DOT/FAA/AM-06/19

Office of Aerospace Medicine

Washington, DC 20591

Sublimation Rate of
Dry Ice Packaged
in Commonly Used
Quantities by the Air
Cargo Industry

Douglas C. Caldwell
Russell J. Lewis
Robert M. Shaffstall
Robert D. Johnson
Civil Aerospace Medical Institute
Federal Aviation Administration
Oklahoma City, OK 73125

August 2006

Final Report
 NOTICE

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship

of the U.S. Department of Transportation in the interest
of information exchange. The United States Government
assumes no liability for the contents thereof.
___________

This publication and all Office of Aerospace Medicine technical reports are
available in full-text from the Civil Aerospace Medical Institute’s publications
Web site:
www.faa.gov/library/reports/medical/oamtechreports/index.cfm
 Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
DOT/FAA/AM-06/19
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

The Sublimation Rate of Dry Ice Packaged in Commonly Used Quantities August 2006
by the Air Cargo Industry 6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

Caldwell DC, Lewis RJ, Shaffstall RM, Johnson RD

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

FAA Civil Aerospace Medical Institute

P.O. Box 25082 11. Contract or Grant No.
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered

Office of Aerospace Medicine

Federal Aviation Administration
800 Independence Ave., S.W.
Washington, DC 20591
14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. Supplemental Notes

This work was accomplished under the approved task AM-B-05-TOX-204.

16. Abstract

Dry ice is used as a refrigerant for the shipment of perishable goods in the aviation industry. The sublimation
of dry ice can, however, lead to incapacitating levels of carbon dioxide in the aircraft cabin environment, as
exemplified by the National Transportation Safety Board’s (NTSB’s) probable cause determination in a 1998
Brownsville, Texas, incapacitation incident. This incident prompted the NTSB to request that the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) revisit the dry ice sublimation rate published in FAA Advisory Circular AC
103-4. The sublimation rate used in AC 103-4 to calculate permissible dry ice loads was based on a study
conducted by Pan American Airlines where a single, large piece of dry ice (100 lb block) was used. Today, the
majority of dry ice shipments contain smaller amounts of dry ice obtained in pellet form (•5 lb). This study
focuses on the sublimation rate of dry ice packed in such commonly encountered amounts. In this study,
®
approximately 5 lb of dry ice, in pellet form, was added to each of 20 pre-weighed TheromoSafe shipping
containers. The boxes were then weighed to obtain “preflight” weights and placed in an altitude chamber
located at the FAA’s Civil Aerospace Medical Institute. The chamber was depressurized to an altitude of 8000
ft at a rate of 1000 ft/min. The total “flight” time was 6 h. The containers were then removed and
immediately weighed to obtain “post-flight” measurements. Using the differences in weight as well as the total
flight time, an average sublimation rate of 2.0 +/- 0.3%/h was determined. Results indicate that the
sublimation rate is greater when dry ice is packaged in pellet form in small quantities. These results contrast
the Pan American Airlines study that employed one solid 100-lb block of dry ice. The current study improves
air cargo safety by providing a sublimation rate for dry ice shipped in small, more representative quantities.
The updated sublimation rate can be used to calculate safe dry ice loads for containers commonly used today.
17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement
Carbon Dioxide, Sublimation, Dry Ice, Aircraft Accident Document is available to the public through the
Investigation Defense Technical Information Center, Ft. Belvior,
VA 22060; and the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA 22161
19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 8
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized


 The Sublimation Rate of Dry Ice Packaged in Commonly Used
Quantities by the Air Cargo Industry

Introduction Carbon dioxide is categorized by the National Institute

for Occupational Safety and Health as a simple asphyxiate
The air cargo industry has seen a dramatic increase in with symptoms resulting only when such high concentra-
the number of packages containing solid carbon dioxide tions are reached that the gas affects the brain and other
or “dry ice” over the past 30 years. The FedEx® Dangerous physiologic functions.9 The signs and symptoms of CO2
Goods Administration Office reported that 50% of its poisoning are similar to those of oxygen deprivation,
workload, approximately 15,000 packages per day, contain namely headache, dizziness, muscular weakness, drowsi-
dry ice.1 The large volume appears to be predominantly ness, and ringing in the ears. CO2 poisoning has a greater
due to the increased diversity of items shipped with dry effect on breathing than a simple lack of oxygen. An early
ice. The Air Canada Web site lists fresh fish and meat as symptom of CO2 poisoning is a significant increase in the
well as organs for transplant, human blood, drugs, and rate and depth of breathing. Removal from exposure results
serums as some of the items they ship that contain dry in rapid recovery. Exposures to CO2 in aircraft should not
ice for temperature control.2 In recent years, the largest exceed a sea level equivalent of 0.5% CO2 (5000 parts of
single area of increase is in the bio-medical industry, which CO2 per million parts of air - 5000 ppm). Five-thousand
requires overnight delivery of frozen specimens, reagents, ppm is also used by the United States Department of
and supplies all over the world.1 The market for fresh Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration
foods has also expanded from predominantly seafood to as an 8-h time-weighted average Permissible Exposure
include companies selling freshly prepared frozen foods Limit in general industry.10 Increased CO2 concentrations
over the Internet for at-home, overnight delivery.3 The negatively affect the human respiratory system. Few, if
quantity of dry ice used aboard an aircraft varies depend- any, noticeable effects are produced when CO2 levels are
ing on the amount of material that must be maintained only slightly above normal. However, significant effects
in a frozen/chilled condition, the shipment time, the begin to occur with increasing concentrations of CO2,
insulative nature of the packaging, and the desired tem- as can be seen in Table 1.
perature of the shipment. FedEx® reported that the vast High concentrations of CO2 have the potential to
majority of their dry ice shipments contain less than 5 cause in-flight incapacitation, which is defined as “any
lb of dry ice.1 The small size (<5 lb) of these packages state that affects a pilots’ health during the performance
allows them to avoid the special handling requirements of their duties, preventing them from performing normal
instituted by Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations operations and coping with emergency situations.”11 Two
(CFR) and subsequent surcharges imposed by air cargo recent incidents show the gravity of such incapacitation
shippers such as FedEx®.1, 4, 5 and why data on the sublimation of dry ice in small
Dry ice is designated as a miscellaneous hazardous packages has become increasingly important. One of
material because it sublimates to gaseous carbon dioxide these incidents occurred on April 29, 1998. “At approxi-
(CO2) at aircraft environment temperatures, and high mately 2100 CDT, a Douglas DC-8-51 cargo airplane
concentrations of CO2 in the aircraft can cause aircrew was taxiing for takeoff at Brownsville/South Padre Island
incapacitation.5, 6, 8 Dry ice is listed as a miscellaneous International Airport when all four crewmembers became
hazardous material under 49 CFR, and gaseous CO2 short of breath. They acted appropriately by donning
resulting from the sublimation of dry ice and other oxygen masks and the pilot taxied back to the ramp. The
possible sources is regulated under 14 CFR. Dry ice crewmembers were later treated and released from a local
sublimation may be dangerous in confined spaces where hospital. The NTSB determined that this near accident
there is an absence of ventilation or low ventilation rates. was caused by a buildup of gaseous CO2 in the cockpit,
The conversion of dry ice to gaseous CO2 varies depend- with the CO2 originating from the cargo hold, where nu-
ing on package insulation, dry ice particle size, ambient merous containers with dry ice were present.”12 Although
temperature, and cabin pressure. no one was injured, the presence of CO2 in the cabin at
higher than normal concentrations caused a significant


 Table 1. Physiological effects of CO2 at Various Concentrations.7

CO2 concentration (%) Physiological effect

0.3 Normal Respiration

0.5 Slight increase in respiration

2 Respiration increased 50%

3 Respiration increased 100%

5 Respiration increased 300%

12-15 Unconsciousness

distraction for the flight crew, forcing them to respond which specifies that the shipment must be appropriately
to their increased rate of respiration. Stimulation of the packaged. Paper wrappings would not generally be used
respiratory center and subsequent rapid breathing caused to ship a perishable item frozen in dry ice. Therefore,
by an increased concentration of CO2 posed the threat of experimentation was needed to determine CO2 sublima-
incapacitation to this crew. This threat was averted by the tion rates utilizing commonly used shipping containers,
proper use of supplemental oxygen. It must be pointed conditions, and practices.
out, however, that the normal aircraft ventilation systems
were not functioning, and prior to departure, auxiliary Experimental Evaluation
cabin ventilation was not used. This experiment was designed to determine the
A second incident involving CO2 occurred in an sublimation rate of dry ice during operational condi-
Air France transport aircraft. In this incident, the crew tions most commonly encountered by flight crews in
was preparing for takeoff. “The flight was loaded with present-day transport aircraft. Twenty TheromoSafe®
perishable goods preserved using dry ice. The plane was model 318 shipping boxes (8x6x4.25 in inside dimen-
loaded and sealed for 40 min before engine start-up. The sions, 11x9x7.25 in outside dimensions, with 1.5 in-thick
ventilation system in this type of aircraft does not operate Styrofoam walls) were obtained from Polyfoam Packers
without the engines running, and auxiliary ventilation Inc. (Waukegan, IL). The boxes were numbered and
was not being used at the time. Headaches and rapid then weighed using an Ohause (Pine Brook, NJ) Preci-
breathing occurred among all crewmembers due to the sion Plus electronic balance. Dry ice was acquired at a
increased concentration of CO2. The prompt use of oxygen local Air Liquide (Oklahoma City, OK) outlet in the
masks by the crew relieved all respiratory symptoms, and form of pellets. The pellets were uniform in size with
starting the engines resulted in proper ventilation, which dimensions of approximately 1 x 2 cm. Approximately
dissipated the high CO2 concentrations.”11 5 lb of dry ice was added to each container. Any remain-
In 1963, Pan American Airlines designed an experi- ing headspace was filled with common carpet padding,
ment utilizing 100 lb blocks of dry ice to determine the as recommended by a dry ice shipping Web site.15 The
sublimation rate of CO2 and subsequently evaluate the size and shape of the dry ice mirrored a style commonly
performance of the air conditioning units they used in utilized by the air cargo industry. Following the addition
their cargo aircraft.13 Based on this study, a recommended of dry ice to each individual shipping container and the
CO2 sublimation rate of 1%/h was established in FAA filling of extraneous headspace, the boxes were imme-
Advisory Circular AC103-4. In 1977, H. L. Gibbons diately taped shut. Each container was then weighed to
et al.14 measured the sublimation rate of 1 lb and 5 lb determine an initial “pre-flight” weight. The boxes were
blocks of dry ice that were wrapped in paper and placed stacked in 4 columns, each column containing 5 boxes,
in the cockpit of a Cessna 150 that remained on the on a cart approximately 3 ft above the floor and placed
ground for the duration of the experiment at an ambi- in an Environmental Techtronics (Southampton, PA)
ent temperature of 72°F. This study found that under altitude chamber at the FAA’s Civil Aerospace Medical
these specific conditions the sublimation rate for dry ice Institute. The initial temperature inside the chamber
was 14%/h. In actual practice, the shipment of dry ice was 72°F. The chamber was depressurized to an altitude
must comply with the provisions of 49 CFR 173.217, of approximately 8000 ft at a rate of 1000 ft/min. This

depressurization process took 7.2 min, at which time the Example 1a: A shipment that consists of one large
final altitude had been reached. An altitude of 8000 ft was block (100 lb) of dry ice.
maintained for 5.75 h, at which time the decent began Aircraft volume: 5000 ft3
and the chamber was pressurized back to ground level at Complete air exchanges per h: 10
a rate of 1000 ft/min, resulting in a total “flight” time of Allowable CO2 concentration (TLV, 0.5%): 0.005
6 h. The final temperature of the chamber was 84°F. The Sublimation rate of 1%/h (8.8 ft3 CO2/100 lb dry ice/h): 0.088
containers were then removed and immediately weighed
(0.005) (5000) (10)
to obtain a “post-flight” weight. The total time between X= = 2841 lb of dry ice
(0.088)
the two weight measurements was 6.25 h.
Example 1b: Conditions are the same as example 1a
Results and Discussion except that the number of complete air exchanges has
doubled.
The average sublimation rate of dry ice packaged in Complete air exchanges per h: 20
5 lb quantities was determined to be 2.0±0.3 %/h with (0.005) (5000) (20)
X= = 5682 lb of dry ice
a range of 1.59 to 2.88%/h. Individual data for each (0.088)
shipping container are shown in Table 2. The sublima- Example 2: A shipment that consists of 20 small (5
tion rate of solid CO2 determined in this experiment is lb) packages of dry ice.
substantially lower than the 14%/h produced by Gibbons Aircraft volume: 5000 ft3
Complete air exchanges per h: 20
et al.14 in 1977, but is double the 1%/h rate determined in Allowable CO2 concentration (TLV, 0.5%): 0.005
196313 and used until recently to establish dry ice shipping Sublimation rate of 2%/h ((2 x 8.8 ft3 CO2)/100 lb dry ice/h):
0.17
regulations. It is clear that the sublimation rate of dry ice
depends on the particle size, the shipping container, and (0.005) (5000) (20)
X = = 2841 lb of dry ice
how the shipping containers are packaged; thus, recom- (0.176)
mendations regarding dry ice load and aircraft ventilation
requirements should be based on commonly used shipping
containers and dry ice characteristics. While the two early These examples demonstrate the need for a more
sublimation studies do not reflect “real world” shipping representative CO2 sublimation rate for today’s air cargo
practices, the current study incorporates commonly used industry. Following the guidelines that were established in
shipping industry boxes, dry ice amounts, and dry ice 1963, the aircraft used in example 1b could have carried
pellets. Thus, our results should closely reflect what is 5882 lb of dry ice in the cargo hold without fear of cabin
experienced during air cargo transportation of dry-ice air contamination from elevated CO2 levels. However,
refrigerated goods. when dry ice is utilized as pellets in small quantities
The complete sublimation of 1 lb of dry ice results instead of large blocks the sublimation rate increases by
in 8.8 ft3 of CO2 gas.6 Therefore, a sublimation rate can a factor of two. This means that under the same condi-
be defined as X ft3 CO2 gas per h. A dry ice sublimation tions as example 1b, this aircraft should only safely carry
rate of 1%/h produces 8.8 ft3 CO2 gas per 100 lb (20 x 2941 lb of dry ice, half the amount. It becomes obvious
5 lb packages) of dry ice per h. A 2%/h sublimation rate that two variables must be known before the amount of
produces 17.6 ft3 CO2 gas per 100 lb (20 x 5 lb packages) dry ice that may safely be carried on an aircraft can be
of dry ice per h. The following formula provides a rule- calculated. These variables are the aircraft volume, and
of-thumb for dry ice loading relative to the volume of the number of complete air exchanges per h. If one of
aircraft air circulation. Examples, including calculations these variables is unknown, a reliable calculation cannot
using a 1%/h sublimation rate and a 2%/h sublimation be made. However, if these variables are known, dry ice
rate, are shown below. loads can safely be calculated using the “realistic” subli-
mation rate of 2%/h.
X = Dry ice weight in lb
(CO2 concentration) (Aircraft Volume, ft3) (Complete air exchanges per h*)
X=
(Sublimation rate)

*Since newer aircraft models recycle as much as 50% of cabin air,

instead of providing 100% fresh air, as older models did, the number
of complete cabin air exchanges is required to determine the amounts
of dry ice that can be safely transported.

Table 2. CO2 sublimation rate for 20 insulated shipping containers filled with
approximately 5 lb of dry ice pellets.

Sublimation Rate of Small Dry Ice Pellets in 5-lb Quantities

Box Initial wt. Final wt.
weight box and box and Wt. initial Wt. final Total ice Sublimation
Box # empty ice ice ice ice loss rate (%/h)
1 1.448 6.360 5.823 4.912 4.375 0.537 1.75

2 1.383 6.322 5.738 4.939 4.355 0.584 1.89

3 1.367 6.313 5.782 4.946 4.415 0.531 1.72

4 1.391 6.154 5.561 4.763 4.170 0.593 1.99

5 1.431 6.682 6.148 5.251 4.717 0.534 1.63

6 1.383 6.263 5.669 4.880 4.286 0.594 1.95

7 1.397 6.614 5.840 5.217 4.443 0.774 2.37

8 1.418 6.085 5.488 4.667 4.070 0.597 2.05

9 1.396 6.122 5.575 4.726 4.179 0.547 1.85

10 1.404 6.293 5.755 4.889 4.351 0.538 1.76

11 1.500 6.029 5.412 4.529 3.912 0.617 2.18

12 1.380 6.042 5.399 4.662 4.019 0.643 2.21

13 1.399 6.632 5.689 5.233 4.290 0.943 2.88

14 1.407 6.651 6.130 5.244 4.723 0.521 1.59

15 1.405 6.402 5.813 4.997 4.408 0.589 1.89

16 1.406 6.298 5.641 4.892 4.235 0.657 2.15

17 1.387 6.204 5.654 4.817 4.267 0.550 1.83

18 1.431 6.503 5.792 5.072 4.361 0.711 2.24

19 1.401 6.503 5.963 5.102 4.562 0.540 1.69

20 1.393 6.693 5.905 5.300 4.512 0.788 2.38

All weights in lb. Average 2.00

Time between weighings was 6.25 h. s.d. 0.32

Chamber temp at T=0 was 72°F, at T=6h was 84°F C.V. 15.82


 Conclusions 4. Fed Ex®. www.fedex.com/us/services/options/ex-
press/dangerousgoods/fees.html#1 (04/2006).
There have been very few reported incidents involving 5. U.S. Government Printing Office. www.gpoaccess.
carbon dioxide incapacitation aboard aircraft resulting gov. 49CFR173.140 (04/2006).
from the sublimation of dry ice. In the incidents that
have been reported, the aircrew recognized symptoms 6. Airgas. Carbon Dioxide – CO2 MSDS (doc #
of air contamination and took appropriate precautions 001013).
to avoid any serious consequences. The incidents that 7. Smith Garry K. Carbon Dioxide, Caves and YOU.
have occurred demonstrate that maintaining adequate (1997) http://thelances.org/hr3/CO2paper.html
input and proper circulation of fresh air into the cabin (04/2006).
environment is the single most important precaution
that can be taken when dry ice is transported.16 In the 8. W.E. Kuriger Associates. Carbon Dioxide Fact
absence of adequate ventilation, a small amount of dry Book. www.airspill.com (04/2006).
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The current research found that the amount of dry ice for Occupational Safety and Health. www.cdc.
used in a shipment of perishables is generally less than 5 gov/niosh/homepage.htm (04/2006).
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2%/h. Based on these findings, revisions in ventilation www.osha.gov/dts/hib/hib_data/hib19881130.
requirements were incorporated into the FAA Advisory html (04/2006).
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In addition to ventilation considerations, aircrew Simkoff A. Clinical Aspects of In-flight Incapacita-
should be aware of the hazards involved with the trans- tions in Commercial Aviation. Aviat Space Environ
portation of dry ice and should be prepared to take ap- Med, 61, 256 (1990).
propriate emergency precautions if CO2 levels increase
in the cabin. The first emergency precaution would be 12. National Transportation Safety Board. www.
the use of supplemental oxygen supplies. This should be ntsb.gov/aviation/FTW/1narr_98A196.htm
followed by attempts to ventilate the cabin to outside (04/2006)
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14. Gibbons HL. Carbon Dioxide Hazards in Gen-
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1. FedEx®. Dangerous Goods Administration Of-
(1977)
fice. 1-800-463-3339. personal conversation.
(08/2003). 15. Advantage Dry Ice. www.advantagedryice.com
(04/2006).
2. Air Canada. www.aircanada.com/cargo/products/
perishables.html (04/2006). 16. The Boeing Company. Boeing Service letter, ATA:
2100-010, 19 November 1998.
3. Om a h a St e a k s . w w w. o m a h a s t e a k s . c o m
(04/2006).