Introduction

• Air is assumed to be incompressible at low

speed flight. At low speeds, there is very little
change in density.
• The air behaves differently at high speeds
and the effects of ‘compressibility’ (changes
High-speed flight in temperature and density of the air) cannot
be ignored.
• The types of flow pattern associated with
subsonic speeds are entirely different from
the supersonic speeds.
• However, the effects of compressibility do not
suddenly appear when the aircraft attains the
speed of sound.
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Introduction The speed of sound

• Generally consider the air to be • An important factor in the study of high-speed
incompressible at speeds below Mach 0.4. flight.
• Above Mach 0.4, the air is considered to be • Small pressure disturbances are caused by
compressible and compressibility effects are all parts of an aircraft as it moves through the
started to be taken account. air.
• In pure subsonic and supersonic flight the • These disturbances move outward from their
airflow over a wing or aircraft is predictable source through the air at the speed of sound.
and controllable, to a large extent. • Similar to the ripples on a pond that result
• However, the transonic flight the control and when a stone is thrown in the water.
stability is highly demanded. • Speed of Sound is proportional to the square
root of absolute temperature.

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The speed of sound The speed of sound

• When an aircraft below the speed of sound,
the pressure disturbances will be moving
faster than the aircraft, and those
disturbances will travel ahead of the aircraft
and influence the approaching airflow.
• If the aircraft travels through the air at the
speed of sound, the ‘message’ as given by the
pressure wave will not be able to travel out
ahead of it and the pressure waves will pile up
at the source of the disturbance causing a
shock or compression wave to form. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
• The speed of sound changes with a change in d9A2oq1N38&feature=related
the temperature of the air.
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Basic terminology of high- Mach number
• Aircraft that fly near or beyond the speed of
speed flight sound have shock waves associated with the

Mach number airflow around them.

Freestream Mach number • It is helpful at these speeds for the pilot of the

Local Mach number aircraft to know the speed of the aircraft in
terms of the speed of sound.

Subsonic flow
• M1= Mach 1(the speed of sound)

Transonic flow
• M2 = Mach 2 (twice the speed of sound)

Supersonic flow • M0.5 = Mach 0.5 (half the speed of sound)

Hypersonic speeds

Critical Math number (MCR)
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Mach number
• Mach number (M) refers to the speed at
which an aircraft is travelling in relation to the
speed of sound.

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Freestream Mach number Local Mach number

• The freestream Mach number is the Mach • When an aircraft flies at a certain free stream
number of the airflow at a distance from the Mach number, the flow over it is accelerated in
aircraft where the airflow is unaffected by the some places and slowed down in others.
presence of the aircraft. • In aerodynamics, the airflow speed at a
particular location on the surface of the aircraft
expresses as the ratio of the speed of sound and
it is called “Local Mach number”.

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Subsonic flow Transonic flow
• The term subsonic flow is used when the • In transonic flow, the freestream Mach
aircraft’s speed is such that the airflow all over number (or the aircraft’s speed) is below
it is less than the speed of sound—the Mach 1 but is high enough to produce some
local Mach numbers greater than Mach 1.0.
aircraft’s speed is less than about Mach 0.75 That is, part of the airflow over the aircraft is
and the airflow all over the aircraft is less than subsonic while some parts of the airflow
Mach 1. move at supersonic speeds (e.g. over the
aerofoil). The Mach numbers range from 0.75
to 1.20.
• Note: The transonic flight regime varies from
aircraft to aircraft .

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Supersonic flow
• In supersonic flow, the local Mach numbers
are greater than Mach 1.0, and freestream
flow is Mach 1.0 or more.
• The Mach numbers range from 1.2 to 5.0.
Above Mach 5.0 the ‘heat barrier’ comes into
effect (more about this later).

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Hypersonic speeds Critical Mach number (M ) CR

• Speeds above Mach 5 are said to be in the • As the airflow increases in velocity there will
be an even greater increase in the speed of
hypersonic range. airflow over certain parts of the aircraft .
• For example, airflow over the point of greatest
camber of the aerofoil or other protrusions
such as the canopy will be significantly higher
than the freestream airspeed.
• The critical Mach number is the Mach number
(less than 1) at which local airflow velocities
on the aircraft reach supersonic speeds and a
shock wave may form (transonic speed).
• This is the critical Mach number (MCR) of the
aircraft type.
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Critical Mach number (M ) CR

Principles of high-speed
airflow
• When the body moving in the atmosphere, it
is making the small pressure disturbances.
• These pressure disturbances are transmitted
as the sound waves.
• The body’s Mach number indicates the
relative speed between these pressure
disturbances and the sound wave.
• If M=0 (the body is stationary), then the
sound waves radiate outward in concentric
circles from the body like ripples from the
point where a stone lands in a pond.
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Principles of high-speed Principles of high-speed

airflow airflow
• If the body is moving with the a speed (M<1) • When the body is moving at the same speed
then the sound waves upstream of it are closer as the sound wave M=1 (V=a) emits, all of
together because each successive wave is the pressure waves emitted by the body
generated from a point further upstream. reaches a point ahead of it at the same time it
• The speed relative to the body at which each does emitting.
wave moves upstream is a-V because the • This pressure compression waves will be
body is moving the same direction as the normal to the direction of the body’s travelling
waves. path and it is called a normal Mach line or
• The opposite effect is happening the normal Mach wave.
downstream since the spacing between the
waves is greater and the waves are moving at
a+V relative to the body.
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Principles of high-speed
airflow
• When the body is moving with speed (“V”)
greater than the speed of sound “a”(M>1),
the Mach wave trails back from the body at
an angle.
• This trailing line is called the oblique Mach
line or the oblique line.
• As the body moves, the wave front
represented by the oblique line propagates
(travels out) at the right angles to itself, at the
speed of sound.
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Mach cone Mach cone

• If an aircraft is moving faster than the speed • The faster the aircraft travels, the more
of sound, the sound waves produced cannot oblique is the Mach line and the narrower the
move ahead of the aircraft . Mach cone.
• As the aircraft and its environment are three-
dimensional, in reality, a complete conical
Mach wave (a three-dimensional oblique
Mach wave) will be formed around the aircraft
starting at the nose and expanding outward
and extending beyond the rear of the aircraft.
• This is known as the Mach cone.
• Any part of the aircraft protruding through this
cone will form its own conical Mach wave or
Mach cone.
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Incompressible flow Compressible flow

• At low subsonic speeds the air surrounding an • At high subsonic flight speeds however, there
aircraft undergoes only very small changes in are significant changes in the pressure of the
total pressure without significant changes in air as it meets and flows around the aircraft.
density.
• Since air is a compressible fluid, the
• In these conditions the assumption that the air
is not compressed or ‘incompressible’ is made. increases in pressure result in significant
changes in density and temperature.
• Hence the term incompressible flow generally
applies to the low end of the subsonic speed • These changes are responsible for the
range (below about Mach 0.4). various effects observed as the flight speed
• This assumption greatly simplifies the increases and become too great to be
mathematics associated with the study of low- ignored hence it is called the “compressible
speed aerodynamics. flow”.
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Compressibility effects Shock and expansion waves
• The density and temperature changes to the • Once supersonic flow is present on the
airflow, and the effects they have on aircraft aircraft, all changes in velocity; pressure,
performance, are termed collectively density and flow direction take place quite
compressibility effects. suddenly and in relatively confined regions.
• Some of the more notable of these • These changes are dramatic and hence the
compressibility effects are: term “shock”.

shock waves • Aircraft are affected by the formation of three

shock drag types of waves in the transonic and
supersonic flight.

wave drag
• Two of these are classed as compression

shock stall waves and the other is termed an expansion

divergence wave.

control reversal
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Shock Wave Shock and expansion waves

• The expansion wave is not so sudden and
therefore is not so wasteful of energy as the
compression/shock waves.
• The differences in wave types are caused by
the flow direction change that occurs.
• The types of shock waves are:

normal shock wave

oblique shock wave

expansion wave (or fan).

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Normal shock wave Normal shock wave

• The first wave to appear on an aerofoil, • As the air flows through the normal shock
usually on the top surface. wave, it undergoes a rapid compression.
• Once M is exceed, the aircraft is flying in the
CRIT
• The compression decreases the kinetic
transonic speed range with supersonic flow energy of the airstream and converts it into a
on the top surface but subsonic flow exists pressure and temperature increase behind
elsewhere. the shock wave.
• All pressure disturbances behind this sonic • The heat rise behind the shock wave is either
flow cannot be propagated forward because radiated to the atmosphere or absorbed by
they run into sonic velocities travelling the wing surface and ending up with losing
rearward. energy.
• A normal shock wave is formed where the air • This losing energy is known as the “wave
slows from supersonic to subsonic. drag”.

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Normal shock wave Normal shock wave
http://selair.selkirk.bc.ca/Training/Aerodynamics/shockwave-formation.html
• While travelling well below the speed of
sound, no shock waves are being produced
to slow the aircraft down.

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Normal shock wave Normal shock wave

• At M=0.8, the flow immediately in front of the • At M=1.0, the area of the supersonic flow has
shock wave is supersonic, but all the rest of increased but the flow behind the shock wave
flow is subsonic. is still subsonic.
• The shock wave will form on the top surface first
in any aerofoil.

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Normal shock wave Normal shock wave

• At M=1.1, nearly all the flow is supersonic, • At M=2, the flow is all supersonic and the
but there are still small some regions of the bow wave will attach itself to the LE as an
subsonic flow immediately in front of the LE oblique shock wave.
at the stagnation point where the flow is
about to rest, and immediately behind the TE
is forming the transonic region.

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Oblique shock wave Oblique shock wave
• An oblique shock wave is inclined an angle to
the upstream flow and may remain
supersonic downstream of the shock wave.
• It will occur when a supersonic flow
encounters a corner that effectively turns the
flow into itself and compresses.
• The upstream streamlines are uniformly
deflected after the shock wave so that after
leaving the shock it will continue on parallel to
the surface behind the shock .
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Oblique shock wave Oblique shock wave

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Expansion wave (or fan) Expansion wave (or fan)

• A Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan is a centred
expansion process, which turns a supersonic
flow around a convex corner.
• The fan consists of infinite number of Mach
waves, diverging from a sharp corner.
• In case of a smooth corner, these waves can
be extended backwards to meet at a point.
• Each wave in the expansion fan turns the
flow gradually (in small steps).

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Expansion wave (or fan)

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Shock-induced stall Shock-induced stall

• Flow separation at transonic speeds is generally
related due to the presence of the shock.
• The normal shock wave on the top and bottom
surface of the aerofoil, causes a decrease in the
speed and energy of the airflow behind the
shock.
• Result in breaking away the boundary layer
behind the shock wave or creating more
turbulent flow.

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Shock-induced stall Shock-induced stall

• The shock stall results from a separated
• Because of boundary layer separation (stall) boundary layer acts just like the low speed
on low speed aerodynamics causes certain stall (buffeting, loss of lift, and a shift in the
observable effects, for example: centre of pressure).

buffeting, because of the turbulence on • The major difference in the way they occur is
controls surfaces and other parts of the the high angle of attack stall will always occur
aircraft at a particular high angle of attack, however

loss of useful lift and therefore a stall the shock stall is dependent on aircraft

changes to the pressure distribution, causing speed, not angle of attack, and thus occurs at
longitudinal pitch changes. low angles of attack.
• Separated flow due to a shock stall can
cause severe damage to the airframe,
especially the empennage.
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Shock-induced drag (or shock Shock-induced drag (or shock
drag) drag)
• Refers as drag divergence, or drag rise or • Kinetic energy from the air is converted into
force divergence. heat energy as the airflow slows down
through the shock wave.
• Shock drag occurs at transonic speeds where
drag increases dramatically because of the • Let consider the aircraft moving through still
shock wave formation. air, rather than air moving over a stationary
aircraft.
• Shock drag is similar to form drag and skin
friction in that the drag opposes the motion of • As the aircraft travels at transonic and
the body through the air by exerting forces supersonic speeds shock waves attached to
either at right angles or tangential to the it are ‘dragged’ through the air.
surfaces of the body. • As these shock waves pass they impose
changes on the air through which they pass.
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Shock-induced drag (or shock Shock-induced drag (or shock

drag) drag)
• The energy imparted to the air by the shock • The transonic flight range is associated with the
waves to heat it and compress it must be in first appearance of the shock waves on the
turn supplied by the aircraft. aircraft’s surfaces.
• Hence more energy has to be supplied to • Shock drag may be considered to consist of two
enable the aircraft to travel at speeds where types of drag: wave drag and boundary layer
shock waves are present on the aircraft and drag.
so the term this shock-induced drag or shock • Wave drag is the drag which results from the
drag is introduced. wave-making process, that is, drag caused by
the dissipation of energy in the shock wave.
• Shock drag is the major obstacle in getting
through the transonic range and maintaining • Boundary layer drag is caused by the thickened,
turbulent boundary layer or separated boundary
Mach 1 or greater. layer.
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Shock-induced drag (or shock Shock-induced drag (or shock

drag) drag)
• Shock drag can cause an increase in drag
coefficient (C ) up to ten times normal.
D

• The Mach number where shock drag starts is

called the force divergence Mach number
and usually exceeds the critical Mach number
by 5-10%.
• The term divergence comes from the
compressibility effects encountered as the air
changes its characteristics.

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Shock-induced drag (or shock Shock-induced drag (or shock
drag) drag)
• As the speed of our aircraft increases further
into the supersonic, the drag rise will peak
and then drop off to a point around one-and-
a-half to two times its subsonic value.
• It is true to say that a significant amount of
the power for a supersonic jet is required, not
to fly supersonic speed, but to get it through
the transonic flight regime.

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Mach angle
• The angle formed by the shock wave in
relation to the body (of the aerofoil or the
aircraft).
• At M ,a normal shock wave occurs on the
CRIT

aerofoil at 90°to the airflow.

• At M 1.0 this wave attaches itself to the
trailing edge as an oblique shock wave.
• At some higher Mach number, the bow wave
will also attach itself to the leading edge as
an oblique shock wave.
• As speed increases, the angle of these
waves will decrease.
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Mach angle Mach Cone Angle

• The nose of an aircraft will form a cone made • In 3D motion, the disturbances propagating
up of a shock wave, called a Mach cone the from a moving point source expand outward
shock on the leading edge or trailing edge of
a wing will form a wedge shape. as spheres, not circles. If the speed of the
source (V) is greater than the local speed of
sound (a), these spheres are enclosed with a
Mach cone.
• The Mach cone angle is the angle between
the upper and lower Mach line.

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Mach Cone Design effect and Shock wave
• The critical Mach number ( M ) indicates the CRIT

speed at which shock waves begin to appear

on the aircraft.
• Designers can increase the M of the aircraft CRIT

and reduce the strength of the shock waves.

• The designers usually concern about modern
commercial transport aircraft to operate at as
high speed as possible without encountering
the troublesome and costly effects of shock
drag.
• A high M results in faster flight times, less
CRIT

fuel wastage and less impact on the

structure.
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Design effect and Shock wave Aerodynamic heating

• Any fluid flowing over a surface will
• Overall, it is important to give the airflow as experience a reduction in velocity of the fluid
gradual acceleration and deceleration as when direct contact with the surface because
possible. of friction between the fluid and the surface
• This means the aerofoils, fuselage, tailplane, over which it flows.
control surfaces and engine nacelles are • This friction causes aerodynamic heating of
made as slim as possible. both the fluid and the surface of the body.
• Making the acceleration and deceleration of • At low speeds the amount of heat involved is
the airflow as gradual as possible reduces small and does not cause any significant
the strength of the shock waves and so problems; but as the speed increases this rise
reduces shock drag and shock-induced in temperature of the aircraft structure
separation. becomes very significant.
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Aerodynamic heating Heat barrier and Sound barrier

• Another form of aerodynamic heating is • The aircraft passes through the sound barrier
called rum temperature rise due to the effect and heat barrier is different.
of dynamic pressure and temperature rise. • The sound barrier problems are eventually left
• This heating occurs where there is a very behind as higher speed is progressed,
large reduction in airflow velocity, so the however by going faster the heating problems
greatest temperature rises occur at the simply get worse.
various stagnation points on the aircraft (e.g. • The heat barrier is the aerodynamic limit as a
the leading edges or nose of the aircraft). barrier imposed by the limitations of the
• When the flow becomes turbulent, the aircraft materials constructed.
heating effect is significantly more than for • The aircraft speed is limited by the ability of its
laminar flow. Hence in areas on the aircraft materials to withstand the temperatures
that are subject to turbulent flow, local skin experienced at that speed, and not to
temperatures may be significantly higher. compromise on changing conditions of airflow.
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Aerodynamic heating
• Aerodynamic heating can have disastrous
effects on the structure of the aircraft.
• Therefore the aircraft is fitted with skin
temperature sensors that warn the aircrew if
a skin overheat is about to occur.

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Aerodynamic heating
Several methods have been tried to overcome
problems associated with aerodynamic
heating.

insulation by shielding or blankets Aircraft and wing design for

developing materials that withstand higher
temperatures high-speed flight

radiating the heat away from the surfaces

circulating cooling fluid under the surface

refrigerating under the surfaces.

Internal cooling for the equipment, fuel, and
crew is also necessary

Light alloys are usable up to about Mach 2.
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Thickness/chord (t/c) ratio Thickness/chord (t/c) ratio

• Thin sections and laminar flow are used on
• Thickness/chord ratio is the ratio of the most high-speed aircraft.
aerofoil thickness to the chord length usually • Laminar flow aerofoils are thinner than the
expressed as a percentage. normal low-speed aerofoil and have a gently
graduated camber with the point of maximum
• The lower the t/c ratio, the higher the critical camber being further back on the surface.
Mach number. • Some laminar flow aerofoils have so little
• In simple terms, the lower the ratio, the camber and they are almost symmetrical.
thinner the wing. • The end effect is that a smoother, more
gradual acceleration is imparted to the
airflow.
• The laminar flow aerofoil will have a relatively
sharp or small radius leading edge.
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Thickness/chord (t/c) ratio
• The t/c ratio of most modem fighter aircraft
is around 7-8% and achieving an MCR of
about 0.8 Mach.
• The t/c ratio can be reduced to achieve
MCR over 0.9; however, there are major
structural concerns with the design of
wings such a thin wing.
• The thin wings are hard to manufacture
with the required strength and rigidity.
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Thickness/chord (t/c) ratio

Some drawbacks of the laminar flow aerofoil
are:

A low value of maximum lift coefficient (CL )
increases the stall speed.

Behaviour of the aerofoil near the high
incidence stall is inferior to the conventional
C L

aerofoil because of the rate at which the

transition point moves forward in the stall.

Aerofoils of this shape are very sensitive to
slight changes of contour, in fact so sensitive
on some that even a spot of dirt can cause
the transition point to move up to that spot.
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Fineness ratio Area rule

• Applies to such things as the body and nacelles • Already discussed the necessity for the airflow at
of our aircraft. transonic and high subsonic speeds to be given
• The same principles which applied to the a gradual increase in speed and then a gradual
thickness/chord ratio of the aerofoil apply to the decrease.
aircraft as a whole. • To achieve this the cross-sectional area of a
• The fineness ratio is the ratio of the length to the body (fuselage) must increase gradually and
maximum diameter of a streamline body. then decrease.
• The reciprocal of the thickness ratio, although
these two measures are generally reserved for • For high-Speed objects, the maximum cross-
two different kinds of aerodynamic body. sectional area should be about half way, rather
• The higher the fineness ratio, the slimmer is the than a third of the way back.
body and the higher the critical Mach number.

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Area rule Area Rule
• Anything added to this body, for example
http://videos.howstuffworks.com/nasa/2133- wings, will cause a sudden increase in the
supersonic-flight-video.htm cross-sectional area (of the body as a whole).
• To compensate for the increase caused by
the addition of the wings or tail we must
decrease the cross-section of the fuselage.
• Making the aircraft conform to area rule will
often give the fuselage a distinctive waist
This waist is sometimes called a wasp waist
or the coke-bottle effect.

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Area rule Area rule

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Divergence (or wing torsional Divergence (or wing torsional
divergence) divergence)
• Aerofoils in high-Speed airflows can suffer • If the aerofoil is above divergence speed, any
from an aeroelastic problem called divergence. airflow disturbance causes an increase in lift
• This phenomena is caused by the high (acting at the aerodynamic centre) of the
dynamic pressures due to the compressible aerofoil.
flow, and elastic deflection of the structure. • If the aerodynamic centre is ahead of the
• Divergence is a violent instability which causes elastic axis of the wing, then the wing will twist
immediate failure. leading edge up. This will result in a further
increase in angle of attack, producing even
• This is different from force divergence or
more lift and the cascading effect continues
shock-induced stall.
until total failure occurs.
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Divergence (or wing torsional

divergence)
• To avoid problems with divergence, wings
must have a high torsional stiffness
(resistance to twisting).
• Such a characteristic is difficult to build into
wings with a very thin section.
• A compromise must be made between the
desirable aerodynamic shape and the
structural necessity.

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The sound barrier The sound barrier

• The changes of sound that occur in the The rise and fall of the lift /drag coefficient as
transonic regime are quite significant. the speed of the aeroplane increases.
• Therefore the designers of the aircraft they
designed aircraft to get as much speed as
possible without reaching the critical Mach
number and the term sound barrier evolved.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHrwgRsX
0BI

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The sound barrier The sound barrier
• In low speed flight, the advantages of
• As the speed increases, the CL increases symmetrical aerofoils is that the C of P does
initially; however at the point the CD starts to not move with changing AOA.
rise sharply there is a dramatic drop in CL. • However, this does not come to in a shock-
• As the drag rise peaks and falls so does the induced stall.
CL fall and rise. • When the shock-induced separation starts,
• At a speed just above Mach 1, the CL begins the centre of pressure moves forward to
to drop gradually to a certain point leaving an approximately the 25% chord position.
aerofoil in supersonic flow producing less lift • As speed increases, the shock waves move
than it does in a subsonic flow. back and the boundary layer re-attaches.
• The centre of pressure now moves aft to the
50% position.
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The sound barrier The sound barrier

• The overall effect shows that as the aircraft
passed through the transonic region, the drag
is increased while lift is reduced.
• However, it is also found that the aeroplane is
now flying smoothly on the other side of the
sound barrier.

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Devices to prevent or delay Devices to prevent or delay

separation separation
• The separation is caused by the boundary To avoid this separation, certain design
layer becoming sluggish, and losing energy features have been created, some of these
over the rear part of the aerofoil. are:
• It then separates becoming thick and
vortex generators -
turbulent.

leading edge notches and saw-tooths

thickened trailing edge

wing fences

droop snoot and leading edge flaps.
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Vortex generators Vortex generators
• In order to reduce the drag caused by • These tip vortices draw high energy (high
supersonic flow over portion of the wing, velocity) air from outside the sluggish
small airfoils called vortex generators are boundary layer and introduce it into the
installed vertically into the airstream. boundary layer.
• Can be achieved by delaying the separation • This re-energises the boundary layer air
due to the excessive angles of attack or helping to delay separation.
shock wave formation.
• Because of the low aspect ratio of the vortex
generators, they develop strong tip vortices.

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Vortex generators Vortex generators

• Vortex generators function in the same way
regardless of how the separation is caused—
they re-energise the boundary layer to delay
the separation.
• When used to delay shock-induced
separation their effect is to increase the
strength of the shock wave needed to cause
the separation.
• Their effectiveness is partly offset by a slight
low-speed drag penalty:

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Vortex generators Vortex generators

• The location of vortex generators is usually Vortex generators can be classified as the co-
the result of a lot of expensive research and rotating or contra-rotating types.
testing.
Co-rotating vortex generators are all angled
• When used to delay shock-induced in the same direction and generate vortices
separation at high speed, they are usually which rotate in the same direction.
mounted in rows on top of the wing.
Contra-rotating vortex generators are angled
• For low-speed separation prevention they alternately in opposing directions and
may be mounted almost anywhere on the tail generate alternate vortices which rotate in
surfaces and wings. opposite directions.
• Care is needed as not to damage them or
change them in anyway.
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Types of vortex generators Leading edge notch or saw-
tooth
• Usually found on aircraft with swept or delta
wings.
• One of the problems with swept or delta
wings is the tendency for spanwise airflow to
cause separation at the tips first which will
lead to the problems with roll control.

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Leading edge notch or saw- Leading edge notch or saw-

tooth tooth
• A notch or saw-tooth creates a single,
powerful vortex out near the wing tip causing
two effects:
• It straightens the airflow thus checking its
spanwise movement.
• It injects high energy air into the boundary
layer thus delaying separation in that region.

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Thickened trailing edges Wing fences

• Thickened trailing edges cause small vortices • Similar dimensions to vortex generators
to be shed at the trailing edge similar to the except extending chordwise for a
vortices generated by vortex generators. considerable distance on the top surface.
• Not as effective as vortex generators • Primarily to check the spanwise flow of air
because the vortices do not affect the airflow along the surface.
very far forward on the rear of the aerofoil. • Generates a vortex which has a similar effect
to a wing notch.

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Wing fences Droop snoot and leading edge
• The boundary layer fence, plus other devices flaps
such as the saw-tooth or notched leading
• Refers to the capability of the aerofoil to
edge, cause an increase in drag; however,
this small increase is more than down turn its leading edge.
compensated for by the large amount of • If the leading edge is capable of being
boundary layer drag these devices reduce or extended as well as drooping it is termed a
eliminate. leading edge flap.
• Also reduce buffeting and weaken the shock • Actually the term droop snoot tends to be
wave. universally used regardless of whether the
leading edge is also extendable or not.

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Droop snoot and leading edge Sweepback

flaps • Sweepback has several beneficial effects on
the high-speed characteristics of a surface.
• Although it can be used to advantage on
low-speed aircraft as well, the droop snoot
Increase in MCR number
is most often used on high-speed aerofoils
Increase force divergence Mach number
to prevent separation at the lower end of
Increase in Mach number at which the drag
the speed range when the aerofoil is at rise peaks.
high angles of attack (e.g. during take-off

The drag rise peak will be reduced to a lower
and landing).
CD .

Decrease in the magnitude of changes in force
and moment coefficients.

Reduces loss of lift due to compressibility.
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Sweepback Sweepback
• Sweeping the wings the effective chord can
be increased.
• Since the thickness is not changed, the ratio
of t/c has been reduced.
• Lower t/c ratio, higher MCR is achieved.

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Advantages of sweepback Advantages of sweepback
• Due to reduction in the aerofoil’s maximum lift
curve, less sensitive to gusts and turbulence
with having experience less disturbance for a
given aspect ratio and wing loading.
• Sweep back raises the divergence speed.
• A swept forward wing lowers the divergence.
The swept forward wing has never become
popular because of its significant aeroelastic
problems.
• All high-Speed aerofoils are designed for
operation within their divergence speed limits.
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Advantages of sweepback Yawing moment on sweep

• A small positive effect on weathercock wing
stability.
• The wing advancing into the airflow (wing)
produces more lift, and hence more induced
drag. The retreating wing similarly produces
less drag (on the left-hand side). The drag
differential due to the yawing movement thus
produces a counter clockwise moment
opposing the yaw.
• Sweepback contributes to lateral stability in
the same way as dihedral.

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Rolling moment on swept wing Disadvantages of sweepback

• Tapering and sweeping back wings tendency
to wingtip stall first.
• Tip stall reduces the stall warning and causes
dangerous lateral control problems.
• Designers may need to use a high level of
sweepback to obtain the necessary
performance, but the structural considerations
will require a high level of taper.
• The aerofoil must be aerodynamically tailored
to provide the necessary stall characteristics.
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Wingtip stall on sweepback Disadvantages of sweepback
wing • The designer must also provide the right lift
distribution for cruise conditions to reduce the
drag.
• The methods and devices which may be
used to achieve this are:

Washout.

gentle reduction of the aerofoil camber
throughout the span.

Fences.

Slats.
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Disadvantages of sweepback Disadvantages of sweepback

• Due to the reduction of maximum lift at slow • Sweepback also reduces the effectiveness of
subsonic speeds the stall speed of the trailing edge controls.
aircraft will increase, and increase the wing
surface area to control this problem to • If a single slotted flap across 60% of a wing,
compromise the benefits of using sweep the flaps will give the following increase in
wings. C - to the wing when operated:
LMAX

• To gain performance advantages on sweep • straight wing—approximately 50% increase

wings, the side effects of increased stall • swept wing (35°sweep)—approximately 20%
speed, increased take-off speed and
increase.
increased landing speed are generally
accepted.

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Disadvantages of sweepback
• Sweepback increases lateral stability
• Excessive lateral stability contributes to Dutch
roll and reduces controllability.
• Produce marginal controllability during
crosswind take-offs and landings where a
certain amount of controlled sideslip is
desirable.
• large swept wing aircraft with high wings have
(anhedral) and lateral control devices to
reduce the lateral stability providing for
crosswind take-off and landing requirements.
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Disadvantages of sweepback
• The swept wing creates structural and
aeroelastic problems.
• Sweep wing has a greater structural span
than a straight wing of same area and AR.
• Increase wing structural weight as greater
bending and shear material must be
distributed in the wing to produce the same
designed strength.
• Due to the influence of wing deflection on the
spanwise lift distribution, wing bending will be
occurred.
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Disadvantages of sweepback
• Wing bending causes tip rotation (LE
down) tends to unload the tips and move
the average centre of pressure for the
aerofoil forward.
• Total drag on the swept planform will be
higher than on a rectangular planform after
passing through the transonic range.
• Only of major significance if the aircraft is
to be continuously operated at high
supersonic speeds.
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Advantages/disadvantages of Advantages/disadvantages of
delta wings delta wings
• A high degree of sweepback on a very thin • The long chord of will assist in reducing the
wing. t/c ratio percentage.
• Structurally stronger and easier to build than • The large area provides a cushioning effect
a swept back wing. when near the ground.
• The low t/c ratio reduces wave drag at • The high degree of sweep on the delta wing
supersonic speeds. provides a surprising advantage, and
• A large span reduces induced drag at all particularly on the Concorde.
speeds.

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 Advantages/disadvantages of
delta wings
• The tendency for sweepback to cause tip
stall.
• On the delta wing, as the tip stall tries to
move inboard, it is swept off the leading edge
as a very strong and stable vortex.
• The low pressure core of the vortex actually
applies a suction to the forward facing parts
of the aerofoil providing a lift boost and form
thrust—in effect, negative drag.

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Advantages/disadvantages of
delta wings
• This effect will occur only on highly swept
wings of over approximately 55°sweep, and
assists in all flight regimes; however it is most
significant at high CL, for example, in landing.
• The main disadvantage of delta wings is the
increased drag resulting in a lower lift drag
ratio.

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Variable geometry
• Variable geometry, or swing wing allows to
use the best qualities and minimise the
disadvantages of straight wings, highly swept
wings and everything in between.
• The wide acceptance of variable geometry
since its early-day problems is quite easy to
see by the number of modern aircraft that use
it.
• The main disadvantage of variable geometry
is the complexity and weight of the
mechanism required for actuation.

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Aerofoils for high-speed flight Flatplate
• For an aerofoil in supersonic flow, straight • A good example of how simple a very
lines, flat surfaces, and sharp corners are, up effective supersonic aerofoil can be.
to a point as good as curves and rounded • In supersonic flight the changes that occur
corners. They are also easier to build. due to compressibility can be used to

Flatplate produce a lifting force.

Double-wedge • The flatplate is actually the single most

Bi-convex. effective and stable lifting surface for
supersonic flight if it has enough strength.
• Aircraft has to fly below the speed of sound,
and a flatplate makes a lousy aerofoil at
subsonic speeds.

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Flatplate The flatplate as a supersonic

• At give a flat plate a small angle of attack in a aerofoil
supersonic flow, oblique shock waves form
on the forward lower and rear upper edges
and that expansion waves form on the
forward upper and rear lower edges.
• The expansion wave expands the air and
reduces the pressure; the oblique shock
wave compresses the air and increases the
pressure.
• From lift and drag can be attained.

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The pressure distribution Double-wedge aerofoil

over a flatplate • Easiest way to make a flatplate a viable
proposition.
• Allows to put in the necessary structure for
stiffness and strength.

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Double-wedge aerofoil Double-wedge aerofoil
• Very little difference at supersonic speeds • For the double-wedge with a small angle of
whether the thickest point is at 40% chord or attack the following changes occur to the
60% chord. shock waves are:
• The best position subsonic flight would be at
The forward upper wave reduces in strength
40%. and the lower wave increases in strength.

The increased wave strength on the lower
wave causes an increase in pressure which
provides lift to the forward half of the wedge.

The expansion wave on the top surface
expands the airflow and reduces the
pressure, creating the lift for the rear half of
the aerofoil.
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Double-wedge aerofoil

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Bi-convex aerofoil Bi-convex aerofoil

• As effective as any of the previously
mentioned ones; however it is better at
subsonic speeds than the others.

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