5.

61 Fall 2007 Lecture #9 page 1

VARIANCE, ROOT-MEAN SQUARE, OPERATORS,

EIGENFUNCTIONS, EIGENVALUES

xi − x ≡ Deviation of ith measurement from average value <x >

xi − x ≡ Average deviation from average value <x >

But for particle in a box,

(x − x )
2
i
≡ Square of deviation of ith measurement from average
value <x >

(x − x )
2
i
≡ σ x2 ≡ the Variance in x

(x − x )
2 2
Note i
= x2 − x = σ x2

The Root Mean Square (rms) or Standard Deviation is then

12
σ x = ⎡ x2 − x ⎤
2

⎢⎣ ⎦⎥

The uncertainty in the measurement of x, Δx , is then defined as

Δx = σ x

σ x for particle in a box

() () () ()
a ∞
σ x2 = ∫ 0
ψ * x x 2ψ x dx − ∫ ψ * x xψ x dx
−∞
2
⎛ 2⎞ a ⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ a 2 ⎛ nπ x ⎞
⎤
= ⎜ ⎟ ∫ x 2 sin 2 ⎜ dx − ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ∫0 x sin dx ⎥
⎝ a⎠ 0 ⎝ a ⎟⎠ ⎣⎝ a ⎠
⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠
⎦
5.61 Fall 2007 Lecture #9 page 2

Evaluate integral by parts

⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎡ 2⎤
⎢ a a2 ⎥ − ⎢a ⎥
⇒ σ =
2
−
⎢ 3 2 nπ
( ) ⎥ ⎣4⎦
x 2

⎣ ⎦

( )
⎡ nπ ⎤
2
2
a ⎢
σ = 2
− 2⎥
( ) ⎢ 3 ⎥
x 2
4 nπ ⎣ ⎦
12
⎡
( ) ⎤
2
a ⎢ nπ
Δx = σ x = − 2⎥
2 nπ ⎢ 3
⎣
( ) ⎥
⎦

Note that deviation increases with a, and depends weakly on n.

Now suppose we want to test the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle for the
particle in a box.

12
p and p 2 to get Δp = σ p = ⎡ p 2 − p ⎤
2
We need
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

() ()
∞
But do we write p = ∫ −∞
ψ * x pψ x dx ?

what do we put in here??

We need the concept of an OPERATOR

ˆ x =g x
Af () ()
operator acts on function to get a new function
5.61 Fall 2007 Lecture #9 page 3

d ⎛ x2 ⎞ ⎛ 2x ⎞
e.g. ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
dx ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

operator function new function

Special Case

If ()
ˆ x =af x
Af ()
number (constant)

ˆA
()
then f x
is called an eigenfunction of the operator

a
and is the eigenvalue.

This is called an eigenvalue problem (as in linear algebra).

Quantum mechanics is full of operators and eigenvalue problems!!

e.g. Schrödinger’s equation:

⎡ !2 d 2 ⎤
⎢− 2
+ V x ⎥ψ x () () = Eψ x ()
⎣ 2m dx ⎦

Ĥ operator Eigenfunction constant

!2 d 2

or Ĥψ = Eψ with ()
Ĥ x = −
2m dx 2
+V x () (in 1D)

The Hamiltonian operator, acting on an eigenfunction, gives the energy.

p2
()
If V x = 0 , then E = K.E. =
2m

( p̂ )
2
d2
( p̂ )
2
∴ Ĥ = ⇒ = −!2

2m dx 2

( p̂ ) ( pˆ ) ( p̂ )
2
means i.e. the operator acts sequentially on the function
5.61 Fall 2007 Lecture #9 page 5

( p̂ ) f ( x ) = ( pˆ ) ( pˆ ) f ( x ) = pˆ ⎡⎣ pfˆ ( x )⎤⎦ = pˆ ⎡⎣ g ( x )⎤⎦

⎛ d ⎞⎛ d⎞ d2
⇒ ( )( )
p̂ p̂ = ⎜ −i! ⎟ ⎜ −i! ⎟ = −!2 2
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠ dx

d
∴ p̂ = −i! Momentum operator (in 1D)
dx
σ
p
for Particle in a Box

2 2
⎛ d⎞ ⎡ ∞ ⎛ d⎞ ⎤
() () () ()
2 ∞
σ 2p = p 2 − p = ∫ ψ * x ⎜ −i! ⎟ ψ x dx − ⎢ ∫ ψ * x ⎜ −i! ⎟ ψ x dx ⎥
−∞ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎣
−∞ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎦

Note order is now very important! Operator acts only on the function to its
right.

⎛ d⎞
() ()
∞
p = ∫−∞ ψ * x ⎜⎝ −i!
dx ⎟⎠
ψ x dx

a ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ 1 2 ⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ d ⎞ ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞
12
⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎤
= ∫
0
⎢⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜
⎢⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a
⎥
⎟⎠ ⎜⎝
⎥⎦
−i!
dx
⎢
⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠
⎢⎣
sin ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ ⎥dx
⎥⎦
=0

a ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ 1 2 ⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ d ⎞⎛ d ⎞ ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞
12
⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎤
= ∫ ⎢⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ −i! dx ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ −i! dx ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ sin ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ ⎥dx
⎥ ⎢
2
p
0
⎢⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
2 2
2!2 a ⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎛ nπ ⎞ ⎛ nπ x ⎞ 2!2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ a
2 ⎛ nπ x ⎞
=
a ∫0 sin ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ sin ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ dx = a ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ ∫0 ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠ dx
sin

n 2π 2 !2
=
a2
5.61 Fall 2007 Lecture #9 page 6

n2 h2 n2 h2
Note p 2
= = 2m = 2mE as expected
4a 2 8ma 2
E = K.E. since V(x) = 0

n2π 2 !2
( )
2
σ =
2
p
= Δp
a2

12 12
⎡
( ) ⎤ ⎡
( ) ⎤
2 2
a ⎢ nπ nπ ! ! ⎢ nπ
⇒ ΔxΔp = − 2⎥ = − 2⎥
( )
2 nπ ⎢ 3
⎣
⎥
⎦
a 2⎢ 3
⎣
⎥
⎦

always > 1

!
∴ ΔxΔp ≥ as expected from Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
2