EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER I - MEANING, NATURE,

AND SCOPE
Origin and History:
Evolution of Educational Technology:
 In the early period of human history, when writing was unknown, the
method of presentation on the part of the teachers and citation and
memorization on the part of the students was a common practice in
almost all the civilizations of the world. Socrates' teacher-pupil oral
dialogue system prevalent in the west and oral teaching tradition
maintained by the ancient sages in the Gurukuls of our country may be
cited as a testimony of the use of relevant technology in the field of
teaching-learning at a particular age in the progress of human
civilization.

 With the advent of writing as the means and materials of communication,

like writing on the leaves and tree-trunks, engraving on the metals and
rocks, and then the use of some type of paper and ink material provided
the next breakthrough in the use of writing technology for teaching and
learning. In the time to come, it provided a great impetus in the field of
teaching and learning which witnessed the use of the subject matter
available in the form of printing material and textbooks, a great scientific
and technological advancement.
 The use of writing and printing technology then took its next leap in
helping the cause of teaching and learning by being utilized in the
production and use of the instructional material like chalk or blackboards,
pictures, charts, models, maps, diagrams and other graphic material.

 Later on, with the industrial development and technical advancement,

sophisticated scientific instruments, mass media and educational
materials were used. It brought the use of sophisticated hardware and
software such as radio, television, tape recorder, films, transparency, etc.
in the field of education.
  The concept of programmed instruction and theories of learning, later on,
added another dimension to the meaning and concept of educational
technology. This was again broadened hen the new approaches in the
form of system-approach, microteaching, interaction analysis and
computer assisted instruction came into existence.

Meaning and Definitions

1. G.O.M. Leith: "Educational technology is the systematic application of
scientific knowledge about teaching-learning conditions of learning to improve
the efficiency of teaching and training (Leith, 1967)."
2. Shiv K. Mitra: "Educational technology can be conceived as a science of
techniques and methods by which educational goals could be realized (Mitra,
1968:4)."
3. S.S. Kulkarni: "Educational technology may be defined as the
application of the laws as well as recent discoveries of science and technology
to the process of education (Kulkarni, 1969)."
4. D. Unwin: "Educational technology is concerned with the application of
modern skills and techniques to requirements of education and training. This
includes the facilitation of learning by manipulation of media and methods, and
the control of environment in so far as this reflects on learning (Unwin, 1969),"
5. W. Kenneth Richmond: "Educational technology is concerned with
providing appropriately designed learning situations which, holding in view the
objectives of teaching or training, bring to bear the best means of instruction
(Richmond, 1979)."
6. I.K. Davies: "Educational technology is concerned with the problems of
education and training context and it is characterized by the disciplined and
systematic approach to the organization of resources for learning (Davies,
1971)."
7. J.R. Gases: "Educational technology has to be seen as part of a persistent
and complex endeavour of bringing pupils, teachers and technical means
together in an effective way (Ford Foundation Team, 1971)."
8. US President Commission of Enquiry: "Educational technology may
be defined as a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating a total
process of teaching and learning in terms of specific objectives based on
findings from research in human learning and communication (cited in, Tucker,
1979:159)."
9. DES Working Party UK: "Educational technology is the development,
application and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids in the field of human
learning (cited in, Tucker, 1979:159)."
10. Scottish Council for Educational Technology: "Educational
technology is systematic approach to designing and evaluating learning and
teaching methods and methodologies and to the application and exploitation of
media and the current knowledge of communication techniques in education,
both formal and informal (cited in, Tucker 1979:160)."
An overview of the definition listed here reveals that there exist wide
differences of opinions regarding a particular definition of the term educational
technology. These definitions initially encompass the whole range of
educational technology activities from the analytic methods of psychology of
learning and teaching to the audio-visual communication and mass media
technology. The views propagated by these definitions may help us conclude
about the meaning and nature of educational technology as follows:
 Educational technology is concerned with the systematic application of
science and technology in the field of education and thus may be defined as
the application of technology to education on order to further the cause of
the latter.
 Just as science and technology help in carrying out the practical task in
general, educational technology helps in providing efficiency to the task of
teaching and learning.

 Educational technology provides technical guidance and solution to the

problems of education.
 Teaching is communicating and education technology can play an effective
role in the communication between teacher and student.

 Education technology encompasses the total teaching and learning process

involving the elements like the following:
o Specification of goals and behavioural objectives.
o Analysis of the characteristics of the learner.
o Selection and organization of the content or subject matter to be learned.
 o Methods and strategies of the presentation of the content.
o Use of aid-material, software and hardware, mass media and
communication techniques.
o Effective arrangement of learning situations and learning environment.
o Effective classroom control and management.
o Continuous feedback and evaluation of the results.

 Educational technology is not limited to the use of audio-visual aids and

does not symbolize merely educational hardware such as the sophisticated
gadgets and mechanical devices used in education. For the effective
management of the total teaching-learning process it tends to utilize the
results of all good, experiments and researches in the field of human learning
and the art of communication and employs a combination of all possible
human and non-human resources to achieve the desired educational
objectives.
In brief, educational technology should stand for a wise application of the
available human and non-human resources for providing appropriate solution
to the educational problems and to improve the processes and products of
education.
Concept of Educational Technology
To understand the nature of educational technology, let us try to view it from
the following angles:
1. Evolution of the concept of educational technology.
2. Existing position and latest concept.
3. Distinction from other related concepts.
1. Evolution of the Concept of Educational Technology: It may be discussed
in detail as follows:

 The earliest concept of educational technology was linked with the use of
audio-visual aids like charts, models, maps, specimen and concrete material.
In this sense, the term educational technology was used as a synonym to
audio-visual aids meant for direct teaching and learning.
 With the advent of physical science and consequently the electronic
revolution there came an era of sophisticated hardware and software
(gadgets and mechanical devices) like projectors, tape recorders, radio and
television. As a result, educational technology was taken in terms of these
sophisticated instruments and equipment used for presenting instructional
material.
 Then came the age of mass media. It led to a massive communication
revolution for instructional purposes. Utilization of radio, television, tele-
text and computer assisted instructions for Individualized learning, thus,
brought more sophistication in the use of appliances and instruments for
formal and informal education.
 With the advent of programmed learning and programmed instruction
concept, a new dimension of educational technology came into the
educational horizon. It tried to individualize the process of education and
introduced a system of self-learning in the form of designed self-
instructional material and teaching machine. As a result, educational
technology was regarded as being concerned with the preparation and use of
individualized instruction or self-instructional programmed material, leading
to the use of teaching machine for auto-instruction or learning.
 The concept of programmed learning added another dimension to the
meaning of educational technology when some new devices approaches like
wide applications of the theories of learning and teachings, micro-teaching,
analysis of behaviour and system approach etc. came into existence.
2. The Existing Position and Latest Concept:
Although the term 'educational technology' has been in vogue in several
decades, yet on account of its complex nature involving many disciplines and
demanding too much specialization and understanding of the planning,
processing and products of education, it has been narrowly conceived by
different individuals depending on where one works and stands within the
educational spectrum. It has resulted in the formation of varying concepts of
educational technology. For example, for those who are working in audio-visual
aids, educational technology is confined to the use of audio-visual aids, while
mass media experts emphasize the importance of sophisticated hardware,
software and communication technology. For the experts of programmed
learning and individualized instruction, it means the programming of the self-
instructional material and use of teaching machines or computer-aided learning
material. There are others who tend to look at educational technology only from
the management point of view and consider it as an application of system
approach to teaching-learning.
In this way, in actual sense, educational technology exists, to a very large
extent, in a fragmented way not only in India but also globally. As a result, in
any course or scheme of educational technology related to B. Ed., M.A. or
M.Phil (Education) of the universities in India and abroad, we find significant
diversification in terms of objectives, topics and the coverage of contents.
However, serious attempts are now being made to arrive at some general
consensus to end the confusion and debate regarding the concept of systems
engineering or systems approach originated from computer science. According
to this concept, educational technology is more than the sum of its parts. It is a
systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluation of the total process of
learning and communication leading to a combination of human and non-
human resources reorganized into an efficient and economic system for the best
possible results. In other words, it means a systems approach adopted in the
field of education to organize educational systems, keeping in view the broad
objectives and the available resources.
This aspect of educational technology carries a wide meaning and multifaceted
concepts. It emphasizes the application of systems approach to the study of the
multidimensional problems of education. Some of these problem areas are as
follows:
 The educational planning and organization.
 The psychology of learning.
 The curriculum development and course design.
 The production of teaching-learning material.
 Audio-visual method of presentation and dissemination of information,
storage and retrieval.
 The allocation and management of human and non-human resources.
 The cost-effectiveness of media in education.
 Innovation.
 Evaluation.
3. Educational Technology and other Related Concepts:
The concept and meaning of educational technology may be made a little more
clear by distinguishing it from other related concepts.
Educational technology and instructional technology
These two terms should not be considered as synonymous. Educational
technology is a more comprehensive and broad-based concept. Instructional
technology is a subsystem of the main system of educational technology.
Education is a comprehensive process and imparting of instruction is one of the
several means to achieve the goals of education. As a result, the technology of
instruction may be regarded as a part and section of the whole phenomenon of
technology of education.
In strict sense, instructional technology is concerned with determining and
providing appropriate stimuli to the learner to produce certain type of responses
for making learning more effective. In other words, instructional technology
determines the media, methods and material that may be used in a given
teaching-learning situation for attaining the stipulated instructional objectives.
On the other hand, educational technology is concerned with the scientific use
of the available human and non-human resources for solving various problems
of education (including instruction) for optimizing the results of the whole
teaching-learning process.
Educational technology and teaching technology
Like instructional technology, teaching technology is also one of the sub-types
of the systems of educational technology. It concerns with the systematization
of the process of teaching and provides necessary theory and practice for the
teachers to bring improvement in the task of teaching. The concept of
instructional technology is much wider than the concept of teaching technology
as it also includes the means and material concerning individualized instruction
and self-learning including teaching machines and computer-assisted learning,
independent of the teachers and their sets.
Teaching technology is merely a specialized branch of educational technology
which is meant for the teachers and the teaching process. While education as a
whole, can never be limited merely to the teaching process or teacher's task,
educational technology can never be confined to teaching technology only. It is
much more than mere teaching or instructional technology.
Technology of education and technology in education
The term 'technology in education' refers to the use of technological
advancement such as various equipments, material and machines for education
purposes. It involves the increasingly complex range of audio-visual equipment,
hardware and sophisticated electronic devices like projectors, films, radio,
television, tape recorder, teaching machines, tele-text and computer aided
instructions for individualized and group learning.
The term technology in education is thus a service concept like technology in
the service of farming or agriculture or science in the service of mankind. In
this sense, educational technology can provide its services to the teachers on the
following grounds:
 For explaining the purpose and functions of different forms of
appliances, equipment and audio-visual material and mass media.

 For providing training in acquiring the material and handling the

equipment to overcome their reluctance to use new media and material.
 For showing the relevance of the use of the equipment and material in the
context of individualized and group learning for achieving the goals of
formal or non-formal education.
The term 'technology of education' or 'educational technology' cannot limit
itself to the role of service as confined in the case of technology in education.
The term, technology of education, does not represent something added or
helped from outside as sounded in the case of technology in education. It
signifies a system or technological approach to the problems of education.
Emphasizing on this point of view, T.K. Robinson (1976) writes:
The strongest protagonists of educational technology are not, however, satisfied
with a role limited to technology in education and the provisions of audio-visual
aids. they see themselves as crucially involved in the designs and evaluation of
systems of learning involving an understanding of the psychology of learning
and of communication and information theory to be used to established a
rational for good teaching practice which uses a variety of media and modes
and which enables the teacher to deploy his skills more effectively and apply
them more widely. This is technology of education.
In view of the discussion carried out in the above, the following conclusions
can be drawn about the concept of educational technology:

 Educational technology cannot be taken as a synonym to audio-visual aids,

and technology in education emphasizes the concept of service, i.e. the use
of different equipment, gadgets, and mass media.
 Educational technology must mean technology of education presenting
itself as a system for bringing improvement in the total process of
teaching-learning by carefully analyzing its problems and reorganizing all
available resources in an economic way for obtaining the optimum results.
 Educational technology cannot be viewed in terms of its parts or processes.
Instructional technology, teaching technology, behaviour technology,
programmed learning, micro-teaching, system analysis, management of
teaching-learning, teacher or pupil behaviour, etc. are all its constituents
and resources. Not a single one of these alone is enough to represent the
concept of educational technology. All these branches, innovations,
 approaches, and strategies should be integrated as a whole according to the
needs and requirements of the system represented by educational
technology at a particular time in a given situation for accomplishing its
useful objectives.
Objectives of Educational Technology:
Educational technology, in the capacity of technology of education, provides
valuable help in the total teaching-learning process for achieving the best
possible results in an economic way through the available human and non-
human resources. In this respect, the major objectives of education technology
can be summarized as follows:
Objectives at the Macro Level:
In the view of the broad educational goals, i.e. the macro level, the objectives of
educational technology can be listed in the following way:
1. To identify educational needs and aspirations of the community.
2. To determine the aims of education, broad strategies and structure of
education.
3. To develop a suitable curriculum with interaction of science, art and human
values.
4. To identify man-material resources and strategies for achieving the
stipulated aims of education.
5. To develop certain models leading to improvement of the process of
teaching and learning.
6. To develop the appropriate aids and equipment to meet the educational
purposes.
7. To identify major constraints in the environment and the ways and means to
tackle those.
8. To help in extending educational opportunities to the masses especially the
neglected section of the community.
9. To manage the whole educational system covering planning,
implementation and the evaluation phases.
Objectives at the Micro Level:
In the view of the specific classroom teaching, i.e. the micro level, the
objectives of educational technology are as follows:
1. To identify and analyze the characteristics and educational needs of the
pupils.
2. To determine the specific classroom objectives and state then in
behavioural terms.
3. To analyze the contents of the instruction and organize it in a proper
sequence.
4. To identify the available teaching-learning material and resources.
5. To identify the nature of the interaction of the sub-systems like students,
teachers, teaching-learning material, content of instruction and
methodologies.
6. To plan the teaching strategies and utilize the man-material resources for
achieving specific classroom objectives.
7. To evaluate the effectiveness of the classroom teaching in the terms of the
pupil's performance or change in behaviour.
8. To provide appropriate feedback to the students as well as teachers to bring
modification in the teaching-learning process.
Approaches of Educational Technology:
1. Educational Technology I or Hardware Approach-
 Has its origin in physical sciences and engineering and based on the
concept of service, i.e., using technology in education (Silverman 1968)
 Audio-visual aids such as charts, models, slides, filmstrips, audio
cassettes and sophisticated equipment and gadgets such as radio,
television, films, projectors, taper recorder, records player, video,
teaching machines and computer may mean to use the technological
advancement in the world of communication for educational purposes.
 Mass media movement, a result of this approach, is now contributing a
lot to reach the educational benefit to masses with great ease and in a
cost-effective way.
 Hardware approach to education has resulted in improving the efficiency
of educational means and reducing the cost of education
 However, this approach tries to enter education from outside, operating
more in isolation than in combination.
 Almost all material and equipment of hardware approach originally
belong to areas other than education and are being borrowed and utilized
for educational purposes.
2. Educational Technology II or Software Approach-
 Owes its origin to the behavioral sciences and their applied aspects
concerning the psychology of learning.
 Psychology of learning provided solid technology for bringing the
desirable behavioral changes in the students and thus serves the cause of
education by laying down definite instructional procedure, teaching
behavior and behavior modification devices.
  Sometimes referred to as: instructional technology, teaching technology
or behavior technology.
 This type of technology tries to adopt a process-oriented technique for
the production of suitable teaching-learning material, teaching-learning
strategies, and evaluation techniques for the optimum results in the
process of teaching and learning.
 In this type and approach, educational technology basically stands for the
technique of developing and utilizing software and, that is why, it is
referred to as the software approach.
 Therefore, the materials, such as the programmed material and teaching-
learning strategies based on psychology of learning are usually known as
software and the equipment and gadgets are called hardware.
Role of hardware and software technologies in modern educational practices
1. Individualization of instruction: Individualization of instruction is a major
trend in the modern educational practices and is the demand of the hour. The
psychology of individual differences has brought the necessity of organizing
instructional process according to the needs, interests, pace, and abilities of
the individual learners. Use of hardware and software technology may help in
this task on account of their very nature and possibility of application. In
brief, we can highlight the role of hardware and software technologies on this
account by stating some of the materials and equipment as follows:
- Programmed instructions, programmed textbooks, and programmed
learning modules.
- Teaching machines, computer assisted instruction and computer managed
learning.
- Video and audio recorded learning and instructional material.
 - Email, internet, teleconferencing, and other online educational facilities.
- Special aid material, equipment and appliances used for special
educational and adjustment measures for the disabled (physical, mental,
and learning disabled)
- Special provisions and facilities for the creative and gifted to nurture and
develop their individual capacities according to their pace and interests.
2. Use of multimedia and multi-sensory approach to teaching-learning:
Hardware and software technologies help the teacher as well as learners for
making a proper and judicious use of the multimedia and multi-sensory aid
material, equipment and principles of teaching-learning, derived from
psychology and technology of teaching. It has made the use of the following
possible:
- All the sensory organs sense of sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste for
the acquisition of the desired teaching-learning experiences.
- Multimedia, material and appliances involving hardware and software
technologies for sharing desirable teaching-learning technologies.
- All the relevant and needed teaching-learning methods, devices, and
strategies, well accompanied and aided by hardware and software
technologies.
3. Management of the affairs of educational practices in an efficient and
productive way:
Use of software and hardware technology may help the teacher in the task of
managing his affairs related to the educational and professional
responsibilities in the spheres as follows:
- Planning of teaching-learning.
- Organization of teaching-learning.
- Leading teaching-learning.
 - Controlling teaching-learning
4. Providing proper input and process for the best possible outcomes
(products):
In the true spirit of the system engineering, use of hardware and software
technologies can help the educational and instruction systems to make all
possible efforts for providing adequate outcomes, i.e, realization or
stipulated teaching, learning objectives in a most efficient and cost-effective
way.
5. Fulfilling the expectation of distance and correspondence education:
The demands of today's education and modern educational practices are
putting increasing emphasis on the extension of distance education and
correspondence and online education is the need of hour and this need can
only be better realized through the services of hardware and software
technologies.
6. Making the task of teaching-learning interesting, purposeful and
productive:
Use of hardware and software technologies help both teachers and learners
in the realization of their teaching-learning objectives by making the task of
teaching-learning quite interesting, purposeful and productive through the
provisions as follows:
 Suggesting suitable teaching-learning methods, devices and strategies
based on the psychology of teaching-learning.
 Suggesting suitable maxims and principles of teaching-learning based in
the theory and practice of the technology of teaching-learning.
 Putting various types of audio-visual aid material and equipment at the
disposal of teachers and learners.
  Providing a variety of instructional and self-learning material suiting the
varying needs of teaching-learning situations and individuality of the
teachers and learners.
3. Educational Technology III or Systems Approach-
 Related to the concept of systems engineering which owes it origin to
computer science.
 Represents the latest concept in technology of education.
 In this approach, educational technology stands for a systematic way to
design, carry out and evaluate the total process of education in terms of
specific objectives thus, it means a systems approach to organize
educational system effectively and economically, keeping in view the
educational objectives and available man-material resources,
 The systems approach takes education as a system having a set of inputs
which are subjected to a process, designed to produce certain outputs
which are intended to meet the stipulated objectives of the system.
 The application of this type of educational technology takes the system of
education as a whole and views it in the context of the specified objectives
and functioning of its interrelated parts and the whole system under the
existing constraints.
Scope and Significance of Educational Technology:
1. Analysis of the process of teaching and learning:
Educational technology tries to discuss the concept of teaching, analysis of
the teaching process, variables of the teaching, phases of teaching, levels of
teaching, theories of teaching, principles and maxims of teaching, the concept
of learning, the relevance of the theories of learning, the relationship between
 teaching and learning, the integration of the theories and principles of
teaching as well as learning for attaining optimum educational purposes.
2. Spelling out the educational goals or objectives:
Educational technology tries to discuss the topics such as identification of
educational needs and aspirations of the community, survey of the resources
available for the satisfaction of these needs and aspirations, spelling out the
broad educational objectives, analysis of the broad objectives in terms of the
specific classroom objectives of teaching and learning, specifications of these
objectives in behavioral terms, etc.
3. Development of the curriculum:
This aspect of educational technology is concerned with the designing of a
suitable curriculum for the achievement of the stipulated objectives, It may
describe the ways and means for the selection of suitable learning
experiences or contents, organization of these contents in a suitable
framework in order to bring out more effective instruction and thus analyze
the suitability of the curriculum in relation to the objectives, means and
materials, and devices of evaluation.
4. Development of teaching-learning material:
This area of educational technology is concerned with the production and
development of the suitable teaching-learning material in view of the
stipulated objectives, designed curriculum and available resources. Here
educational technology tries to discuss the essential techniques of developing
software and instructional material like programmed learning material,
computer assisted learning material, mass media instruction material,
personalized system of instruction, planning for teaching and learning and
preparation of lesson plans, etc.
5. Teacher preparation or teacher-learning material:
 Teacher is a key figure in any process of teaching and learning. Educational
technology, therefore, takes care of the proper preparation of teachers for
exercising their complex responsibilities. For this purpose, educational
technology includes topics like models of student teaching, micro-teaching,
stimulated teaching, team-teaching, teacher effectiveness, modification of
teacher-behavior, classroom interaction, T-group training and interaction
analysis etc.
6. Development and selection of the teaching-learning strategies and
tactics:
This aspect deals with the central problem of teaching-learning act. Here
educational technology tries to describe the ways and means of discovering,
selecting and development suitable strategies and tactics of teaching in terms
of the optimum learning and available teaching-learning resources the
availability of the different types of teaching methods, devices and models of
teaching along with their appropriate selection and use for the optimum
results.
7. Development, selection and use of the appropriate audio-visual aids:
Teaching-learning is greatly influenced and benefitted by the use of
appropriate audio-visual aids. Educational technology covers this aspect by
discussing various types of audio-visual aids used for the educational
purpose, their proper selection suiting to a particular teaching-learning
situation, their development and production in view of the available resources
and problems faced in a teaching-learning act, audio-visual methods of
presentation and dissemination of information, their proper storage and
retrieval, and consideration about their cost-effectiveness and effective
utilization.
8. Effective utilization of the hardware and mass media:
 Various sophisticated instruments, equipments, gadgets and communication
devices brought through mechanization and electronics revolution are playing
and effective role in the attainment of educational objectives by helping the
teachers and learners in their respective roles. Educational technology tries to
describe these resources in terms of their specific functions and applicability
in a particular teaching-learning situation; their selection, proper handling
and maintenance; their preparation and development; the cost-effectiveness
of these equipment and mass media in education; appropriate teaching-
learning material for these appliances; and the ways and means of their
optimum use in formal education on the individual and collective basis.
9. To work for the effective utilization of the subsystem of education:
Educational technology considers education as a system operating, in a
systematic and scientific way, for the achievement of educational objectives.
For the coverage of a systematic approach, it tries to include the topics
dealing with the theory and principles of a systems approach, explaining
education as a system. It also includes study of in different subsystems, their
operations and processes in terms of input and output, the needed
development in the working of the subsystem in view of the economy output
and functionality of the system and the organization and management of the
system in an effective way by specifying the respective roles of man,
machine and media in relation to the purpose of teaching and learning.
10. To provide essential feedback and control through evaluation:
Educational technology is essentially concerned with the task of exercising
appropriate control over the process of teaching and learning by planning and
devising suitable tools and devices for the continuous evaluation of the
process and products of the teaching-learning activities. Such evaluation
provides an appropriate feedback to the learners as well as the teachers for
 bringing necessary improvement at the teacher for bringing necessary
improvement at the preparatory and implementation stages of their specific
acts. For this purpose, educational technology discusses the ways and means
of suitable evaluation techniques and their planning, development selection
and appropriate use in relation to the objectives of teaching-learning systems.
Use and Significance of Educational Technology (In the Indian Context)
 There has been a wider and more effective utilization of radio for
broadcasting educational programmes throughout the country.
 Another significant development in the use of educational technology is
concerned with the development of television programmes.
 The third important area where educational technology has been useful is the
problem of training and re-training a large number of school teachers in an
effective way.
 Another application of educational technology in our country is known as
distance education.
 Another major area where educational technology is being used in our
country related to language instruction.
 Another field of operation of educational technology in our country is
considered with the correspondence education.
 Another use for which educational technology is being put in our country is
concerned with the preparation, development and utilization of audio-visual
material, and handling as well as maintenance of the hardware appliances and
sophisticated gadgets.
 In the last trend, educational technology is proving its worth by utilizing the
services of computers and advanced form of ICT technology in the field of
education.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
The history of Educational Technology can be traced back to four ages, the
Stone and Rock age, the Book print and Chalkboard age, the Mass
Communication age and Information Communication age.
STONE AGE PERIOD:
You must have been told the history of the early men at the elementary school.
It is the same early men that we are referring to here. You would recall that he
was reputed to have lived inside the cave. He was described as a wanderer and
that he lived a “crude” life. History had it that he ate his food raw until he was
able to discover fire. As a wanderer, the early men on a very good day must
have covered a very long distance. Covering a long distance implies that he
must have encountered series and variety of experiences before hiding his head
inside a cave. Though as a stack illiterate, he was able to make some drawings
on the surfaces of rocks and other flat objects. Indeed, it could be inferred that
some of the drawing would have been generated from his familiarity with his
immediate environment. Drawing technology or the art of drawing could then
be associated to the early men. Writing technology too was another associated
invention credited to the early men. Therefore, if writing and drawing are
regarded as essential features of educational technology, then, the early men
deserved recognition as the progenitor of the discipline.
The use of stones, pebbles, slates or slabs, counting sticks and bottle caps as is
done in most of primary schools are regarded as the replica of the early man’s
period. During this period, education was elitist and Aristotelian in nature.
Education then was reservation for the rich/elites. It was the period when only
few individuals in the society could afford to hire the services of the teachers to
teach their sons and daughters in their homes. Typically of this period was the
activity of the sophists. The sophists were itinerant teachers who moved from
one place to another teaching and collecting money for the service being
rendered. At that stage, there was monopoly of knowledge by the “professional”
teachers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STONE AND ROCK AGE

 Education of the pupils was at different homes as there was no classroom

 There was close relationship between the pupils and the teacher

 Education is elitist in nature. This is where the rich of the society

employed a teacher to teach their children in their homes.

THE AGE OF BOOK AND CHALKBOARD

In 1456, Johann Guttenberg developed the printing machine with which he was
reputed to have printed the first Bible. With this invention, the art of printing
spread widely and other books were produced. With information explosion,
there was wider spread of awareness and knowledge acquisition. Many people
were interested in learning thus it became obvious that “one and one” teacher-
pupil interaction as was the situation prior to the invention of the printing
machine was no longer workable. This paved way for the assemblage of
students at a place for the teacher to attend to simultaneously. The resultant
effect of this group communication was the invention of the chalkboard which
was popularly known by then as blackboard. The board served as a central point
of focus for all the students. It also provided the teacher a place to write down
important points, diagrams and symbols. Now, we have different kinds of board
in circulation. Mention could be made of wall boards, portable boards, easel
board, and magnetic board etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOCK PRINT AND CHALKBOARD AGE

 More pupils had access to education

 Classrooms were used for instruction has against different homes
 Care was used as a means of facilitating better teaching-learning among
the pupils

MASS COMMUNICATION AGE AND INFORMATION

COMMUNICATION AGE: Refer to text book