LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES LAB

 Study of Introduction to MATLAB

 Study of basic matrix operations

 Determination of Eigen values and Eigen vectors of a Square matrix.

 Solution of Difference Equations.

 Determination of time response of an R-L-C circuit.

 EXPERIMENT NO. 01

OBJECTIVE: STUDY OF INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB

1. INTRODUCTION:
The name MATLAB stands for Matrix Laboratory. The basic building block of
MATLAB is the matrix. It is not confined to the solution of Matrix related
problems. With its inbuilt functions, it is an excellent tool for linear algebraic
computations, data analysis, signal processing, optimization, numerical solutions
of ordinary differential equations (ODE), quadrature, 2D & 3D, graphics and many
other types of scientific computation. Therefore, we can say:
MATLAB is a software package in high performance language for technical
computing. It integrates computation, visualization and programming in an easy to
use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar
mathematical notation. Typical uses include:
 Math and computation

 Algorithm and development

 Data acquisition modeling

 Simulation and prototyping

 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization

 Scientific and engineering graphics
 Application development, including graphical user interface building

2. BASICS:
2.1 MATLAB WINDOWS: There are three basic windows which are as
follows:
1. MATLAB DESKTOP: This is the window which appears by
default when MATLAB is launched. It consists of :
 
COMMAND WINDOW: This is the main window, where
command is written. It is characterized by MATLAB command
prompt (>>). The results also appear on this window(except
figures, which appear on figure window) which command is

 
written. Commands cannot be edited in this window.

CURRENT DIRECTORY: This appears on the bottom left side
of MATLAB desktop. It is where all files are listed. With a
mouse right click, you can run M-files, rename, delete them etc

 after selecting a file from here.

WORKSPACE: This sub-window shows all the variables 
 generated so far and also shows their type and size.

COMMAND HISTORY: All commands typed on the MATLAB
prompt are recorded here. Also commands can be selected from
here and create as M-file. Thus it remains records of MATLAB

functions run.
2. FIGURE WINDOW:
The output of all the commands written on the command window or
executed by writing in M-file, whose output is a graph , appears on
the window. The user can create as many figure windows as the
system memory allows. A figure window is showing sine curve is
shown in figure.

3. EDITOR WINDOW:
This is where we can write, create, edit and save programs in a file.
The file is known as M-file. To select editor window, go to file and
then select M-file. The programmes written on the file are first saved
and then run to get the results. To save and run the programme, go to
debug and select ‘save and run’. The result appears on the command
window. The figure appears on the figure window. An editor
window is shown as in figure:
2.2 LANGUAGES:
MATLAB is a high-level language that includes matrix-based data
structures, its own internal data types, an extensive catalogue of
functions and scripts, and the ability to import and export to many types
of data files, object-oriented programming capabilities, and interfaces to
external technologies such as COM, Java, and program written in C and
FORTRAN, and serial port devices.
2.3 INPUT-OUTPUT:
MATLAB takes input from the screen and rushes output to the screen
i.e. it supports interactive computation. It can read input files and write
output files.
2.3.1 Data Type: There is no need to declare a data to be real or
complex. When a real number is entered as a variable, MATLAB
automatically sets the variable to be real. Fundamental data type is
the array.
2.3.2 Dimension: Dimension state is not required in the MATLAB. It is
automatic.
2.3.3 Case Sensitivity: It differentiates between lower and upper cases.
It is case sensitive.
2.3.4 Output Display: The output of every command appears on the
screen unless MATLAB is directed otherwise. A semi-colon (;)
suppress the output when used at the end of a command except for
the graphics.

2.4 GETTING STARTED

2.4.1 STARTING MATLAB: On windows platform, start MATLAB
by double clicking the MATLAB shortcut icon on your Windows
desktop.
2.4.2 WRITING COMMAND: When you start MATLAB, the
MATLAB desktop appears containing tools for managing files,
variables, and applications associated with MATLAB. You can start
writing your command at the prompt appears on command Window.
You can also write command in M-file.
2.4.3 PRINTING GRAPHICS: The simplest way to get print out of
the graph is to type print command window after the graph appears in
the figure window. Alternatively activate the figure window and then
select print from the file menu.
2.4.4 QUITTING MATLAB: To end your MATLAB session, select
file >Exit MATLAB in the desktop or type quit in the command
window. You can run a script file named finish.m each time MATLAB
quits that, for example, executes function to save the workplace, or
display a quit confirmation dialog box.
. ACCESSORIES
3.1 TOOLBOXES: MATLAB features a family of add-on-application-
specific solutions called toolboxes. Very important to most users of
MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to learn and apply specialized
technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB
environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which
toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems,
neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation, and many others.
There are 78 toolboxes available. Thus we can say MATLAB basically
works as a platform and for solving a particular problem, concerned
toolbox is required. Few of the toolboxes are as follows:
Communication toolbox
Control system toolbox
Curve fitting toolbox
Data acquisition toolbox
Filter design toolbox
Fuzzy logic toolbox
Instrument control toolbox
Optimization toolbox
Statistics toolbox
Symbolic maths toolbox etc.

3.2 SIMULINK: Simulink is a software package that enables you to

model, simulate, and analyze systems whose outputs change over
time. Such systems are often referred to as dynamic systems.
Simulink can be used to explore the behaviour of a wide range of
real- world dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock
absorbers, braking systems, and many other electrical, mechanical,
and thermodynamic systems. This section explains how Simulink
works.
Simulating a dynamic system is a two step process with Simulink.
First, a user creates a block diagram, using a block diagram
Simulink model editor that graphically depicts time dependent
mathematical relationship among the system’s inputs, states, and
outputs. The user then commands simulink to simulate the system
represented by the model from a specified start time to a specified
stop time.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 02

OBJECTIVE: STUDY OF BASIC MATRIX OPERATIONS

APPARATUS/ SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

SR.NO APPARATUS/SOFTWARE SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

GIVEN NUMERICAL:

A= 3 2 1
0 3 4
-1 1 -1

B= 1 3 0
2 64
-1 0 2
Where A and B are two 3 X 3 matrix

COMMANDS:

>> A= [3 2 1; 0 3 4; -1 1 -1]
>> B= [1 3 0; 2 6 4; -1 0 2]

Sum: A+ B
Subtraction: A–B
Multiplication: A*B
Division: A/B or A\B
Inverse of A: inv(A)
RESULTS:

>> A + B % Sum up matrix A and B

ans:
4 5 1
2 9 8
-2 1 1

>> A – B % Subtract matrix A and B

ans:
2 -1 1
-2 -3 0
0 1 -3

>> A * B % Multiply matrix A and B

ans:

6 21 10
2 18 20
2 3 2

>> A/B % Divides matrix A and B(take inverse of

B and multiply with A )
ans:
-2.1667 1.4167 -2.3333
0 0.5000 1.0000
2.1667 -0.9167 1.3333

>> A\B % Divides matrix A and B(take inverse of

A and multiply with B )
ans:
0.2308 0.1154 -0.8462
-0.1538 0.9231 1.2308
0.6154 0.8077 0.0769
>> inv(A) % inverse of A ans:

0.2692 -0.1154 -0.1923

0.1538 0.0769 0.4615
-0.1154 0.1923 -0.3462

ADDITIONAL COMMANDS AND RESULTS:

>>a= magic(3) % gives 3 X 3 matrix whose sum from

any angle is same
ans:
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2

>>a= rand(3) % gives any 3 X 3 random matrix ans:

0.8147 0.9134 0.2785

0.9058 0.6324 0.5469
0.1270 0.0975 0.9575

>> a= ones(3) % gives 3X 3 matrix whose elements are

one
ans:

1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
>> b= 2*ones(3) % multiplication of 2 with ones(3)
ans:
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2

>> a+2 % summation of 2 with matrix A ans:

>> a(2,2) % gives second row and second column

element of matrix A
ans:
1

>>a(2:3, :) %gives second and third row of matrix

‘a’
ans:
1 1 1
1 1 1

>> a(:, 2:3) % gives second and third column of

matrix ‘a’
ans:
1 1
1 1
1 1
>> a(2:3,1:2) %gives second and third row and first
and second column of matrix ‘a’
ans:
1 1
1 1

>>a(:,2) % gives second column of matrix ‘a’

ans:
1
1
1

>>a(:,1:2)=[] %delete first and second column

ans:
1
1
1

>>eye(3) %gives 3 X 3 matrix whose diagonal are

one
ans:
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

>> diag(a) % gives diagonal element of matrix ‘a’

ans:
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

>> b = a’ % gives inverse of matrix ‘a’

ans:
1 1 1

CONCLUSION:
We have studied various commands to solve the basic matrix operations.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 03

OBJECTIVE:DETERMINATION OF EIGEN VALUES AND EIGEN VECTORS

OF A SQUARE MATRIX.

APPARATUS/ SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

SR.NO APPARATUS/SOFTWARE SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

THEORY:
For an n x n matrix A, the real number λ is called an Eigen value of A if there
exists a nonzero vector x in Rn such that Ax =λ x. The vector x is called an
eigenvector belonging to λ . The equation Ax =λ x is equivalent to (A-λI) x = 0, so
all of the following are equivalent:
1.λ is an Eigen value of A.
2. (A-λI) x = 0 has a nontrivial solution.
3. A-λI is singular.
4. det(A-λI) = 0.
The eigenvectors for λ are the nonzero solutions x to (A-λI)x=0. These vectors
together with the 0 vector is called the eigen space corresponding to eigen value λ.
The expression det(A-λI) is a polynomial in λ of degree n, called the characteristic
polynomial. By property 4, the eigen values are the roots of the characteristic
equation det(A-λI) = 0.
Determining eigen values and eigenvectors with MATLAB:
Method 1: In MATLAB we can find the characteristic polynomial of a matrix A by
entering poly(A). If A is an n x n matrix, poly(A) is a row vector with n+1 elements
that are the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial. The command roots(C)
computes the roots of the polynomial whose coefficients are the elements of the
vector C. Thus, roots (poly(A)) returns the eigen values of A in a column vector.

To find the eigenvectors corresponding to each eigenvalue found above, we need

to find the nonzero solutions x to (A-I)x = 0. One way of doing this in MATLAB is
to compute rref(A-I) and then use Gauss-Jordan elimination.

Finding the eigenvector and eigenvalues of a square matrix A.

The reduced form of echelon form for A-2I gives the general solution to(A-2I)x =0
as x=[0 = 𝑟 [0
𝑟 1
𝑟] 1], the form for eigenvectors corresponding to λ = 2.
Similarly, the reduced echelon forms for A-1I and A-(-1)I allow us to determine

Similarly, the reduced echelon forms for A-1I and A-(-1)I allow us to determine
1 1

eigenvectors of the form s [0] for λ = 1, and t [−1] corresponding to λ = -1.

1 1

Method 2: Determining the eigenvalues and eigenvectors in MATLAB is to use

the eig function. For an nxn matrix A, eig(A) returns a n x1 column vector whose
elements are the eigenvalues of A. The command in the form
[𝑉 𝐷] = 𝑒𝑖𝑔(𝐴)

Computes both the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A. V will be a matrix whose

columns are eigenvectors of A and D will be a diagonal matrix whose entries along
the diagonal are eigenvalues of A. The ith column of V, V(:, i), is the eigenvector
corresponding to the eigenvalue D(i,i). A sample session is shown for the matrix A
above.

Finding the eigenvector and eigenvalues of a square matrix A.

PROGRAM: Write a program to determine the eigen vector and eigen values
of A = [ 1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]

>> A = [ 1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]
>> eig(A)
>> [V D]=eig(A)

RESULT :

eig(A) =

16.1168

-1.1168

-0.0000

V=

-0.2320 -0.7858 0.4082

-0.5253 -0.0868 -0.8165

-0.8187 0.6123 0.4082

D=

16.1168 0 0

0 -1.1168 0

0 0 -0.0000

CONCLUSION: Hence we have written program to determine eigenvectors and

eigen-values of a square matrix and the result has been found out.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 04
OBJECTIVE: TO DETERMINE SOLUTION OF DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

APPARATUS/ SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

SR.NO APPARATUS/SOFTWARE SPECIFICATION QUANTITY

THEORY:
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:

A differential equation is a mathematical equation for an unknown function of

one or several variables that relates the values of the function itself and
its derivatives of various orders. Differential equations play a prominent role
in engineering, physics, economics, and other disciplines.

GIVEN NUMERICAL:

The function ‘dsolve’ computes symbolic solutions to ordinary differential

equations. The equations are specified by symbolic expressions containing the
letter ‘D’ to denote differentiation. The symbols D2, D3,….DN, correspond to the
second, third,….,Nth derivative, respectively. Thus, D2y is 𝑑2/𝑑𝑡2.The dependent
variables are those preceded by D and the default independent variable is t. Note
that names of symbolic variables should not contain D. The key issues in this
example are the order of the equation and the initial conditions.

To solve the ordinary differential equation, simply type:

y = dsolve(‘D3y=y’, ‘y(0)=1’, ‘Dy(0)=-1’, ‘D2y(0)=pi’, ‘x’)

where D3y represents 𝑑3𝑦/𝑑𝑥3 and D2y(0) represents 𝑑2𝑦/𝑑𝑥2 at x = 0.
Examples

(i) dy/dt = -ay

(ii) dy/dt = -ay and y(0) =1

(iii) 𝑑2𝑦/𝑑𝑡2 = -−𝑎2 y and y(0)= 1, dy/dt(Π/a)=0

(iv) dy/dx = (xy - 𝑦2)/ 𝑥2

(v) dy/dx = tan(y/x) +y/x

COMMANDS:

(i)
>> y=dsolve(‘Dy=-a*y’) %write ODE in inverted comma
(ii)

>> y=dsolve(‘Dy=-a*y’, ‘y(0)=1’) %write ODE in inverted comma

followed by initial condition, separated by comma

(iii)

>> y=dsolve(‘D2y=-a^2*y’, ‘y(0)=1, Dy(pi/a)=0’)

%write ODE in inverted comma followed

by initial condition, separated by comma

Note: In all the above cases, the independent variable is ‘t’ by default.
(iv)
>> y = dsolve (‘Dy=(x*y –y^2)/ x^2’, ‘x’)
% define independent variable as ‘x’
(v) >> y = dsolve (‘Dy=tan(y/x) + y/x)’, ‘x’)
RESULTS:

(i)
>> y=dsolve(‘Dy=-a*y’)
y=
C1/exp(a*t)
(ii)
>>y=dsolve(‘Dy=-a*y’, ‘y(0)=1’)
y=
exp(-a*t)
(iii)
>>y=dsolve(‘D2y=-a^2*y’, ‘y(0)=1, Dy(pi/a)=0’)
y=
cos(a*t)

(iv)
>> y = dsolve (‘Dy=(x*y –y^2)/ x^2’, ‘x’)
y=
-x/(C12 - log(x))
(v)
>> y = dsolve (‘Dy=tan(y/x) + (y/x)’, ‘x’)
y= asin(x*C1)*x
 EXPERIMENT NO. 05

OBJECTIVE: DETERMINATION OF TIME RESPONSE OF AN R-L-C

CIRCUIT

APPARATUS/ SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

SR.NO APPARATUS/SOFTWARE SPECIFICATION

GIVEN NUMERICAL

An R-L-C circuit has R = 180 ohms, C = 1/280 farads, L = 20 henries and an

applied voltage E(t) = 10 sin t. Assuming that no charge is present but an initial
current of I ampere is flowing at t = 0 when the voltage is first applied, find q
and i =dq/dt at any time t. q is diven by the differential equation.
𝐿 𝑑2𝑞/𝑑𝑡2 + 𝑅𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝑡+𝑞/𝑐= 𝐸(𝑡)

COMMANDS:

>> syms q t % declare q, t as symbolic

>> q = dsolve(‘20*D2q +180*Dq +280*q = 10*sin(t)’, ‘q(0)=0’)

>> simplify(q) %simplify the result

>> pretty(q) %print in readable form
>> i=diff(q) %current(i) is differentiation of ‘q’ wrt ‘t’
>>pretty(i)
RESULTS:
q= exp(-2*t)*C2+exp(-7*t)*(-C2+9/500)-9/500*cos(t)+13/500*sin(t)
>> pretty(q)
exp(-2 t) C2 + exp(-7 t) (-C2+5009) - 5009 cos(t) + 50013 sin(t)
>> i=diff(q)
i= -2*exp(-2*t)*C2 – 7*exp(-7*t)*(-C2 +9/500)+ 9/500*sin(t)+13/500
*cos(t)

>> pretty(i)
-2 exp(-2t) C2-7 exp(-7 t)(-C2 +9/500)+9/500 sin(t)+ 500 cos(t)