. 7

Aim: To find volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating air compressor.

Theory:
Some Definitions:
1. Inlet Pressure: It is absolute pressure of air at the inlet of a compressor.
2. Discharge Pressure: It is the absolute pressure of air at the outlet of a
compressor.
3. Compression ratio: It is the ratio of discharge pressure to the inlet pressure.
Compression ratio is more than unity.
4. Free air delivery: It is the actual volume delivered by a compressor when
reduced to the normal temperature and pressure condition. The capacity of a
compressor is generally given in terms of free air delivery
5. Swept Volume: It is the volume of air sucked by the compressor during its
suction stroke. Mathematically, the swept volume or displacement of a single
acting air compressor is given by
Vs= л x D2 x L
4
D = Diameter of cylinder bore, and
L = Length of piston stroke.
Working of Single Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor:
A single stage reciprocating air compressor, in its simplest form, consists of a cylinder,
piston, inlet and discharge valves, as shown in figure given blow. From the geometry of
the compressor, we find that when the piston moves downwards (or in other words,
during outward or suction stroke), the pressure inside the cylinder falls below the
atmospheric pressure. Due to this pressure difference, the inlet valve gets opened and air
is sucked into the cylinder, at inlet pressure until the piston completes the outward stroke.
Now when the piston moves upwards (or in other words, during inward or delivery
stroke), the pressure inside the cylinder goes on increasing till it reaches the discharge
pressure. At delivery stroke, a small quantity of air, at high pressure, is left in the
clearance space. As the piston starts its suction stroke, the air contained in the clearance
space expands till its pressure falls below the atmospheric pressure. At this stage, the
inlet valve gets opened as a result of which fresh air is sucked into the cylinder, and the
cycle is repeated.
It may be noted that in a single acting reciprocating air compressor, the suction,
compression and delivery of air takes place in two strokes of the piston or one revolution
of the crankshaft.
Note: In a double acting reciprocating compressor, the suction, compression and delivery
Of air takes place on both sides of the piston. It is thus obvious, that such a compressor

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will supply double the volume of air than a single acting reciprocating compressor
(neglecting volume of piston rod).

Fig.: Sectional view of a single stage reciprocating compressor

Fig.: Single stage reciprocating compressor

Volumetric Efficiency of Reciprocating Air Compressor with Clearance Volume:
The volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating air compressor is given by
ηv = Volume of free air delivery per stroke
Swept volume of the piston

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= Actual volume of air sucked referred to ambient conditions

Swept volume of the piston

Now let us drive an expansion for it when the air compressor has clearance volume.
Consider a p- υ diagram of a single acting reciprocating air compressor with clearance
volume as shown in figure below.

Fig.: p- υ diagram of a reciprocating air compressor with clearance volume

Let P1 = Initial pressure of air (before compression)
v1= Initial volume of air (before compression)
T1= Initial temperature of air (before compression
P2, υ2, T2 = Corresponding values for the final conditions(i.e at the delivery point)
Pa,υaTa=Corresponding values for the ambient (i.e N.T.P.) conditions
υc= Clearance volume
υs= Swept volume of the piston, and
n = Polytropic index

In actual practice, the temperature at the end of suction i.e. at point 1 is not atmospheric
because the fresh air passes over hot valves and mixes with the residual air. Also, the
pressure at point 1 is not atmospheric as there are obstructions in suction of fresh air.
Applying general gas equation to the atmospheric condition of air and the condition of air
before compression, we have

Paυa = P1 (υ1 – υ4)

Ta T1
Volume of air sucked referred to ambient conditions,

υa = P1Ta (υ1 – υ4)

PaT1

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LAB (MU-216)

We know that volumetric efficiency,

ηv = υa = P1 Ta υ1 – υ4
υs Pa T1 υs

= P1Ta υs – υc-υ4
Pa T1 υs

= P1Ta 1 + υc _ υ4 x υc
Pa T1 υs υc υs
= P1Ta 1 + K – K x υ4
PaT1 υc
K = Clearance ratio = υc / υs

Now for the polytropic expansion process 3-4,

P2υnc = p1 υn4
1/n
υ4 = P2
υc P1
Substituting the value of υ4 / υs in equation (i), we have volumetric efficiency referred to
ambient conditions,
1/n
ηυ = P1 Ta 1 + K – K P2
Pa T1 P1
When the ambient and suction conditions are same, then pa = p1 and Ta = T1. In such a
case,
1/n
ηυ = 1 + K – K P2
P1

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 B.TECH 4TH SEM. MECHANICAL APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
ENGINEERING
LAB (MU-216)

EXPERIMENT NO. 8

Aim: To find out the efficiency of cooling tower.

Theory:
A cooling tower is a semi-closed device for evaporating cooling of water by contact with
air. It is a wooden, steel or concrete structure and corrugated surface or troughs or baffles
or perforated trays are provided inside the towers for uniform distribution and better
atomization of water in the tower. The hot water coming out from the condenser is fed to
the tower on the top and allowed to tickle in form of thin sheets or drops. The air flows
from bottom of the tower or perpendicular to the direction of water flow and then
exhausts to the atmosphere after effective cooling.
The cooling towers are desired when positive control on the temperature of water is
required, the space occupied by the cooling system is considerable factor and plant is
situated near load center.
The principle of cooling tower is similar to the evaporative condenser or spray pond. The
rate of evaporation of water in cooling tower and subsequent reduction in water
temperature depends upon the following factors:
i. Surface area of water exposed.
ii. Time of exposure.
iii. Relative humidity of air and difference between wet bulb temperatures of inlet
air and water inlet temperature.
iv. Direction of flow of air.
The temperature difference between WBT (wet bulb temperature of incoming air and
outgoing temperature) of water is known as “Approach of cooling tower”. Lower cooling
tower approach is always preferred for effective cooling.
Types of Cooling Towers:
1. Natural Draft Cooling Tower
(a) Spray filled tower
(b) Packed type tower
(c) Hyperbolic cooling tower
2. Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower
(a) Forced draft tower
(b) Induced draft counter flow.
(c) Induced draft cross flow
1. Natural Draft Cooling tower
As in natural cooling tower, there is no fan to create the flow of air in the hyperbolic
cooling tower. But the flow of air through it is established by chimney action. The flow

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is created by density difference between atmospheric air and the air inside the tower
which has been warmed by the hot circulating air.
Advantages:
1. Cooling capacity comparable to induced draft tower.
2. Less area requirement.
3. Self draft creation due of chimney shape.
4. Capability of withstanding winds of well over 160 km/hr i.e., it is self
supported structure.
5. Enlarged top of tower allows water to fall out of suspension.
Disadvantages:
1. High installation cost.
2. Variable performance with variation in season or weather.
Types of natural cooling tower:
(a) Spray filled cooling tower: The Natural draft spray filled cooling tower is
shown in figure below. The air enters through the Louvers sides and flows
across the tower in a transverse direction. The air circulation through the
tower depends upon wind velocity. The capacity of the tower varies form 50
to 100 liters per minute per m2 of base area depending upon the wind velocity.
This is suitable for only small diesel plan not for large power plant. There is
no control over the temperature of water and also wind loss.

Fig.: Atmospheric Natural Draft (spray Type) Cooling Tower

(b) Packed type tower: This is similar to spray filled tower only through or fills
are used which helps to break the water into small droplets. This is also not
used for large power plant due to high installation cost, high pumping head
requirement, extreme height and length, anchoring to withstand high winds.
(c) Hyperbolic cooling towers: It is steel reinforced concrete structure mostly
stack and the bottom 10 m above the air intake contains packing over which
warm water flows. The shape of the stack is circular in plan and hyperbolic

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in profile. The operation of this tower is similar to other natural draft cooling
tower.
2. Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers:
The mechanical draft cooling towers use fans to move the air through the tower instead of
depending on natural draft or wind velocity. This increases the speed of cooling and
efficiency of tower by increasing the air velocity over wet surfaces and through the
tower. The amount of air required can be controlled easily.
Mechanical draft towers required less space and less piping than natural draft towers.
Lower water temperature supplied by the mechanical draft towers usually boost overall
plant economy enough to cover the added operating charges and higher initial cost of
installation.
Types of mechanical draft cooling tower:
a) Forced Draft Cooling Tower:- Forced draft cooling water is shown in figure
given below. Fans are installed at the base of the tower which force the air in
upward direction and comes in contact with water coming in downward direction.
Thus the cold water collected in the tank at the bottom of the tower and sent to the
condenser again.

Fig.: Forced Draft Cooling Tower

b) Induced Draft Cooling Tower:- In induced draft cooling tower, the fan is
located at the top of the tower.

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Fig.: Induced Draft Cooling Tower

Air comes through the louvers into the tower. The cross-flow and counter flow is based
on the location of louvers. Operation is same except the direction of flow of air in cross
flow type is perpendicular to the direction of water and in counter flow type direction of
water.

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 B.TECH 4TH SEM. MECHANICAL APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
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LAB (MU-216)

EXPERIMENT NO. 9

Aim: To find calorific value of a sample of fuel using Bomb calorimeter.

Theory:
The calorific value (briefly written as C.V.) or heat value of a solid or liquid fuel may be
defined as the amount of heat given out by the complete combustion of 1 kg. of fuel. It is
expressed in terms of kJ/kg of fuel. The calorific value of gaseous fuels is, however,
expressed in terms of kJ/m3 at a specified temperature and pressure.
Following are the two types of the calorific value of fuels
1. Gross or higher calorific value and
2. Net or lower calorific value
These calorific values are discussed, in detail, below.
All fuels, usually, contain some percentage of hydrogen. When a given quantity of a fuel
is burnt, some heat is produced. Moreover some hot flue gases are also produced. The
water, which takes up some of the heat evolved, is converted into steam. If the heat,
taken away by the hot flue gases and the steam is taken into consideration, i.e. if the heat
is recovered from flue gases and steam is condensed back to water at room temperature
(150C), then the amount of total heat produced per kg is known as gross or higher
calorific value of fuel. In other words, the amount of heat obtained by the complete
combustion of 1 kg of a fuel, when the products of its combustion are cooled down to the
temperature of supplied air (usually taken as 15o C), is called the gross or higher calorific
value of the fuel and is determined by the following formula, known as Dulong’s
formula:
H.C.V. = 33800 C + 144 000 H2 + 9270 S kJ/kg
Where C, H2 and S represent the mass of carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in 1 kg of fuel,
and the numerical values indicate their respective calorific values.
If the fuel contains oxygen (O2), then it is assumed that the whole amount is combined
with hydrogen having mass equal to 1/8th of that of oxygen. Therefore, while finding the
calorific value of fuel, this amount of hydrogen should be subtracted.

H.C.V. = 33800 C + 144 000 H2 - O2 / 8 + 9270 S kJ/kg

Net or Lower Calorific Value
When the heat absorbed or carried away by the products of combustion is not recovered
(which is the case in actual practice), and the steam formed during combustion is not
condensed, then the amount of heat obtained per kg of the fuel is knows as net or lower
calorific value. It is briefly written as L.C.V.

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If the higher calorific value is known, then the lower calorific value may be obtained by
subtracting the amount of heat carried away by products of combustion (especially steam)
from H.C.V.
L.C.V. = H.C.V. – Heat of steam formed during combustion
Let ms = Mass of steam formed in kg per kg of fuel = 9H2
Since the amount of heat per kg of steam is the latent heat of vaporization of water
corresponding to a standard temperature of 150 C, is 2466 kJ/kg, therefore
L.C.V. = H.C.V. – ms x 2466 kJ/kg
= H.C.V. – 9 H2 x 2466 kJ/kg ….. ( ms = 9H2)
Experimental Determination of Higher Calorific Value
The method of determining higher calorific value, as explained gives approximate results
only. The most satisfactory method of obtaining the calorific value of a fuel is by actual
experiment. In all these experimental methods, a known mass of fuel is burnt in a
suitable calorimeter, and the heat so evolved is found by measuring the rise in
temperature of the surrounding water. The calorimeters used for finding the calorific
value of fuels are known as fuel calorimeters. Bomb calorimeter and Boy’s gas
calorimeter are most commonly used fuel calorimeters.
Bomb Calorimeter:
It is used for finding the higher calorific value of solid and liquid fuels.

Fig. Bomb Calorimeter

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In this calorimeter, as shown in figure, the fuel is burnt at a constant volume and under a
high pressure in a closed vessel called bomb. The bomb is made mainly of acid-resisting
stainless steel, machined from the solid metal, which is capable of withstanding high
pressure (upto 100 bar), heat and corrosion. The cover or head of the bomb carries the
oxygen valve for admitting oxygen and a release valve for exhaust gases. A cradle or
carrier ring, carried by the ignition rods, supports the silica crucible, which in turn holds
the sample of fuel under test. There is an ignition wire of platinum or nichrome which
dips into the crucible. It is connected to a battery, kept outside, and can be sufficiently
heated by passing current through it so as to ignite the fuel.
The bomb is completely immersed in a measured quantity of water. The heat, liberated
by the combustion of fuel, is absorbed by this water, the bomb and copper vessel. The
rise in the temperature of water is measured by a precise thermometer, known as
Beckmann thermometer which reads upto 0.010 C.
Procedure:
A carefully weighed sample of the fuel (usually one gram or so) is placed in the crucible.
Pure oxygen is then admitted through the oxygen valve, till pressure inside the bomb
rises to 30 atmospheres. The bomb is then completely submerged in a known quantity of
water contained in a large copper vessel. This vessel is placed within a large insulated
copper vessel to reduce loss of heat by radiation. When the bomb and its contents have
reached steady temperature (this temperature being noted), fuse wire is heated up
electrically. The fuel ignites, and continues to burn till whole of it is burnt. The heat
released during combustion is absorbed by the surrounding water and the apparatus itself.
The rise in temperature of water is noted.
Let mf = Mass of fuel sample bunt in the bomb in kg,
H.C.V.= Higher calorific value of the fuel sample in kJ/kg
mw = Mass of water filled in the calorimeter in kg,
me = Water equivalent of apparatus in kg,
t1 = Initial temperature of water and apparatus in oC, and
t2 = Final temperature of water and apparatus in oC
We know that heat liberated by fuel
= mf x H.C.V.
and heat absorbed by water and apparatus
= (mw + me) Cw (t2- t1)
Since the heat liberated is equal to the heat absorbed (neglecting losses), therefore
equating equation (i) and (ii)
Mf x H.C.V. = (mw + me) Cw (t2 – t1)
H.C.V. = (mw + me) Cw (t2 – t1) / mf kJ/kg
Note: .This calorimeter gives H.C.V. of the fuel because any steam formed is condensed
(since it cannot escape) and hence heat is recovered from it.

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Precautions:
1. Do not use too much of the sample.
2. Do not charge with more oxygen then is necessary to obtain complete
combustion.
3. Keep all parts of the bomb, and in particular the insulated electrode assembly in
good maintenance at all times.
4. Do not fire the bomb if gas bubbles are leaking from the bomb when it is
submerged in water.
5. Be away from the calorimeter for at least 10 seconds after firing, and particularly
keep clear of the top of the calorimeter.
6. Proceed with caution and use only a fraction of the maximum permissible
quantity of the sample, when testing new materials that may burn rapidly or
having explosive characterstics.

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 B.TECH 4TH SEM. MECHANICAL APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
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LAB (MU-216)

EXPERIMENT NO. 10

Aim: To study the governing mechanism of steam turbines.

Theory:
The objective of governing is to keep the turbine speed fairly constant irrespective of
load. The principle methods of steam turbine governing are as follows:
1. Throttle governing
2. Nozzle governing
3. By-pass governing
4. Combination of throttle and nozzle governing / throttle or by-pass governing
1. Throttle governing:
Throttle governing is the most widely used particularly on small turbines, because its
initial cost is less and the mechanism is simple. The object of throttle governing is to
throttle the steam whenever there is reduction of load compared to economic or design
load for maintaining speed and vice versa.
Figure given below shows a simple throttle arrangement. To start the turbine for full load
running valve A is opened. The operation of double beat valve B is carried out by an oil
servo motor which is controlled by a centrifugal governor. As the steam turbine gains
speed the valve B closes to throttle the steam and reduces the supply to the nozzle.

Fig.: Throttle governing

For turbine governed by throttling the relationship between steam consumption and load
is given by Willan’s line. Several tests have shown that when a turbine is governed by
throttling, the willan’s line straight.

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It is expressed as:
ms = KM + ms0
where ms = steam consumption in kg/h at any load M
ms0 = steam consumption in kg/h at no load
ms1 = steam consumption in kg/h at full load
M = any other load in KW
M1 = full load in KW
K = Constant

ms0 varies from about 0.1 to 0.14 times the full load consumption. The equation can also
be written as:
ms / M = K + ms0 / M
where ms / M is called the steam consumption per kwh.
2. Nozzle governing:
The efficiency of a steam turbine is considerably reduced if the throttle governing is
carried out at low loads. An alternative and more efficient form of governing is by means
of nozzle control. Figure shows a diagrammatic arrangement of typical nozzle control
governing. In this method of governing, nozzles are grouped together 3 to 5 or more
groups and supply of steam to each group is controlled by regulating valves. Under full
load conditions the valves remain fully open.
When the load on the turbine becomes more or less than the design value, the supply of
steam to a group of nozzles may be varied accordingly so as to restore the original speed.
Nozzle control can only be applied to the first stage of a turbine. It is suitable for simple
impulse turbine and larger units which have an impulse stage followed by an impulse-
reaction turbine. In pressure compounded impulse turbines, there will be some drop in
pressure at entry to second stage when some of the first stage nozzles are cut out.

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Fig. : Nozzle governing

3. By-pass governing:
The steam turbines which are designed to work at economic load it is desirable to have
full admission of steam in the high pressure stages. At the maximum load, which is
greater than the economic load, the additional steam required could not pass through the
first stage since additional nozzles are not available. By-pass regulations allow for this in
a turbine which is throttle governed, by means of a second by-pass valve in the first stage
nozzle. This valve opens when throttle valve has opened a definite amount.

Fig.: By-pass governing

Steam is by-passed through the second valve to a lower stage in the turbine. When by-
pass valve operates it is under the control of the turbine governor. The secondary and

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tertiary supplies of steam in the lower stages increases the work output in these stages,
but there is a loss in efficiency and a curving of the Willian’s line.
In reaction turbines, because of the pressure drop required in moving blades, nozzles
control governing is not possible, and throttle governing plus by-pass governing, is used.

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