Community Participation in The Context of Transformation Processes

Master’s Thesis
Community
Participation in the
Context of
Transformation
Processes:
The Case of Responsible
Tourism Development in
Myanmar
Katholische Universität Eichstätt-Ingolstadt

Faculty of Economics/
Faculty of Mathematics and Geography
Department of Tourism
M.Sc. Tourism and Regional Planning
Dörte Kasüske
Billrothstraße 16
18528 Bergen auf Rügen
Matr. No.: 397730
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Harald Pechlaner
October 31, 2012

Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Pechlaner, for his support,
advice and scientific guidance. His support throughout the entire master’s studies process
paved the way for this research.
A very special thanks goes to Nicole Häusler of mas|contour, who gave me the initial idea to
this thesis. Without her continuous support, professional expertise and personal trust in my
work this thesis would not have been possible.
I would also like to thank the Hanns Seidel Foundation for giving me financial support to
conduct my research in Myanmar.
I thank the interviewees for taking their time to answer my questions and for giving me some
interesting insights into Myanmar’s tourism industry.
Last but not least, I would like to thank all those who supported me during the process of
writing this thesis, who helped me broaden my perspective and focus on what was most es-
sential.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. iv
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ v
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. vi
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Research Question and Aims ........................................................................................... 1
1.2 Methodology .................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Structure ........................................................................................................................... 2
2 General Considerations on Development, Tourism and Participation .................................... 4
2.1 Development and Transformation .................................................................................... 4
2.2 Tourism and Development ............................................................................................... 6
2.3 Tourism and Sustainable Development ............................................................................ 9
2.4 Community Participation in Tourism ............................................................................. 12
3 Community Participation and Responsible Tourism Development ...................................... 16
3.1 Methodology: Systematic Literature Review ................................................................. 16
3.2 State of Scientific Research ............................................................................................ 18
3.2.1 Economic Dimension .............................................................................................. 20
3.2.2 Environmental Dimension....................................................................................... 24
3.2.3 Socio-cultural Dimension ........................................................................................ 27
3.2.4 Organizational Dimension....................................................................................... 30
3.3 Summary: Theoretical Understanding of Development and Participation in Tourism .. 34
3.3.1 Overall Objectives ................................................................................................... 34
3.3.2 Success Indicators ................................................................................................... 34
3.3.3 Concluding Implications ......................................................................................... 36
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Table of Contents
4 Myanmar: A Destination in Transformation ......................................................................... 39
4.1 A Country Profile of Myanmar ...................................................................................... 39
4.1.1 Geography ............................................................................................................... 41
4.1.2 History ..................................................................................................................... 42
4.1.3 Socioeconomic Factors ........................................................................................... 44
4.2 Tourism in Myanmar ...................................................................................................... 46
4.2.1 Background: Tourism in the ‘Pre-Opening Era’ ..................................................... 46
4.2.2 Current Status of Tourism: Facts and Figures ......................................................... 48
4.2.3 Outlook: Efforts to Promote Responsible Tourism Development .......................... 53
4.3 Summary: Interrelations of Development and Tourism in Myanmar ............................ 54
5 Stakeholder’s Perspective on Community Participation and Responsible Tourism

Development ................................................................................................................... 57
5.1 Methodology: Qualitative Case Study Research Using GABEK .................................. 57
5.2 Tourism Development in Myanmar ............................................................................... 63
5.2.1 Evaluation of Change .............................................................................................. 64
5.2.2 Causes and Effects .................................................................................................. 65
5.3 Responsible Tourism in Myanmar ................................................................................. 67
5.3.1 An Approach to a Definition ................................................................................... 67
5.4 Community Participation in Myanmar ........................................................................... 70
5.4.1 An Approach to a Definition ................................................................................... 71
5.5 Selected Issues Facing Myanmar’s Tourism Industry ................................................... 74
5.5.1 Capacity Shortage ................................................................................................... 74
5.5.2 Education ................................................................................................................. 76
5.5.3 Cooperation ............................................................................................................. 77
5.6 Summary: Transformation and Community Participation in Tourism in the Context of

Myanmar .................................................................................................................... 79
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Table of Contents
6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 81
6.1 Central Findings and Implications ................................................................................. 81
6.2 Limitations of the Study and Outlook for Further Research .......................................... 84
References ............................................................................................................................... xiv
Annex ..................................................................................................................................... xxii
Affidavit
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List of Tables
List of Tables
Table 1: Tourism concepts associated with sustainable development ..................................... 11
Table 2: Typologies of community participation ..................................................................... 14
Table 3: Steps of analysis with systematic literature review ................................................... 17
Table 4: Implications of community participation and responsible tourism development ...... 36
Table 5: Selected indicators of Myanmar’s development in 2010 ........................................... 40
Table 6: Reasons for and against boycotting Myanmar as a tourism destination .................... 47
Table 7: International tourist arrivals in the ASEAN region 2008–2011 ................................ 49
Table 8: Structure of the interview sample .............................................................................. 59
Table 9: Steps of interview analysis with WinRelan ............................................................... 61
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List of Figures
List of Figures
Figure 1: Interrelations of community participation and responsible tourism development ... 20
Figure 2: Success indicators of community participation in tourism ....................................... 35
Figure 3: Map of Myanmar ...................................................................................................... 41
Figure 4: International tourist arrivals in Myanmar 1990–2011 .............................................. 49
Figure 5: International tourist arrivals in Myanmar 2011 by region of origin ......................... 50
Figure 6: Respondents’ evaluation of past, present and target situations ................................ 64
Figure 7: Causal net graph: Tourism Development Myanmar ................................................. 66
Figure 8: Association graph: Responsible Tourism ................................................................. 67
Figure 9: Causal net graph: Responsible Tourism ................................................................... 70
Figure 10: Association graph: Community Participation ......................................................... 71
Figure 11: Causal net graph: Community Participation ........................................................... 73
Figure 12: Causal net graph: Capacity Shortage ...................................................................... 75
Figure 13: Causal net graph: Education ................................................................................... 76
Figure 14: Causal net graph: Cooperation................................................................................ 78
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List of Abbreviations
List of Abbreviations
ADB – Asian Development Bank
ASEAN – Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BTI – Bertelsmann Transformation Index
CBT – Community-based Tourism
GABEK – Holistic processing of complexity

(German acronym: ‘Ganzheitliche Bewältigung von Komplexität’)
GDP – Gross Domestic Product
GMS – Greater Mekong Subregion
HSF – Hanns Seidel Foundation
NLD – National League for Democracy
NGO – Non-governmental Organization
MoHT – Ministry of Hotels and Tourism of Myanmar
MTF – Myanmar Tourism Federation
UNWTO – United Nations World Tourism Organization
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1 Introduction
1 Introduction
Myanmar – a country neighbouring China and India in the heart of ‘rising Asia’ that stayed in
international isolation for almost five decades; a country rich in resources, with a large pro-
portion of its population living in poverty; a country boycotted by tourists for serious human
rights abuses not long ago that has been proclaimed the ‘hot new destination for independent
travellers 2012’; a country that attracts international investors who look for profit on the path
to responsible tourism development.
This thesis focuses on Myanmar as a country that apparently is in a process of transformation.

Due to its efforts to open up politically and economically, interest in Myanmar is enormous.
Between 2009 and 2011, the number of international tourist arrivals increased by more than
25% every year, and a further increase by about 40% is expected for 2012. In these times of
change, rush and international interest, Myanmar’s tourism stakeholders are making efforts
towards the responsible development of the industry, the aim being “to use tourism to make
Myanmar a better place to live in” (MoHT 2012b: 6) and by doing so focusing specifically on
an important stakeholder in tourism that is all too often neglected: local communities.
According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO 2009: 3), a growing
number of local communities are participating in tourism as a result of global tourism growth,
either passively or actively benefiting from tourism for their development. However, it is also
evident that in reality this form of participation is primarily of a passive and manipulative
nature (Ibid.: 9), contributing to communities only in terms of short-term, monetary benefits.
Given this, the present thesis focuses on sustainable tourism development and on the relation-
ship between involvement of local communities in tourism and the transformative process of
development.
1.1 Research Question and Aims

This thesis aims to explore the interrelations of transformation processes and the involvement
of local communities in tourism. Therefore, the discussions to follow in this thesis address the
following research question:
How to understand the role of community participation in tourism

in the context of transformation processes?
Because it is safe to assume that such involvement in tourism is primarily interrelated with the
transformation of the industry itself, the following chapters focus mainly on this relationship.
However, the thesis also addresses the questions of whether community participation in tour-
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1 Introduction
ism can benefit the transformation of a country and of how such a process of transformation
contributes to local economic involvement, participation and empowerment.
1.2 Methodology
The discussions to follow reflect notions of these interrelations from a theoretical point of
view. Myanmar is a country that is paving the way to transformation and whose tourism
stakeholders have already made efforts towards the responsible development of the industry,
so the field of research is also considered empirically.
The study begins with a systematic literature review, including strictly defined steps of nar-
rowing down results, to build an evidence base of the scientific understanding of community
participation in connection with tourism transformation. In doing so, it identifies influences,
success indicators and implications of the field of research.
Data for the empirical analysis were selected during field research in May and June 2012,
when the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism of Myanmar (MoHT) and the Myanmar Tourism
Federation (MTF) initiated a participatory process of formulating the Responsible Tourism
Policy for Myanmar which involved more than 350 tourism stakeholders. This process was
guided by national and international tourism experts and funded by the German Hanns Seidel
Foundation (HSF). Supported by HSF, I was given the opportunity to accompany the process
and gain useful insights into Myanmar’s tourism industry. I also met important tourism stake-
holders and conducted expert interviews with some of them. The focus of these interviews
was on the stakeholders’ perceptions of and attitudes towards tourism development, responsi-
ble tourism and community participation in Myanmar.
The data gathered during the field research were analysed using the GABEK methodology.
This tool and the related software WinRelan allows for the holistic processing of complexity
through a systematic and traceable analysis and interpretation of qualitative research data.
GABEK enables researchers “to collect, order and interpret collective existing knowledge”
(Pechlaner and Volgger 2012: 4). In the present investigation, GABEK is used to analyse as-
sessments of tourism development based on the respondents’ perceptions, to construct defini-
tions of responsible tourism and community participation and to outline causal relations in the
above-mentioned aspects and in selected key issues of Myanmar’s tourism industry.
1.3 Structure
The thesis is divided into two main parts. The first part discusses the field of research from a
theoretical point of view. Chapter 2 considers the definitions of tourism in the context of
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1 Introduction
development, sustainability and community participation. Chapter 3 outlines key issues and
success indicators involved in the participation of local communities in tourism and identifies
implications for action with respect to different stages of a destination’s development.
The second part of this thesis discusses the field of research with a special focus on Myanmar.
Chapter 4 provides a country profile and a discussion of the development of tourism in
Myanmar. The major empirical results gathered from the exploratory qualitative research in
Myanmar are discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
The thesis concludes with a synthesis of theoretical and empirical findings regarding commu-
nity participation in connection with tourism and transformation processes. In addition,
Chapter 6 discusses the limitations of the present investigation and presents outlooks for
further research.
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2 General Considerations on Development,
Tourism and Participation
2 General Considerations on Development, Tourism and

Participation
The following sections aim to define the scope of terms and concepts used in this field of re-
search and discuss transformation as a framework for development, tourism from a
development perspective (including the paradigm of sustainable development) and the
concept of community participation.
2.1 Development and Transformation

Development is about change of structures and systems and, in its broadest sense, is consid-
ered to intend “a more advanced […] state” (Brown and Hall 2008: 840). Although a variety
of interpretations and definitions of development exist in different scientific fields, “common
grounds of definitions of ‘development’ today include improvement, empowerment, partici-
pation, and sustainability” (Gang 2011: 124).
For the purposes of this thesis, development is understood as a process of transformative na-
ture as defined by Stiglitz (1998, cited in Stiglitz 2002: 164).
“Development represents a transformation of society, a movement from traditional

relations, traditional ways of thinking, traditional ways of dealing with health and
education, traditional methods of production, to more ‘modern’ ways. For instance, a
characteristic of traditional societies is the acceptance of the world as it is; the mod-
ern perspective recognizes change, it recognizes that we, as individuals and societies,
can take actions that, for instance, reduce infant mortality, increase lifespans, and in-
crease productivity.”
Particular emphasis is put on the fact that there are two central aspects to be considered when
investigating a country’s process of development: economic development, which manifests
itself in increases of the per-capita gross domestic product (GDP), and social development,
which manifests itself in “the ability of a country to peacefully resolve conflicts and to ad-
dress amicably sources of common concern when interests differ” (Stiglitz 2002: 171).
Although the above definition focuses on the transformative nature of development, there are
two frameworks for it: transformation and transition (Hall 2008). These frameworks are re-
lated but not identical and differ significantly in terms of the means and ends of change.
While, ‘transition’ is considered to be “a gradual, continuous process of societal change where

the structural character of society (or a complex sub-segment of society) transforms” (Martens
and Rotmans 2005: 1136), ‘transformation’ tends to emphasise more the means of develop-
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ment than its ends (Hall 2008: 414). Sofield and Li (2011: 505) note that the difference be-
tween the two is that ‘transition’ aims to replace an existing economic, social or political
systems, whereas ‘transformation’ aims to modify, amend or reform such systems. Therefore,
a process of transformation is more likely to “respect cultures, sovereignty and peoples’ ap-
prehensions” and “can be imbued with ideals of equity and sustainability that may be difficult
to accommodate with ‘transition’” (Hall 2008: 414).
Because the term ‘transformation’ refers to the means of change and their application, three
dimensions are to be considered:
 State of market economy, including:

 Economic performance,
 Property rights,
 Regulatory framework,
 Social justice (social security nets, equality of opportunity, sustainability)
 State of democracy, including:
 Basic civil rights,
 Free elections,
 Stateness,
 Rule of law (e.g., separation of powers, prosecution of office abuse),
 Consolidated of democracy (e.g., acceptance, representativeness, political cul-
ture),
 Quality of political management, including:
 Facilitation and steering of development by policymakers,
 Reform policies,
 International cooperative efforts,
 Consistency of governments,
 Effectiveness of resource utilisation (Bertelsmann Foundation 2012b).
Using these dimensions, the Bertelsmann Foundation regularly assesses transformation

processes by the Bertelsmann Transformation Index (BTI). According to this assessment,
there are 128 countries worldwide that are “on the path toward democracy under the rule of
law and a market economy anchored in principles of social justice” (Bertelsmann Foundation
2012b).
According to the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD 2012), there is no established
standard for the designation of ‘developed’ and ‘developing’ countries. In general, high
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population growth rates, low per-capita GDP, low literacy rate, low life expectancy, poor
health services, a large proportion of the population working in the agricultural sector and a
polarisation of traditional and modern economic structures are regarded as indicators for a low
stage of a country’s development (Job and Weizenegger 2004: 629).
In common practice, Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand and Japan are consid-
ered ‘developed’ countries or regions; Africa, the Caribbean, Central and South America,
Asia (excluding Japan) and Oceania (excluding Australia and New Zealand) are considered
‘developing’ regions (UNSD 2012). 18 countries, including former Yugoslavia and Eastern
Europe, are regarded as ‘transition countries’ because they have transitioned from centrally
planned to market economies. UNSD list 48 ‘least developed countries’, most of which are in
Africa, but also in Asia and the Middle East (Ibid.).
This thesis uses the terms ‘developed countries’ (as used by UNSD) and ‘developing’ or
‘transformation countries’ (as used by UNSD and the Bertelsmann Foundation).
2.2 Tourism and Development

Tourism, which is considered to be the world’s largest and fastest-growing industry, and its
impacts on places, people, the environment and development have been discussed for decades
by a variety of researchers and practitioners (Richter 1992: 36; Scheyvens 2002: 4). But, a
closer look at this industry reveals that there is no one single industry or functional entity in
the conventional sense because tourism involves many diverse activities and components in
meeting the needs not only of tourists but also of those of the local population (Britton 1989:
95; Capó and Valle 2008: 202).
Rather, as an industry “[t]ourism is a broad system based on the movement of people, goods,
capital, and ideas, among many other things, between home regions and destinations that are
linked by many routes and transit regions and associated with many other societal processes”
(Saarinen 2006: 1124). According to Brown and Hall (2008: 841), it is this global movement
of a variety of things associated with tourism that “inevitably means that its impacts are going
to be widely felt”.
Moreover, due to its holistic nature, tourism affects many stakeholders that are diverse and
have varied interests and priorities (Bramwell and Lane 2011: 411) including the public sector
(national governments, local authorities), the private tourism industry (accommodation units,
tour operators, restaurants, transport companies), local communities, residents in tourist desti-
nations, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and local action groups. There are a variety
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of stakeholders and variables that are affected by and influence tourism, so its nature is
“highly dynamic and constantly changing” (Butler 1999: 39).
Tourism Development
For the analysis of the impacts, involvement, direction and development of tourism at a
destination level over time, Butler’s Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) model is widely
accepted and used by scholars. This model considers tourism development from an
evolutionary perspective and defines consecutive stages of development with respect to the
number of visitors in a destination (Butler 1999: 38). These stages include exploration,
involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation and rejuvenation or decline. While early
stages in the TALC model tend to be characterised by small numbers of visitors and the
utilisation of primarily locally controlled facilities and resources, more developed stages
usually involve external interests due to the need for additional resources (capital, expertise)
or due to the attraction of external stakeholders who are looking for economic benefits (Ibid.:
44).
With respect to countries in transformation, which are the subject of the present thesis, con-
ventional models of tourism development such as the TALC model appear inappropriate. In
these countries, the industry’s development is less likely to be based on evolution and more
likely on rapid changes in the wider political and economic landscape. Therefore, one must
consider the contextual change of a destination when analysing tourism development in trans-
formation countries (Saarinen and Kask 2008: 466).
This thesis refers to different stages of tourism development and distinguishes between early
stages of development (small numbers of visitors, primarily local and regional interests) and
more developed stages of tourism (significant numbers of visitors, increased external interest).
However, the focus being on transformation processes, this categorisation does not imply the
consecutive developments assumed in conventional models of tourism development.
Tourism in Developing Countries
Another point to note when considering tourism and development is the relationship between
tourism and developing or transformation countries. According to Mitchell and Ashley (2010:
7f.), who focus their attention on poverty alleviation through tourism, there are three reasons
for promoting the tourism industry in poor and developing countries. Firstly, in many devel-
oping countries, tourism already is an important part of the economy. This is supported by the
fact that tourism is the only generator of foreign exchange for about one in three developing
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countries (GTZ 2007). Secondly, there are good long-term prospects for growth to developing
countries which specialise in tourism. In several developing countries (especially in sub-
Saharan Africa) it is assumed that economic transition is likely to not affect the manufacturing
sector at all and instead will directly transform the agricultural sector into a service sector.
Thirdly, “tourism can demonstrably benefit the poor” (Mitchell and Ashley 2010: 8).
However, tourism in developing countries must be considered a double-edged sword.

Researchers note that tourism is of great importance for the development and growth of
national economies in that it attracts foreign exchange, government revenue, income and
employment (Reid 2003: 236), so the fact that tourism benefits many developing and trans-
formation countries is undisputed (Britton 1989: 93). However, tourism “frequently also
perpetuates already existing inequalities, economic problems and social tension” in these
destinations (Ibid.).
The main contributions of tourism are considered to be its economic benefits for developing
nations and the broader population (Capó and Valle 2008:201; Reid 2003: 236; Scheyvens
2002: 5). Employment and income in particular are seen as drivers of development. In
addition, the industry’s importance for employment “is strengthened by the relatively labour-
intensive nature of tourism and the limited substitution of capital in the production of tourism
services” (Soukiacis and Proença 2008: 45).
In general, tourism-driven employment and income can occur in three forms: direct (through
tourism expenditure), indirect (through expenditures that are necessary to create the tourism
product) and induced (due to an increased general demand for goods and services as a result
of increased tourism expenditure in a destination) (Harrison 1992: 15). Indirect benefits in
particular can be improved through strategic intervention and “through the development of
support services and increased opportunities in other industries ranging from food and agri-
culture to hardware, crafts and construction, creating diversified local economies” (UNWTO
2005: 128).
Employment and related income from tourism, by nature, can benefit a wide range of people
in a destination through a trickle-down of tourism expenditure. This trickling-down through
different economic sectors also implies that the greater the linkages between tourism industry
and its related sectors within a destination, the smaller the leakages and the more likely this
destination will be able to benefit from tourism (Soukiacis and Proença 2008: 44f.).
What is neglected in this calculation is that in reality benefits which remain in developing
countries are relatively small because the industry in these countries is usually highly domi-
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nated by international companies and national elite groups (Britton 1989) and thus great
proportions of economic gains flow out of the destination. Another concern is that the jobs
created tend to be of an inferior and exploiting nature because they often involve low wages,
excessive hours or duties, seasonal or temporary employment, and a lack of possibilities for
advancement to senior positions (Brown and Hall 2008: 841). Moreover, just because benefits
are created it does not mean that there are no costs such as a destination’s expenditures to
support tourism and the possible increase in costs of living and change of lifestyles resulting
from tourism development. Therefore, potential economic gains must be weighed against the
costs (UNWTO 2005: 128).
The example of income and employment creation in tourism is used here to illustrate the in-
dustry’s complexity in terms of its impact and influence on developing countries. Of course,
the tourism system is embedded in many more contexts in a destination. To consider all of
these contexts in detail would go beyond the scope of this introductory chapter. Sections 3.2.1
to 3.2.4 provide a more detailed description of the benefits and costs of tourism.
2.3 Tourism and Sustainable Development

As a result of the increased knowledge about the impacts of tourism and its limits of growth
and in response to the World Commission on Environment and Development’s declaration on
sustainable development of 1987, sustainable tourism has sparked the interest of scholars and
researchers (Saarinen 2006: 1123). Growing concerns over environmental issues, intensifying
debates on the Global North/South divide and a shift in productive and consumption
structures in Western societies have led to growing interest in and the necessity of
sustainability in recent years (Ibid.).
Basically, sustainable development aims “to ensure that it meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED
1987: 8). The concept follows three fundamental principles – futurity, equity and holism –
and refers to three integrated elements: the economic, the environmental and the socio-
cultural elements (Saarinen 2006: 1123). The balancing of its integrated elements is both a
prerequisite and a challenge for sustainable development, as Brown and Hall note (2008:
843): “[w]here benefits in one area do have to be traded off against costs in another, it can be
particularly difficult objectively to establish whether the best balance has been achieved”.
In the broadest sense, sustainable tourism is the application of the idea of sustainable devel-
opment to tourism (Bramwell and Lane 2011: 412). More specifically, it may be regarded as
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“a process of quality change resulting from political initiatives that include the
indispensable participation of the local population and that adapts the institutional
and legal framework, and the planning and management tools, in order to achieve
development based on a balance between the conservation of existing natural and
cultural resources, the economic viability of tourism and social equity in tourism de-
velopment” (Vera Rebollo and Baidal 2003: 185).
Although sustainability is about the limits of growth and follows the “idea of the limits of
touristic use and the changes in the physical and social environment to be deemed acceptable”
(Saarinen 2006: 1126), it is not a contrasting concept of growth in general. Rather, “meeting
essential needs depends in part on achieving full growth potential, and sustainable develop-
ment clearly requires economic growth in places where such needs are not being met”
(WCED 1987: 44). Consequently, sustainable tourism aims to maximise benefits whilst
minimising the costs of tourism development.
However, due to its holistic nature, complexity, impreciseness and the resulting operational
challenges, the concept is contested by several researchers (Bramwell and Lane 2011: 413;
Saarinen 2006: 1123f.). It should, therefore, not be understood as a clearly defined form of
tourism, but rather as a platform “encouraging dialogue between individuals with different
perspectives about tourism and its economic, social and environmental dimensions”
(Bramwell and Lane 2011: 414).
Sustainable tourism is not limited to a specific form of tourism or specific goods and services.
All forms of tourism in all destinations can be sustainable (UNWTO 2004: 7). However, there
are concepts of tourism that are more likely to be associated with sustainable development
than others. Table 1 below provides a brief overview of the most common concepts.
Responsible tourism, a concept that also pursues the goals of sustainable development in
tourism, contributes to the operational challenges of the concept of sustainable tourism by
putting emphasis on stakeholders’ actions. Thus, “Making better places for people to live in,
and better places for people to visit” is the motto of responsible tourism (ICRT 2012). More
specifically, “[r]esponsible tourism is not a tourism product or brand. It represents a way of
doing tourism planning, policy, and development to ensure that benefits was optimally
distributed among impacted populations, governments tourists, and investors” (Husbands and
Harrison 1996: 1 cited in Scheyvens 2002: 186).
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Table 1: Tourism concepts associated with sustainable development.
Tourism Concept Characteristics
 Application of sustainable development to tourism

Sustainable tourism  Aims at balancing economic, environmental and socio-cultural costs and
benefits of tourism in an acceptable way
 Imperative of sustainable tourism

Responsible tourism
 Requires stakeholders to take action
 Approach to tourism development and management

Community-based  Significant percentage of the local population with substantial control of
tourism (CBT) and involvement in its tourism development/management
 Majority of benefits remain within the local economy
 Approach to tourism development and management

 Aims at enhancing the linkages between tourism businesses and poor
Pro-poor tourism people, increased contribution to poverty reduction by the tourism
(PPT)
industry and effective participation of poor people in product
development processes
Community-benefit  Aims and benefits similar to PPT, but not necessarily at addressing a
tourism initiative poor community and not necessarily involving local community
(CBTI) members in any rights or decision-making processes
 Tourism in natural areas

Ecotourism  Focus on combining conservation and the improvement of the well-
being of local communities
 Tourism in rural areas, farm-based form of tourism

 Focus on agricultural life in the creation of tourism experiences, goods
Agrotourism
and services
 Provides an alternative source of income in the agricultural sector
 Tourism in rural areas

 Focus on rural lifestyle in the creation of tourism experiences, goods
Rural tourism
and services
 Provides an alternative source of income in the non-agricultural sector
Corporate social  Transfer of sustainable tourism to a micro level and integration of its
responsibility (CSR)
vision and goals into a tourism company’s corporate strategy
in tourism
Source: Adapted from Häusler (2011: 16).
Although there are many different approaches to and elements of sustainable development in
tourism, Mowforth and Munt (2003: 114) note that the participation of a destination’s
communities is an essential element of sustainable tourism development.
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2.4 Community Participation in Tourism

In general, scientific discussions on community participation tend to address transformation in
less developed countries since the late 1960s. They have concerned themselves with tourism
as a special field of interest since the 1990s (Wang and Wall 2005: 42).
Although there are a variety of scientific discussions on development in general and on
tourism development in particular, there is no common definition for two reasons. Firstly, the
term ‘community’ is not clearly defined because it refers to different aspects such as local
contexts, social systems, feelings of ‘togetherness’ and even ideologies (Richards and Hall
2000: 4). Secondly, the term ‘participation’ is open to a variety of interpretations and does not
necessarily imply active involvement. Thus, providing strict definitions is a challenge.
The Concept of Community
Because of its heterogeneous nature, ‘community’ is a rather flexible term. A community is

not considered to be a fixed and homogenous group of people. Rather, different aspects must
be considered when investigating the concept of ‘community’.
The Oxford English Dictionary (2012) defines human communities as follows:
(1) “A group of people living in the same place or having a particular characteristic in
common;
(2) The condition of sharing or having certain attitudes in common.”
The concept of ‘community’ thus tends to cover a wide range of aspects. Johnston
(2000: 101) provides another definition which considers the community as a “social network
of interacting individuals, usually concentrated into a defined territory”.
Richards and Hall (2000b: 1ff.) attempt to clarify the term in connection with tourism and
development and pose several questions: “Whose community? How defined: in
spatial/social/economic terms? Who in the community should benefit from tourism? How
should the community be presented to tourists? [...] Who are the ‘locals’ in the local
community? Where should one place the spatial or temporal boundaries of the ‘local’
community?”. In addition to these local contextual aspects, a number of soft factors intrinsic
to communities must be considered. They may also be distinguished by a number of inherent
characteristics and thus may differ in terms of existing power structures and class, ethnic and
gender factors (Scheyvens 2002: 9).
In their study on tourism and development, Choi and Murray (2010: 576) stress the
importance of understanding and involving communities in the tourism planning process from
Page | 12
the start because not only do they perceive impacts of tourism; tourism development also
affects them the most.
For the purpose of the present field of research, the concept of ‘community’ should therefore
consider the following aspects:
 Heterogeneous group of people;

 Common elements of community members:
 Living in a spatial unit that is identical to the (potential) tourism destination,
 All community members are affected by tourism development directly or
indirectly;
 Distinguishing elements of community members:
 Standards of living,
 Access to power and control over their individual and common development.
This concept of ‘community’ benefits the investigation of community participation and tour-
ism development because it focuses on inherent characteristics of communities, the perceived
impacts of tourism development and communities’ capability to get involved in tourism
development.
The Concept of Community Participation
Community participation plays a vital role in the discussion of sustainable tourism-driven

development. UNWTO (2009: 4) states that community participation has earned special at-
tention within the discussion of sustainable development because of its “linkage between the
resources, development activities and the benefits sharing from development”.
Definitions of community participation are less likely to focus on the ‘who’ and more likely to
focus on the ‘what’. They particularly address means and outcomes. Wang and Wall
(2005: 42) describe participation in tourism as:
“one way to balance the physical and commercial orientation of tourism development
with the needs and goals of local people, to enhance destination planning, to ensure the
maintenance of a ‘sense of place’, to foster a better understanding of the entire
development situation, to promote the formation of a common value base, to increase
recognition of interdependence among stakeholders and, in these ways, to promote
sustainability”.
This definition highlights some of the key terms of the present thesis and interrelates the terms
‘community’, ‘tourism development’ and ‘sustainability’. Therefore, it is regarded as the basis
of all further analysis.
Page | 13
Community participation in terms of stakeholder collaboration has been discussed in the

scientific literature for decades (Wang and Wall 2005: 42). Yet there is no definite consensus
on the term’s nature. Hung et al. (2011: 277) state that “community participation is not a
dichotomous structure with only two forms of participation, either participation or lack of
participation”. Different levels or typologies of involvement have been emphasised in discus-
sions by academics and practitioners alike.
In particular, the differentiation of levels of participation is based on two aspects: power rela-
tions between stakeholders and benefits gained by community members. Table 2 summarises
the most common approaches to typologies of community participation.
Table 2: Typologies of community participation.
Author(s) Levels of participation
 Levels characterised by an increase of citizen power from (1)–(8): (1)

Manipulation; (2) Therapy; (3) Informing; (4) Consultation; (5) Placation; (6)
Partnership; (7) Delegated power; (8) Citizen Control
Arnstein  (1), (2): non-participatory; pursuing education and cure of community
(1969)
members
 (3), (4), (5): tokenism; passive participation by following external instructions
 (6), (7), (8): citizen power; active participation in decision-making
 Levels characterised by an increase of power and control by community

members from (1)–(7): (1) manipulative participation, (2) passive
participation; (3) participation by consultation; (4) participation for material
Pretty (1995) incentives; (5) functional participation; (6) interactive participation; (7) self-
mobilisation
 (1), (2): communities in predetermined roles
 (7): communities taking initiatives independently from external intervention
 Levels characterised by an increase of power and control by community

members, and an increase of government support from (1)–(8): (1) self-
management; (2) conspiracy; (3) informing; (4) diplomacy; (5) dissimulation;
Choguill (1996)
(6) conciliation; (7) partnership; (8) empowerment
 Model adapted from Arnstein (1969) and applied to the circumstances of
underdeveloped countries
 Transformation of participation levels into tourism context

 Differentiation of three levels: (1) Spontaneous community participation in
tourism development; (2) passive community participation in tourism
Tosun (1999)
development; (3) pseudo-community participation in tourism development
 (1) is the ideal model of CP because it is characterised by a high level of
citizen power and control over the whole process of tourism development
 Typology based on the nature of (economic) involvement in the tourism

Jayawardena
(2002) industry, characterised by decreased involvement from (1)–(4):
(1) communities investing in tourism: leading business persons and local
Page | 14
entrepreneurs; (2) communities of workers directly employed in tourism; (3)

communities indirectly involved by benefiting from tourism: broader
community of those who are involved through linkages of tourism to other
economic sectors, (4) other communities: community members who live in or
near a tourism destination/resort receiving no or little benefits from tourism
 Participation levels with increasing (economic) benefits and capabilities for the
poor from (1)–(4):
(1) impactee: person, who perceives negative impacts from tourism
development but does not gain any significant benefits, outsider-dominated
Wang and tourism development; (2) beneficiary: recipient of services, resources, and
Wall (2005) development interventions, one-way flows of resources and information from
government to community; (3) client: community member empowered by
tourism development with enhanced capabilities, confidence and resources to
take part in tourism development process; (4) owner: further strengthening of
capacities and resources to the highest level of self-reliant participation
Source: Own elaboration, adapted from Hung et al. (2010: 277ff.);

Jayawardena (2002: 14ff.); Pretty (1995: 1253); Wang and Wall (2005: 43f.).
The diversity of approaches to understanding different levels of community participation
illustrated above reflects two things: firstly, there is no general inclusive participation in the
scientific and practical use of this term because it implies various forms ranging from being
passively affected to being actively self-reliant. Secondly, it is very important to understand
and bear these levels in mind when investigating community participation because a low
degree of involvement does not necessarily result in negative or irresponsible practices, nor
does a high degree of involvement necessarily lead to a positive development of the greater
community.
Moreover, the range, impact and application of community participation are contested. In fact,
the practical implementation of the theoretical concept of community participation in tourism
development results in passive involvement and manipulative participation. Therefore, “it is
still unclear that intervention on participation alone can lead to long-term sustainability of
community development and to contribute to global sustainability” (UNWTO 2009: 9).
The aim of the following chapter is thus to provide detailed insights into the scientific field of
research with the help of a systematic review of the literature on community participation in
the context of responsible tourism development.
Page | 15
3 Community Participation and
Responsible Tourism Development
3 Community Participation and Responsible Tourism Development

This chapter aims to discuss the interrelations of community participation and responsible
tourism development. In addition, it raises the question of whether an involvement of local
citizens in tourism planning, decision-making, implementation and evaluation can lead to
sustainable, tourism-driven transformation of a country.
Therefore, this study uses a systematic literature review. In doing so, it provides an evidence
base of the status of scientific discussions on the field of research. Related aspects of
community participation and tourism development are classified based on the review’s find-
ings, and discussed from four perspectives: the economic dimension, the environmental
dimension, the socio-cultural dimension, and the organizational dimension. Finally, by out-
lining success factors and concluding implications for community participation and responsi-
ble tourism development these findings are summarized and synthesised.
3.1 Methodology: Systematic Literature Review

The aims of applying a systematic literature review to this study are threefold. Firstly, key
scientific contributions in the field of research on community participation in tourism are
identified (Hakala 2010: 5). Secondly, by critically appraising and synthesising existing
literature in a specific research area a broad evidence base is provided that reaches beyond the
application of narrative literature review methods or the analysis of a single study (Harden
and Thomas 2005: 260). Thirdly, the findings of this review are characterized by a high de-
gree of transparency owing to systematic traceability and the reduction of subjectivity (Hakala
2010: 5).
The study is divided into five stages and is characterized by a systematic narrowing down of
the findings of the studies reviewed. Table 3 below shows these steps of analysis. The litera-
ture review starts with the identification and setting of its framework. Here scientific data-
bases, key words, search strings and search inclusive criteria are set. The search is carried out
in three scientific databases: Business Source Complete, EconLit and SpringerLink. While the
latter does not generate relevant results, in total 82 articles are identified in the other
databases. After a first reading of the articles’ abstracts, they are evaluated regarding their
relevance to the research field. Finally, the sample considered to be relevant at the end of
Stage I comprises 53 unique articles.
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Table 3: Steps of analysis with systematic literature review.

Stage of
Number of
Literature Steps of Analysis
Articles
Review
 Identification of scientific databases:
Business Source Complete, ECONLit, SpringerLink
 Identification of search key words:
(a) ‘Tourism’;
(b) ‘Sustainable development’ or ‘responsible development’;
(c) ‘Participation’ or ‘community participation’
1
 Identification of search strings :
53 unique
Stage I (1) (a) and (b);
articles
(2) (a) and (c);
(3) (a) and (b) and (c)
 Application of inclusive criteria: search for keywords;
including all search terms; search in abstract; scholarly (peer-
reviewed) journals; academic journals; English language
 Review of abstracts and evaluation of relevance to the
research field
 Cursory reading of the articles taking notes on: (1) author(s);

28 articles
(2) publication title; (3) journal; (4) year; (5) relevance to the
Stage II (relevant to the
research question (yes/no)
 Evaluation of general contribution to the research field
research field)
 In-depth review of the articles taking additional notes on:

(6) relevant key words as set by the author(s); (7) main
scientific focus; (8) geographic focus; (9) research
21 articles
question/objective of the study; (10) data type and
Stage III methodology; (11) main results (relevant to research (with special
question); (12) main conclusions (relevant to research focus on
question) community
 Quality assessment of the articles participation in
 Evaluation of special contribution to the research question connection with
responsible
 In-depth review of the articles regarding the interrelation of tourism
Stage IV community participation and dimensions of destinations development)
(economic, environmental, socio-cultural, organisational)
Stage V  Synthesis of findings
Source: Own elaboration, adapted from Hakala (2010: 19); Harden and Thomas (2005: 259).
1
Every search string includes the term ‘tourism’ because the study highly focuses its attention on this economic
sector. ‘Community participation or participation’ in the literatures being aligned with ‘sustainable development
or responsible development’ these terms also are search words relevant to the field of research. However,
database search including both keyword groups results in a large number of unspecified articles. Given this,
there is no search conducted including solely these terms. Nevertheless, it is believed that the analysis of
academic discussions within other sectors may have provided additional knowledge.
Page | 17
Based on a cursory reading of the articles, notes are taken on general aspects (author(s), pub-
lication title, year) in the second stage of review. Furthermore, it is recorded whether the
study provides general contributions to the research field. As a result, 28 articles relevant for
further analysis are identified.
In Stage III, the studies are reviewed in detail and notes are taken regarding scientific focus,
applied methodology, main results, conclusions. After this a quality assessment addressing the
validity and reliability of the research is carried out (Harden and Thomas 2005: 259). Hence,
the final sample consists of 21 articles that make specific contributions to the research field
and are reliable regarding their contents and research methods. Attached to this thesis Annex
1 gives an overview of the outcomes of the in-depth analysis carried out in Stage III.
The sample is analysed in Stage IV regarding two fields of interests. Firstly, findings regard-
ing an approach to govern sustainable development (i.e. responsible development) and sec-
ondly, statements on different dimensions in connection with community participation in
tourism are emphasized. The definition of these dimensions results from findings of Stage II
and III of the review process. They include the economic, the environmental, the socio-
cultural and the organisational dimension. In Stage V, findings are synthesised.
3.2 State of Scientific Research

In the studies reviewed a great deal of emphasis is put on developing and transformation
countries. Twelve articles deal with case studies in developing countries (Booyens 2010;
Caffyn and Jobbins 2003; Fauzi and Buchary 2002; Gang 2011; Jensen 2010; Kibicho 2008;
Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010; Manyara and Jones 2007; Matarrita-Cascante et al. 2010;
Murota and Glazyrina 2010; Pongponrat and Pongquan 2007; Sofield and Li 2011). However,
with regard to community participation and tourism development the developed countries are
of interest, too. They are considered in six articles (Choi and Murray 2010; Hung et al. 2010;
Puhakka et al. 2009; Shone and Memon 2008; Tsartas 2003; Vera Rebollo and Baidal 2003).
Three studies do not belong to any of these categories (Jayawardena 2002) or do not focus a
geographic region (Payne and Dimanche 1996; Welford and Ytterhus 1998). Regarding
interrelations of a region’s development stage and its selection for case study investigations
there is no definite statement to pose although they tend to focus more on transformation and
developing countries.
The research designs applied for gathering primary data comprise qualitative, quantitative,
and mixed methods alike. Twelve studies employ qualitative methods, either solely or in
Page | 18
combination with quantitative techniques. There, the majority of researchers conduct expert
interviews with key tourism stakeholders. Moreover, researchers apply participatory observa-
tions, field visits and focus group discussions. With regard to quantitative methods, question-
naire surveys are the technique chosen in most cases. While most methods aim to link
statements of various stakeholders few authors focus on investigations of one single group of
stakeholders. For instance, these include community members (Gang 2011) or local tour
guides (Jensen 2010).
An application of qualitative methods is thus the dominating approach when investigating

community participation in connection with tourism development. Nevertheless, the utilisa-
tion of quantitative methods is also a suitable instrument, particularly when causes and effects
of tourism development are investigated in a larger geographical context.
It may be noteworthy that almost half of the relevant articles is published in the Journal of
Sustainable Tourism. Other identified journals are classified according their geographical
context (Asia-Pacific Journal of Rural Development; Coastal Management; Development in
Southern Africa; European Environment) and their socioeconomic orientation (Environmental
Economics and Policy Studies; Local Economy; Journal of Business Ethics; Journal of Travel
Research; Social and Economic Studies) respectively. The strong connection of the research
field with issues of sustainable tourism development is not only reflected by the dominance of
the Journal of Sustainable Tourism as medium for publication but also by the main topics dis-
cussed in the articles.
Considering key words relevant to the field of research and additionally, the articles’ main
focus as investigated in this thesis it is evident that, at heart, the majority of studies deals with
sustainable development, community-based processes, and issues of management and plan-
ning of tourism. They mainly investigate from a socioeconomic perspective. In addition to
economic goals such as poverty alleviation and local value creation, investigation focus
tourism impacts on the natural environment such as exploitation and degradation.
Based on a detailed analysis of the studies their results and conclusions are classified to four
sub-segments (the dimensions: local economy, natural environment, culture and social inter-
action, organization of tourism) and one overall segment (sustainable tourism development).
Figure 1 below illustrates this structure.
Cause-and-effect relations connect community participation in tourism with every dimension

identified. Given this, elements in each dimension are affected by the degree of community
participation. In addition, these aspects influence on the involvement of local communities.
Page | 19
Here, the dimensions are interrelated and embedded in a spatial context: the destination.
Again, cause-and-effect relations connect the destination (i.e. the framework that consist of
interrelated dimensions) with sustainable tourism development. Consequently, the literature
review showed that community participation in tourism is associated with the specific ele-
ments of a destination. Contrary, responsible tourism development refers to the entire
destination rather than to single elements.
Figure 1: Interrelations of community participation and responsible tourism development.

Source: Own illustration, based on findings of the systematic literature review.
Sections 3.2.1 to 3.2.4 are detailed descriptions of these interrelations. They consider
objectives, conditions, benefits and costs, drivers and barriers, and implications in the context
of the four dimensions of a destination.
3.2.1 Economic Dimension
The first destination dimension deals with the development of local economies resulting from
community participation in tourism. As previously mentioned, investigations on tourism as an
economic sector, particularly in case studies placed in developing countries, aim at alleviating
poverty and diversifying local economies.
Objectives
The enhancement of (economic) well-being of communities, and particularly long-term

poverty reduction in developing countries are described as purposed objectives of involving
communities in tourism development processes. There are various economic benefits that
have the ability to contribute to poverty alleviation in short time spans. Thus, the challenge is
transferring them into long-term benefits to enable sustainable community development.
Page | 20
Conditions
Main economic contributions of the tourism industry to the local community are identified in
the generation of income and employment (e.g., Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010; Puhakka
et al. 2009; Shone and Memon 2008). Strong linkages to other sectors such as agriculture,
traditional arts, transport, and logistics characterize tourism industry itself. A growing tourism
industry in diversified economies therefore potentially benefits greater communities by
‘trickle-down’ effects and multiplication of revenue.
Nevertheless, the industry is characterised by a number of inherent features that create barri-
ers for broad involvement. These include high investment costs in the establishment of new
tourism facilities, knowledge and capital intensity, or power and control of multinational
tourism companies like tour operators and hotel chains (Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010:
736 ff.).
Benefits and Costs
According to Pongponrat and Pongquan (2010: 37), benefits such as the generation of income,
the creation of employment opportunities, group strengthening, and the creation of investment
input are the most important tourism impacts on the local economy. In addition, other authors
mention tax revenue, a diversification of local economies through development of tourism-
related industries (e.g., agriculture, handicraft), equitable share of benefits throughout com-
munities, access to financial resources and loans, the upgrading of management skills, local
entrepreneurship and local enterprise development, small business development and retention
as important advantages from community participation in tourism (Fauzi and Buchary 2010;
Gang 2011; Jayawardena 2002; Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010; Matarrita-Cascante et al.
2010).
On the contrary, there is a variety of potential negative impacts on local societies including
amongst others limited benefits for the poor due to dominance of multinational companies or
a decreased resilience in destinations owing to the displacement of other economic sectors.
In this light, Tsartas (2003) describes negative tourism impacts in mature destinations: coastal
and insular mass tourism destinations in Greece are highly dominated by tourism industry.
This dominance caused a change in productive structures in these areas. There was a degrada-
tion of agriculture and today many other economic sectors are substantially dependent on
tourism. This leads to decreases of destinations’ resilience to external influences and the
decline of self-reliance. In addition, along with a strong growth of multi-employment and
black economy the employment structures in the study sites have changed. Local residents did
Page | 21
no longer have one profession or job but got additionally involved in tourism businesses due
to potential quick profits. Consequently, the dominance of tourism industry in the investigated
destinations and the one-sided specialisation resulted in quality losses of tourism goods and
services because many unskilled workers entered the market whilst a barrier arose for mutual
management and marketing efforts due to increases in black markets (Tsartas 2003).
Nevertheless, employment and income are considered the key economic contributions to local
communities (e.g., Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010; Puhakka et al. 2009; Shone and
Memon 2008). There, the effects of tourism-generated income are twofold. Firstly, it contrib-
utes to employees and their households directly. From this perspective, income is not only to
be seen as a short-term contribution, but as a means for long-term poverty reduction because
it enables livelihood diversification, education and local entrepreneurship (Lepper and
Schroenn Goebel 2010: 735). Secondly, tourism-generated income benefits the greater com-
munity indirectly given that there is a flow of money from the household level to the
community, and through taxes (Ibid.).
Drivers and Barriers
Economic empowerment (of individuals and of the greater community) is considered an im-
portant success indicator when measuring community participation in tourism development
processes. However, economic empowerment of the greater community by a flow of income
is a coin with two sides. On the one hand, Lepper and Schroenn Goebel (2010: 735) mention
that broad-based economic empowerment by involvement of community members in tourism
industry requires a spread of benefits from the community to the household level. On the
other hand, authors like Hung et al. (2009: 279) mention a potentially growing reluctance to
participate if revenues from tourism are going to the entire community rather than to indi-
viduals themselves. This implies that the absence of personally relevant benefits results in a
loss of motivation for being involved in tourism activities. Therefore, to understand and bal-
ance the economic impacts on individuals and the greater community alike based on
transparency and collaboration are tasks to drive local economic development. To do so,
Lepper and Schroenn Goebel (2010) suggest the establishment of strong linkages of tourism
industry with local and domestic economy in order to transmit economic benefits to local
communities.
Implications
In order to maximize positive impacts and make use of them whilst minimizing negative in-
fluences different strategies are suggested within the literatures analysed. Various researchers
Page | 22
focus income and employment generation through broad-based involvement of communities

in economic processes, and encouragement of local entrepreneurship and local ownership.
For instance, Jayawardena (2002) who distinguishes communities based on their (economic)
involvement into four sub-segments (see Section 2.4) argues that those communities who are
indirectly involved but benefiting from tourism industry, particularly must be considered
when intending to spread benefits throughout local citizen levels. The author underlines the
need for a holistic approach to servicing the industry and highlights the importance of the
creation of linkages between tourism and local purchasing, of the encouragement for an
increasing supply of local agricultural produce to tourism, and of the support for local
handicrafts and arts (Ibid.).
By the establishment and maintenance of diversified economic structures within destinations

earnings from tourism can ‘trickle down’ into the greater community. Given this, there is an
important amount of „financial benefits that derive from economic dynamism and that materi-
alise in local revenues“ (Vera Rebollo and Baidal 2003: 201). For this reason, effective supply
chain management within destinations and the encouragement of local value creation are de-
scribed as important means to steer tourism development and the development of local
economies (e.g., Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010: 737; Sofield and Li 2011: 529; Welford
and Ytterhus 1998: 200). In addition, according to Booyens (2010: 284), to require outsiders
to obtain permits when operating in the community is an avenue to prevent tourism earnings
from flowing past of local economies.
In diversified economies that are based on local involvement, institutions like local authorities
and private sector associations need to emphasize on “local capacity-building, to ensure that
community members are equipped to take up enterprise opportunities and higher-level jobs”
(Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010: 737), and to guarantee quality tourism products. Hence,
they are required to assist with technical and industry expertise (Jayawardena 2002: 15ff).
The encouragement of local entrepreneurship and local ownership, and the establishment of
community-based enterprises are facilitators for community control and development consid-
ered by various authors (e.g., Kibicho 2008; Manyara and Jones 2007; Pongponrat and
Pongquan 2007). This approach helps addressing common problems such as an inequitable
share of benefits, limited access to resources or ineffective utilisation of them, poverty and
unemployment. However, it may also result in a decline of community participation in plan-
ning tourism development due to huge personal efforts necessary for maintaining one’s own
business (Matarrita-Cascante et al. 2010).
Page | 23
Local employment, which is one of the key economic contributions from tourism tends to take
place mainly in low level positions. Therefore, Payne and Dimanche (1996: 1000) suggest the
establishment of regulatory frameworks by government and local authorities to ensure a pro-
vision of training and education opportunities to local community members for attaining
higher level positions in tourism businesses. Lepper and Schroenn Goebel (2010: 737) also
identify the encouragement of local residents working in high level positions as an
opportunity to prevent tourism earnings from leaking out of destinations to national or
international economies.
Finally, tourism stakeholders need to ensure inclusiveness, competitiveness, and quality of

tourism products (Manyara and Jones 2008: 638). Here, reinvestment and maintenance of
infrastructures have to go aligned with tourism development and community interests (Ibid.).
Moreover, challenges such as the lack of tourism and management skills, poor partnerships,
and limited access to financial and human resources need to be faced by involved
stakeholders. A diversification of tourism products based on consumer-oriented product
development and creative innovations (Booyens 2010: 285) that suit local conditions (Gang
2011: 130) is identified as an avenue of strengthening destinations’ success.
3.2.2 Environmental Dimension
The second dimension of the field of research deals with the development of the natural
environment and its interrelation with community participation in tourism. With regard to
ecological aspects of tourism development, the natural environment is both source and out-
come of tourism activities.
In general, discussions on sustainability tend to strongly emphasize on ‘green issues’, which

results in a call for a shift of the sustainable paradigm to a more holistic approach (Caffyn and
Jobbins 2003; Welford and Ytterhus 1998). However, with respect to the findings of the
literature review, environmental issues are rarely discussed in the contexts of community
participation and tourism development although they play a key part in discussions on
sustainability in general.
Objectives
From an environmental perspective, involving local communities in tourism development

processes aims, above all, to preserve the diversity of natural environment. Here, the
environment is considered both, a habitat of people, animals and plants and a source of
Page | 24
tourism. Therefore, raising awareness among communities, public and private sectors, and
tourists is purposed.
Conditions
Relations of local tourism development und natural environment are reciprocal. While an in-
tact and scenic environment benefits tourists’ attraction to a place and thus its tourism growth,
development of tourism infrastructure often leads to environmental exploitation. In the
environmental dimension the integration of community representatives can help balance this
reciprocal relationship.
Benefits and Costs
The development of tourism, particularly the development of mass tourism, is a major source
of environmental degradation in tourism destinations(e.g., Kibicho 2008; Tsartas 2003; Vera
Rebollo and Baidal 2003). It potentially goes along with overcrowding, pollution and land-use
conflicts (Ibid.).
On the contrary, tourism is an avenue to contribute positively to the development of natural

environment at a local level. Pongonrat und Pongquan (2010: 37) point out that community
involvement in different planning phases leads to highly increased management skills in re-
source utilisation and to enhanced preservation of nature. Accordingly, tourism development
can change the locals’ perception. For instance, Matarrita-Cascante et al. (2010) investigated a
shift in community members’ attitudes towards the natural environment from utilitarian to
appreciative which “resulted from tourists who came to the area attracted by the large natural
wealth present in the region and learning from those visitors how special their area is” (Ibid.:
749).
Kibicho (2008: 227) underlines this relationship of tourism development, community in-
volvement and natural environment in stating „small scale community-based tourism projects
can empower local communities […] by giving them a sense of pride in and awareness of the
importance of their natural resources and control over their development“. Thus community
participation can create the opportunity to counterbalance mass tourism impacts.
Like tangible benefits from economic activities are of importance for community members’
motivation to take part in the tourism industry, positive impacts from the sustainable use of
natural resources are key to the preservation of natural (tourism) assets. The absence of sig-
Page | 25
nificant benefits “presents a threat to both conservation and tourism” (Lepper and Schroenn
Goebel 2010: 737).
With regard to developing and transformational countries there are specific challenges for
environmental sustainability. According to Sofield and Li (2011: 528), cultural gaps between
international and local traditional value systems represent barriers for conservation. In their
study site China local economic development was highly prioritised over environmental sus-
tainability in planning and managing tourism growth. Contrary to these investigations, Murota
and Glazyrina (2010: 50) discovered inherent religious and cultural traditions in Russia as
primary motivation for the local community to participate in tourism processes preserving the
natural environment. Therefore, it is evident that local context needs to be considered.
Fauzi and Buchary (2002) investigate environmental degradation from a socioeconomic per-
spective in their study. They focus their scientific interests on the interrelation of social and
ecological issues resulting from community participation in tourism development. According
to Fauzi and Buchary (Ibid.) the rationale for environmental degradation is twofold. Firstly,
social factors such as the absence of locals’ participation and effective communication
systems result in “a lack of appreciation and ignorance of the value” (Fauzi and Buchary
2002: 177) of the natural environment. Secondly, economic factors pave the way to
overexploitation of resources. Due to a lack of alternative employment opportunities particu-
larly in rural and peripheral areas illegal or destructive fishing and hunting practices are the
last resort for income (Ibid.). By addressing poverty, improving the level of formal education,
and thus creating benefits, opportunities for enhanced environmental conservation arise
(Ibid.).
Implications
With regard to the previously mentioned social rationale for environmental degradation dif-
ferent organizational strategies are suggested. According to the Fauzi and Buchary (2002), the
formulation of regulations by public sector in cooperation with private stakeholder, for in-
stance regarding the limitation of commercial utilisation of natural resources, and the en-
forcement of conservation laws could help avoid environmental exploitation (Ibid.: 179).
According to Sofield and Li (2008: 528) information and education among government repre-
sentatives, private sector and local communities are needed to increase awareness and under-
standing of preserving natural environments. Moreover, the development of effective
communication systems involving all stakeholders in the destination, and the establishment of
ways to communicate with other communities to learn from other their success stories are
Page | 26
measures that are brought up to face challenges of the above mentioned social factors (Fauzi
and Buchary 2002: 179).
Economic empowerment, the provision of alternative income opportunities, and balancing of

benefits for individuals and entire communities are ways identified to face environmental
challenges (Fauzi and Buchary 2002: 175; Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010: 737).
Accordingly, community participation must focus consensus building on development
objectives and active involvement in decision making at a local level (Ibid.). Further the
encouragement of local ownership and the establishment of small scale tourism projects based
in the community (see also Section 3.2.1) are suggested for promoting environmental
conservation (Fauzi and Buchary 2002: 175; Kibicho 2008: 227).
3.2.3 Socio-cultural Dimension
The third dimension investigated addresses socio-cultural development in connection with

community participation in tourism. Since tourism is an industry based on experiences and
interactions between hosts and visitors social aspects are of importance. Therefore, several
surveys pay special attention to socio-cultural aspects as drivers of and results from tourism
development (e.g., Choi and Murray 2010; Hung et al. 2010; Jensen 2010; Puhakka et al.
2009; Tsartas 2003).
Objectives
In addition to the natural environment, the diversity of culture and society is a primary re-
source of tourism (Welford and Ytterhus 1998: 195). Given this, cultural diversity manifests
itself in local ‘identity’ and ‘authenticity’, which are two key phrases in today’s tourism
marketing discussions. On the contrary, staging culture for tourism purposes and the dominant
presence of visitors’ culture in many mature destinations potentially result in the loss of local
identity (Ibid.).
Local communities are considered the most affected by tourism development (Choi and
Murray 2010: 576). Consequently, from the socio-cultural perspective an involvement of local
communities must aim to preserve local identity. At the same time, it is important to create
awareness and understanding on both sites (i.e. hosts and guests) for differences of cultures
and changes that may occur when remote or less developed areas are visited by international
tourists.
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Conditions
Payne and Dimanche (1996) stress the importance of social responsibility towards employees
in tourism. According to the authors, to understand tourism impacts on local culture is crucial
in a service industry that employs most of its staff from the community. “Employees who feel
that tourism development has had negative impacts on their culture and social lives are not
likely to provide the friendliness and service quality that tourists come to expect”
(Ibid.: 1000). Negative perceptions of tourism development may lead to decreases in
experience quality for visitors.
Host communities can be affected by a variety of influences such as the size of tourist groups
visiting and local contextual variations linked to cultural and social characteristics of different
stages in the destination life cycle (Jensen 2010: 615). Consequently, the relationship between
hosts and guests also depends on different stages of social, economic and political develop-
ment (Payne and Dimanche 1996: 1000). Aiming to overcome these barriers to development
and to balance the variety of influences Jensen (2010) identifies local tour guides as key
facilitators.
Benefits and Costs
Social benefits from participation in tourism are complex. They include amongst others
awareness of a changing way of life, consciousness of community rights and roles, increased
promotion and preservation of local tradition and culture, social approval, strengthening of
social ties and relationships, contribution to freedoms resulting from relaxed travel
restrictions, and empowerment of the community to protect their own interests by education,
involvement and diminution of power disparities (Jayawardena 2002; Jensen 2010; Payne and
Dimanche 1996; Pongponrat and Pongquan 2007; Sofield and Li 2011). Given this,
Pongponrat and Pongquan (2007: 34) consider social benefits to be the most important ones
for local contribution to tourism development.
Nevertheless, various negative socio-cultural impacts are associated with local involvement in
tourism development, too. For instance, these include marginalisation and enhanced elitism
through communities’ elite groups as main stakeholders, acculturation, tourism harassment,
crime and barriers to socio-cultural development due to dependence on external interventions
(Jayawardena 2002; Manyara and Jones 2007; Puhakka et al. 2009; Welford and Ytterhus
1998).
With regard to mature tourism destinations in Greece and Spain, investigations show that
tourism development causes social change (Tsartas 2003; Vera Rebollo and Baidal 2003). For
Page | 28
instance, this includes changing family structures through upgraded roles of women and the
younger due to ‘touristification’ and alternative income opportunities (Tsartas 2003: 117), and
a downgraded quality of life through health service shortage, increased traffic, and a loss of
local identity caused by overcrowding (Vera Rebollo and Baidal 2003: 201).
Various researchers highlight the importance of community members’ motivation or willing-

ness to participate in tourism as this is both potential catalyst and potential barrier (Hung et al.
2010; Jensen 2010; Choi and Murray 2010). Choi and Murray (2010: 575) point out that the
support for tourism strongly depends on the perception of positive and negative impacts from
tourism development. Hung et al. (2010: 284) underline this finding by stating “residents are
more likely to support community tourism development when the perceived benefits outweigh
the perceived costs”. Therefore, both the socio-cultural benefits and the costs must be consid-
ered when planning tourism development involving local communities.
The remoteness of communities, which is linked to their accessibility, the degree of social
isolation, missing infrastructure and a low level of contact to contemporary society, is closely
related to their willingness to establish social relationships with private sector representatives
in order to gain welfare benefits from tourism (Jensen 2009: 625). Social ties play a vital role
in understanding, encouraging and managing community development in connection with
tourism growth. Consequently, “the emergence of trust-based relationships between people
and organizations within an international tourism structure, not least within intercultural rela-
tionships, can outweigh some of the potential negative effects of asymmetric distribution of
power and trigger win-win situations for actors involved” (Jensen 2009: 627).
Implications
In order to prevent developing tourism destinations from a loss of social and cultural identity
Welford and Ytterhus (1998: 197) suggest public and private sectors, particularly tour opera-
tors, to identify from the beginning tourism destinations where there already is a strong local
cohesion. This potentially enables communities to maintain their traditional norms and to
direct sustainable tourism development.
Careful planning and spreading of benefits to increase common welfare is crucial because
„tourism development might lead to a gap between those who are involved in tourism and
those who are not“ (Puhakka et al. 2009: 543). Jayawardena (2002) also considers this aspect
in examining a differentiation scheme of community members according to their tourism in-
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volvement (see Section 2.4). No or very little contribution of tourism benefits to single
segments of the community tends to result in reluctance and hostility (Jayawardena 2002: 16).
Therefore, the community’s sensitivity to the industry must be evaluated carefully.
From the socio-cultural perspective, local tour guides are key agents for participation. On the
one hand, they can enhance understanding and prevent cultural clashes by educating tourists
on appropriate behaviour and cultural norms. On the other hand, it is their responsibility to
build strong social relationships with host communities based on personal trust and familiar-
ity. In doing so, an enrichment of mutual experiences, enhanced involvement and local sus-
tainable development are supported (Jensen 2010: 165).
To face the challenges of conflicts between local culture and tourism development Payne and
Dimanche (1996: 1004) suggest to establish code of conducts based on the values of justice,
integrity, competence and utility. Here, each economic sector committing to its own code of
conduct as part of a larger framework could be a tool for sustainable development of the
tourism industry (Ibid.).
Since the diversity of social and cultural life is a basic source of tourism, Welford and
Ytterhus (1998) suggest the promotion of forms of tourism that are actively integrating
tourists. From their point of view, by being an integral part of the destination tourists add to
its diversity and uniqueness rather than just consuming it (Ibid.: 200). In addition to local touri
guides, particularly NGOs are addressed to fill this gap of lacking interaction between hosts
and visitors, for instance by offering tourism products such as field trips and volunteer work
in communities (Booyens 2010: 285).
3.2.4 Organizational Dimension
The fourth dimension investigated addresses organizational transformation in the context of

community participation and tourism development. It comprises all aspects that address the
governance, institutionalised organization, and management of tourism and thus considers
aspects at different stakeholder levels.
Objectives
Institutionalised organization of tourism development purposes to accomplish local suste-

nance in tourism development and to enable appropriate collaborative management of com-
mon pool resources.
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Conditions
Power distribution builds the framework and guiding rationale for the organizational dimen-
sion of community participation in connection with tourism development. Moreover, as
outlined in Section 2.4 power relations is the major distinguishing element in the
classification of community participation. Among the main stakeholders in tourism (public
sector, private sector, NGOs and communities) there are different constellations of power and
control. They relate to the degree of centralisation of government structures, economic
strength of private national actors as well as of multinational tourism companies, and to the
inequalities within communities such as those between elite groups and marginalised groups.
Various authors highlight that the involvement of the local community and therefore, per-
ceived barriers, impacts and conditions highly depend on the nature or type of tourism
(Booyens 2010; Jayawardena 2002; Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010; Puhakka et al. 2009;
Shone and Memon 2008; Tsartas 2003; Vera Rebollo 2003; Welford and Ytterhus 1998).
They call for alternative forms of tourism such as ecotourism, CBT and agrotourism to face
the challenges of negative impacts from mass tourism. Jayawardena (2002: 21) underlines this
by stating alternative forms of tourism play a key part in the shift from mass tourism to a
more community-oriented approach. On the contrary, Sofield and Li (2011) consider mass
tourism and direct central government involvement as suitable agents for economic benefits
and sustainable tourism development at a macro level.
Benefits and Costs
The organizational dimension of community participation in tourism is closely linked to in-

stitutional aspects. In this light the institutionalisation of processes and networks represent the
main benefits. Other benefits entail improvement of skills in management and planning, ca-
pacity building, the definition of clear roles and responsibilities of stakeholders, more
equitable power distributions and consensus building (Pongponrat and Pongquan 2007: 37).
Kibicho (2008: 2009) points out that tourism projects which are based in the local community
may help avoiding stakeholder conflicts by established mechanisms to the coordination of
policies and related actions. The utilisation of synergy effects for increased knowledge,
insights and capabilities, respectively, are additional advantages of CBT projects. Neverthe-
less, the challenge of taking these advantages has to be faced because in reality they are
hindered by power disparities and limited access to resources for local communities (Ibid.).
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Tourism Development and the level of community participation in the sector depend on vari-
ous aspects. In particular, power disparities between local communities, centralised govern-
ments, and dominating tourism companies lead to a lack of opportunities for communities to
actively participate and to represent their interests (Hung et al. 2008; Lepper and Schroenn
Goebel 2010; Shone and Memon 2008; Tsartas 2003).
In addition to power disparities, main barriers for sustainable development and participatory
governance arise from the industry’s afore-mentioned inherent features. The resulting
financial and organizational barriers at a micro level thus minimise opportunities for locals to
get involved in tourism activities (Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010: 736 ff.). Organizational
efforts may help to diminish those barriers of involvement and development alike.
Other obstacles for development to mention are a lack of knowledge, access to information
and resources within communities. They might be removed or diminished by open communi-
cation and interaction which go in line with the emergence of collaborative organizations in-
volving local governments, private sector, NGOs and both long-term residents and
newcomers (Matarrita-Cascante et al. 2010: 739).
Puhakka et al. (2009) investigate the degree of community participation in nature-based

tourism aligned with certification mechanisms. This approach of institutionalising manage-
ment practices contributes to the involvement of communities in positive ways by creating
networks, and supporting businesses in marketing efforts for example. However, potential
barriers for local development are identified in interest conflicts caused by the introduction of
internationally defined values and restrictions on traditional rights of local community mem-
bers (Puhakka et al. 2009: 543). Therefore holistic approaches and balanced institutional
efforts based on participation, transparency, open communication and active learning
processes are suggested (Ibid.).
Implications
In pursuing sustainable development goals by balancing power relations in a more equitable

way, various authors pose the question of governance. Accordingly, a shift of policy practices
towards a more local political paradigm is needed in many developing and transformation
countries. According to Hung et al. (2010: 280), top-down governance approaches lack of
opportunities for local communities to participate in the tourism development process. Tsartas
(2003: 126) mentions that this shift and the resulting decentralisation and fragmentation of
competencies lead to enhanced tourism development opportunities at a local level. This refers
Page | 32
to the allowance “for the direct involvement of representatives of local interests in decision-
making processes” (Ibid.).
In addition, Shone and Memon (2008) underline that a more decentralised bottom-up
approach, as it is practiced in New Zealand under the paradigm of the “New Regionalism”, is
a more sufficient means for tourism to promote regional transformation. Following the princi-
ples of integration, collaboration and cooperation the establishment of regional-level networks
is addressed by this approach (Ibid.).
Matarrita-Cascante et al. (2010: 748) call for the establishment of community-based produc-
tive, financial and commercial organizations to potentially establish a broad institutional and
economic basis in the community. Such organizations thus act as representatives of local in-
terests and describe effective counterparts to powerful private sector organizations and local
authorities.
Therefore, regional and local tourism authorities must enhance awareness and knowledge of
tourism development by introducing mechanisms promoting community participation locally
(Hung et al. 2010: 285). Moreover, to facilitate collaborative development it is public sector’s
responsibility to establish adequate regulatory frameworks (Booyens 2010: 283).
Nevertheless, external intervention from public or private sectors is the most important driv-
ing force for the establishment of such community-based organizations. In doing so, external
partners can assist in resource mobilization, proposal writing, awareness creation, funding,
capacity building and so on (Manyara and Jones 2007: 638). With regard to community-based
organizations the main barrier for a successful establishment is identified in their low efficacy
(Lepper and Schroenn Goebel 2010; Manyara and Jones 2007). Therefore, a review of
management structures and financial management capacity (Lepper and Schroenn Goebel
2010: 737) as well as the definition of clear exit strategies for external intervention (Manyara
and Jones 2007: 641) are suggested.
Finally, institutional changes and innovations are crucially important for tourism-driven
change in many developing destinations. Their success in terms of achieving sustainable ob-
jectives relies on the nature of tourism, long-term justification, the establishment of
transparent communication systems and open dialogue, the existence of adequate capacities at
of governmental, private sector and community levels, and ongoing adjustment through
monitoring and evaluation of development processes and objectives.
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3.3 Summary: Theoretical Understanding of Development and

Participation in Tourism
This section synthesizes the economic, environmental, socio-cultural, and organizational
aspects of the research field and investigates overall interrelations between community
participation and responsible tourism development based on the previous findings.
3.3.1 Overall Objectives
The overall aims of an involvement of locals are development in a sustainable way and
tourism-driven change (Matarrita-Cascante et al. 2010: 748). Generally speaking, success
indicators for tourism projects are high occupancy rates, high visitor numbers and revenue
generation. With regard to community participation and sustainable tourism development the
improvement of community development priorities needs to be added to this list. These
priorities comprise next to the access to basic amenities such as education, clean water and
health services infrastructure development and the diversification of livelihoods (Manyara and
Jones 2007: 638). Hence, they address all of afore-mentioned dimensions of development.
By stating “while structural elements including infrastructure end economic resources are
essential elements for any tourism development project, interactional resources are key to
attaining sustainable development goals” Matarrita-Cascante et al. (2010: 751) underline these
interdependencies of sustainable tourism development with aspects of economic, environ-
mental, socio-cultural, and organizational development. Considering all of them is thus a key
prerequisite for the achievement of responsible tourism development goals.
3.3.2 Success Indicators
Based on a synthesis of benefits, costs, drivers and barriers inherent to the four dimensions of
development success indicators of community involvement in the context of responsible
tourism development are outlined. These indicators comprise economic empowerment,
environmental awareness, social cohesion and organizational efficacy, which is displayed in
Figure 2.
Page | 34
Figure 2: Success indicators of community participation in tourism.

Source: Own illustration, based on findings of the systematic literature review.
From an economic point of view, local empowerment is defined by shared benefits on indi-
vidual and community levels. They include tangible or monetary ones such as income,
employment and revenue. Moreover, there are intangible benefits due to local economic
diversification, enhancement of capacities, skills, and access to resources, and community
ownership, which help to take the hurdles of community involvement. These benefits result in
increased resilience of destinations to external influence variables.
Regarding the environmental dimension awareness of natural resources is identified the key
success indicator, because according to the review findings it is a prerequisite for their
conservation, responsible utilisation and appreciation of these resources.
In addition, awareness and appreciation of local culture and social life are elements of success
from a socio-cultural perspective. Social empowerment and interaction are further fundamen-
tals for social cohesion, which is identified to be the key success factor in this dimension.
Organizational efficacy that is characterized by appropriate and equitable power distributions,

strong networks, open dialogue and cooperation plays a vital part in achieving sustainable
development goals by integrating communities, too.
Nevertheless, every indicator must be considered as only one element of an interdependent

bundle.
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3.3.3 Concluding Implications
In synthesising findings of all previously mentioned investigations an implication model is

developed that refers to the destination’s stage of tourism development. The implications for
efforts towards participation and the sustainable development of tourism that are illustrated in
Table 4 are divided into three groups:
(1) Implications to be considered at all stages of tourism development: Measures that

have to be addressed to pave the way for participatory and responsible direction
from the beginning, and to maintain or encourage sustainable achievements at later
stages.
(2) Implications that are of particular importance at an early stage of tourism develop-
ment: Measures that are aiming at the establishment of a basic framework to allow
successful involvement of community members.
(3) Implications that are of particular importance at a more developed stage of tour-
ism: Measures that only can be addressed after some requirements are met, or that
rely on backward perceptions and situations of tourism development.
By establishing this classification, key issues and interrelations of the scientific discussion on
community participation in connection with responsible tourism development are highlighted.
Table 4: Implications of community participation and responsible tourism development.
(1) Implications to be considered at all stages of tourism development
 Introduction of mechanisms and regulatory frameworks that promote community participation at

varied levels or intensities.
 Establishment and institutionalisation of stakeholder networks.
 Promotion of capacity building at all stakeholder levels.
 Prioritisation of community-based enterprises and organizations to address common problems and
to balance power disparities. Prerequisite: Appropriate capacities in terms of management skills,
financial and human resources are in place or likely to be achieved.
 Taking intrinsic values of participatory sustainable development at all planning levels into
account: long-term justification, transparency, open dialogue, reliability.
 Educating for environmental issues at all stakeholder levels.
 Introduction and enforcement of conservation laws, land-use zoning, and regulations on commer-
cial utilisation of natural resources.
 Educating tourists on local culture, social norms and appropriate behaviour.
 Institutionalising mechanisms for evaluation/monitoring of tourism activities and their efficacy.
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(2) Implications that are of particular importance at an early stage of tourism development
 Investigating a destination’s inherent characteristics (traditional, cultural, political, environmental)

to develop measures that fit local conditions.
 Mobilization for external intervention for technical and financial support whilst defining clear exit
strategies.
 Encouragement of local value creation and high multiplier effects by effective supply chain
management, capacity building in tourism and related sectors, training, education, and the creation
of linkages at a local level.
 Establishment of decision-making mechanisms that involve representatives of all affected groups
and that is based on consensus building.
 Establishment of effective communication and information systems.
 Prioritisation of tourism destinations characterized by strong social cohesion and creation of
relationships based on social trust in product development processes.
 Development of tourism goods and services that are actively involving tourists and encouraging
social interaction.
(3) Implications that are of particular importance at a more developed stage of tourism
 Balancing the costs and benefits of tourism development (economic, socio-cultural, environ-
mental, organizational) between individual and greater community levels.
 Creation of linkages of tourism with local and national economy.
 Introduction of education and training programmes to create opportunities for employment at
higher levels and to encourage local entrepreneurship.
 Establishment of codes of conducts for all private tourism sector segments.
 Balancing of power disparities by decentralised organization of tourism and fragmentation of du-
ties and responsibilities.
 Making special efforts to involve marginalised community members to empower them against
community elites.
Source: Own elaboration, based on findings of the systematic literature review.
Accordingly, not only quantity but also quality and diversity of positive contributions to the
community are essential. For instance, in addressing employment, which is one of the key
economic benefits Scheyvens (2002: 8) argues that “if job creation transforms a community of
self-reliant farmers and traders into a community of employees reliant on a resort for menial,
seasonal jobs as cleaners and service personnel, it would be difficult to argue that ‘good
change’ had occurred”. Accordingly, intended transformation measures have to be balanced,
to suit local conditions, to be based on consensus, open dialogue and transparency, and to lead
to empowerment and self-reliance of local communities.
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Nevertheless, the question remains of whether community participation can lead to tourism-
driven change. As discussed in this chapter many potentially positive contributions are associ-
ated with tourism involvement and may lead to general community development. The
potential risks from developing tourism, in particular on cultural and natural identity, and
barriers like the much discussed power disparities among stakeholders however are serious
threats.
One important finding that is evident from the discussion above is that neither one single
stakeholder nor one single industry within a destination has the ability to drive change in a
sustainable way on its own. Cooperation, capacity building at different levels, information,
and strong linkages are key requirements for this to happen.
Finally, because “tourism’s impacts vary greatly according where it is taking place, who is in
control [...] and which of its many stakeholders have any meaningful participation in the way
it is implemented” (Brown and Hall 2008: 848), measures and implications cannot be gener-
alized in terms of a ‘one model fits all’ solution. Local contexts in the areas of history, poli-
tics, socioeconomics, and tourism development are crucially important when investigating the
interrelations of community participation in tourism and transformation processes.
The following Chapter 4 will thus introduce the case study site Myanmar by a country profile
and a discussion on the country’s tourism development.
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4 Myanmar: A Destination in
Transformation
4 Myanmar: A Destination in Transformation

Having established the theoretical background of responsible tourism, community
participation and transformation, this chapter will continue with an introduction of the empiri-
cal framework of the present investigation. The focus of the empirical analysis is on current
developments in the Republic of the Union of Myanmar (hereafter: Myanmar).
After decades of military rule, Myanmar is now paving a way to transformation and democ-
racy through a process of opening up both politically and economically. The transformation
process involves a set of reforms that have been introduced by the civilian government since
2011. In response to recent developments, there is an enormous interest in the formerly
isolated country. This includes a broad range of interest groups such as governmental and
non-governmental organizations, international investors and tourists. However, Myanmar is
still considered one of the world’s least developed countries and poverty remains a serious
issue.
With regard to tourism, the country’s opening implies that a virgin, largely unexplored desti-
nation opens its borders to the world. Huge increases in international tourist arrivals are
expected in the upcoming years. The government of Myanmar started to face these
developments early, aiming at responsible tourism practices as the framework for future
tourism development.
Prior to discussing these efforts towards sustainable development in tourism, Section 4.1
provides a country profile of Myanmar, including geographical, historical and socioeconomic
aspects. Section 4.2 provides a discussion of Myanmar’s tourism industry, its history and the
current status of demand and supply, as well as a brief outlook on future developments. The
chapter concludes with a description of a framework for the empirical analysis of tourism
stakeholders’ perceptions of and attitudes towards responsible tourism and community
participation in Myanmar.2
4.1 A Country Profile of Myanmar

Myanmar is currently recovering from five decades of international isolation. In 2010 a
civilian government led by Prime Minister Thein Sein deposed the military regime. Since
2
It should be noted that this chapter can only give a summary of the most important facts and issues of
Myanmar. There are very detailed sources available for further reading. See ADB (2012b) on Myanmar’s
economic development; Bertelsmann Foundation (2012) on features of Myanmar’s transition process; UNDP
(2011) on the country’s poverty and social development issues, and MoHT (2012b) on responsible tourism
development in Myanmar.
Page | 39
Transformation
then, a range of political and economic reforms have been implemented and a “second wave
of reforms” was announced in July 2012 (The New York Times 2012). As a result, the
country’s current development is highly dynamic. The aim of the following country profile is
to provide information about Myanmar from a geographical, historical and socioeconomic
perspective. Table 5 gives a general overview of economic and development indicators of
Myanmar.
Table 5: Selected indicators of Myanmar’s development in 2010.
Category Expression(s)
Development Indicators
Population 60.6 millions
Annual population growth rate 1.3% (2009-2011)
Adult literacy rate 92.0%
Population in urban areas 33.9%
Forest area 31.8 million hectares
Population living below national poverty line 25.6%
Under-5 mortality rate per 1,000 live births 66
Life expectancy at birth 62.1 years
Population with access to clean water (%) 69.4%
Population with access to sanitation (%) 79.0%
Population with access to electricity (%) 48.8%
Economic Indicators
GDP ($ billions) 51.9
GDP growth (%) 5.5%
Sector shares in GDP:
36% / 26% / 38%
Agriculture/industry/services
Sector shares in labour market: Agriculture/
50% / 6% / 40%
industry/services
Unemployment rate 1.7%
Underemployment rate 37.5%
Source: Own summary, adapted from ADB (2011); ADB (2012b); UNDP (2011).
Some of the development indicators mentioned in the above table have improved in recent
years (ADB 2012b; UNDP 2011). The levels of poverty and of inequality between the rich
and the poor have decreased between 2005 and 2010. Nevertheless, Myanmar’s development
Page | 40
Transformation
still lags behind that of its peer countries, the member states of the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN). A detailed overview of the country is provided in the following
sections.
4.1.1 Geography
Myanmar is located in Southeast Asia (see Figure 3). Covering an area of 676,577 sq. km, it is
the second largest country in the region. The territory stretches over 936 kilometres from east
to west and 2,051 kilometres from north to south (CSO 2012). The country has a population
of 60.6 million (ADB 2011: 2).
Myanmar borders on five countries (China, Laos, Thailand, Bangladesh and India), the
Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal and, has a link to the Himalayan Range in the Western
Hills region (CSO 2012). The country has a tropical climate with three distinct seasons:
monsoon season (June to October), cool dry season (November to February) and hot season
(March to May) (MoHT 2012a).
Figure 3: Map of Myanmar.

Source: World of Maps (2011).
Page | 41
Transformation
Myanmar is considered to have the richest ethnic diversity in Asia, with more than 130 differ-
ent ethnic groups living in the country (Ekeh and Smith 2007: 1). “Such diversity is attributed
to the country’s geographic location on a strategic crossroads, where historically it had acted
as a buffer between the neighbouring powers of India, China and Thailand” (Ibid.). The
Burmese are by far the largest ethnic group. Minority groups include Shan (9% of the
population), Karen (7%). Mon, Rakhine, Chin, Kachin, Karenni, Kayan, Chinese, Indian,
Danu, Akha, Kokang, Lahu, Naga, Palaung, Pao, Rohyinga, Tavoyan and Wa each constitute
5% or less of the population (Ibid.).
Armed conflicts between ethnic minority groups and the military regime used to be a severe
issue for the country. As well as starting transformation processes, “the government has
signed cease-fire agreements with a handful of ethnic groups, but a comprehensive peace re-
mains elusive“ (The New York Times 2012).
Over 80% of Myanmar’s population are Theravada Buddhists, the remainder are Christians,
Muslims, Hindus and animists (MoHT 2012: b).
4.1.2 History
In 1948 Burma gained independence from Britain and a parliamentary democracy was estab-
lished. In 1962, after a short period of democracy, military leaders staged a coup against the
government and took over power. From this point on, the country was ruled by a socialist-
oriented military regime under General Ne Win. “Thereafter, a socialist planned economy and
one-party rule by Ne Win’s Burma Socialist Program Party (BSPP) resulted in the resource-
rich country becoming one of the world’s least-developed countries” (Bertelsmann
Foundation 2012a: 3).
Due to severe economic problems and countrywide demonstrations, the ruling party collapsed
in September 1988 (Ibid.), a new military junta, the State Law and Order Council (SLORC),
took over power and Burma was renamed Republic of Myanmar. In 1990 the first elections in
over 40 years were held. The opposition party, the National League for Democracy (NLD),
won more than 80% of the parliamentary seats, but the military regime refused to acknowl-
edge these elections and to hand over power (Human Rights Watch 2008). In 1989 Aung San
Suu Kyi, the leader of the opposition and daughter of General Aung San, who was a key agent
of 1948’s independence movement, was put under house arrest by the regime which, with
brief interruptions, lasted until 2010 (GIZ 2008).
In 1997 SLORC was renamed State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). In November
2007 the SPDC relocated the administrative capital from Yangon to the newly-constructed
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Transformation
Nay Pyi Taw (“Royal Capital”), which is situated about 300 km north of Yangon (Human
Rights Watch 2008). This led to a tentative opening (GIZ 2008). However, due to the re-
gime’s refusal of democratization and its systematic human rights abuses, Western countries
imposed sanctions, embargos and an economic boycott of the country (Bertelsmann
Foundation 2012a: 4).
In 2007, in response to ongoing international criticism and what has been referred to as the
Saffron Revolution, during which tens of thousands of monks, nuns and civilians took to the
streets of Yangon, Sittwe, Pegu, Pakokku and Mandalay and were brutally dispersed by secu-
rity forces, the SPDC announced a seven-point roadmap to “disciplined democracy” (Human
Rights Watch 2008). In 2008 the new constitution was ratified. In November 2010 the
military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) won the first elections in
20 years and Aung San Suu Kyi was released from house arrest (BBC 2012).
In March 2011 Thein Sein was sworn in as the president of the new civilian government
(BBC 2012). Since then, a number of political and economic reforms have been implemented,
hundreds of political prisoners (but not all of them) have been freed as part of a general am-
nesty, the government has sought political reconciliation with ethnic minority groups and the
democracy movement and the control on news media has been relaxed (The New York Times
2012). In April 2012 by-elections were held, resulting in the NLD’s entering into parliament.
In June 2012 Thein Sein announced a second wave of reforms (The New York Times 2012).
This launch of various political and economic reforms in Myanmar since 2011 is seen as the
key prerequisite for the lifting of the economic sanctions against Myanmar (TDNA 2012a)
and thus as a catalyst for its transformation.
Myanmar is now starting to recover from 50 years of international isolation. However, al-
though some reforms have been implemented and the seven-point roadmap to “disciplined
democracy” has been accomplished, Myanmar is not in a process of genuine transition (BTI
2012)3 and still ranks 127th of 128 transformation countries (Bertelsmann Foundation 2012a:
1). According to Suu Kyi (2012), investments and business activities in Myanmar, especially
in the area of oil and gas, development should be pursued with care because the country still
lacks accountability and openness (cited in TDNA 2012b).
3
BTI is a global assessment of transition processes, which includes evaluation of the state of democracy, the
state of the market economy, and the quality of political management. The latest issue was published in March
2012. Since that time amongst others the government pronounced a second set of reforms, oppositional NLD
members were elected into parliament, international currency exchange rates were liberalized, and several
economic sanctions from EU and US were lifted. The country’s development is highly dynamic. Consequently,
this assessment cannot be up to date.
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With regard to the considerations in this section and according to the definition on
transformation provided in Section 2.1 the country is in a process of transformation, because
it does make efforts for modifying and reforming its existing political and economic system.
4.1.3 Socioeconomic Factors
Because of its rich natural resources, Myanmar was considered to be one of the economically
most prosperous countries in Southeast Asia after its independence in 1948 (Von Hauff 2010:
43). However, socialist developments which started in the 1960s weakened the economic
situation of the country. Although Myanmar has transformed into a more open market econ-
omy since the early 1990s, today it is one of the poorest countries in the region (Ibid.). Some
25% of the country’s population live in poverty (UNDP 2011: xi). The negative economic
developments and the country’s decreased competitiveness are due not only to mismanage-
ment by the military regime, but also to the international sanctions and boycotts (Von Hauff
2010: 43). More precisely, “[k]ey factors inhibiting Myanmar’s growth rate in the last decades
are low investment, limited integration with global markets, dominance of state-owned enter-
prises in key productive sectors of the economy, and frequent episodes of macroeconomic
instability” (ADB 2012b: 3f.).
The ongoing political and economic opening has prompted various countries to lift interna-
tional embargos and sanctions. The USA lifted embargos against Myanmar in July 2012
(TDNA 2012b) and, according to ADB (2011: 2), the prospects for economic development
and growth are positive. But this optimistic outlook on Myanmar’s political and economic
performance is not shared by everyone. The BTI report emphasizes that Myanmar’s economy
continues to be under the strict control of the state, which restrains market-based competition
and liberal development (Bertelsmann Foundation 2012a: 14f.). There are also a range of
structural constraints to the country’s transformation, such as high poverty rates throughout
the country, poor infrastructural development, very low education levels, a small educated
workforce and weak administrative capacity (Bertelsmann Foundation 2012a: 22).
With regard to poverty, the UNDP Poverty Profile for Myanmar (2011) concludes that the
level of poverty is associated with geographical location. There are significant urban–rural as
well as regional and divisional gaps, with 84% of the poor population living in rural areas
(ADB 2012b: 7). Disadvantages for rural areas and several divisions particularly occur in
terms of food poverty, access to productive assets (land, credits), access to key dimensions of
well-being (drinking water, improved sanitation, electricity, access to health care) and quality
of education (UNDP 2011). Although access to these amenities has slightly improved in
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recent years, “the poor continue to benefit less from access than the rich, and urban areas
benefit more than rural areas” (ADB 2012b: 8).
The vast majority of Myanmar’s population live in rural areas and therefore rely heavily on
the agricultural sector for their livelihoods (Info Birmanie 2011: 4). More than 50% of the
working population are employed in the agricultural sector, including hunting and forestry
(UNDP 2011: xi). The low-end service sector (approx. 40%) and the manufacturing sector
(6%) also provide employment in Myanmar (Ibid.). Surprisingly, as of 2010, Myanmar had an
extremely low level of unemployment of about 1.7% (UNDP 2011: 56), yet 25% of the
population are afflicted by poverty. This implies that in Myanmar “poverty has much more to
do with low returns to work than with the absence of work” (UNDP 2011: 57).
However, according to ADB, prospects for Myanmar’s economic development are positive.
The growth rates of Myanmar’s gross domestic product (GDP) are estimated to be about 6%
in 2012 and 6.3% in 2013 and, provided that macroeconomic stability is maintained, the GDP
may grow by 6–7% every year for an extended period of time (ADB 2012b: 1). Considering
previous developments in Myanmar’s peer countries in the region (Cambodia, China,
Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam), poverty may be reduced by about 50%
within one decade (Ibid.).
The main strengths of the country are its inherent features of resource richness – in particular
natural gas, water, forests, fisheries, petroleum oil and several minerals (ADB 2012b: 16) –
and its strategic position between India and China. In order to achieve ‘good growth’,
Myanmar must exploit the benefits of the recent shifts in the global economic order – namely,
the growing power of emerging markets and the rise of Asia – by encouraging regional
integration and socioeconomic resilience (ADB 2012b: 14). Paving the way for sustainable,
environmentally friendly development and growth is imperative as well because the country’s
exports, agriculture and tourism depend heavily on natural resources.
Myanmar’s tourism potential is considered to be one of its major strengths due to its environ-
mental and cultural diversity, but this potential “remains highly underexploited” (ADB 2012b:
18). Moreover, after decades of isolation, tourists’ interest in the country is considered to be
very high, so a “tourism boom can generate investment in transport, hotels, restaurants, arts
and culture, and travel” (ADB 2012b: 31) and thus serve as a driver of national and commu-
nity development.
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4.2 Tourism in Myanmar

Travelling to Myanmar has been a double-edged sword. In the past, several human rights or-
ganizations called for tourism boycotts because the industry’s development was largely domi-
nated by the state and associated with severe human rights abuses.
In line with the government’s efforts to open the country politically and economically and due
to its long-lasting international isolation, the country is “set to be a hot new destination for
independent travellers” (Lonely Planet 2012), ranking 2nd of the world’s top destinations in
2012 (Ibid.). The following sections discuss current and future developments to provide a
better understanding of the historical development of Myanmar’s tourism industry.
4.2.1 Background: Tourism in the ‘Pre-Opening Era’
In studying the development of tourism in Myanmar, one must consider the industry’s de-
pendence on political frameworks. Oo (2008: 16ff.) distinguishes between three stages that
are associated with different political systems. Each of these stages involved various measures
which hampered and promoted tourism development:
(1) Parliamentary period (1948–1962)

 Capitalist-oriented economy;
 Few private-sector companies (tour operators, hotels) are allowed to operate in
different parts of the country;
 Visa validity: one month;
 Small number of international tourists.
(2) Socialist period (1962–1988)
 Socialist economy which aimed at safeguarding traditional values and customs;
 Nationalization of private tourism businesses;
 Visa validity: 24 hours;
 Obstacles to commercial success and quick shrinking of the tourism industry.
(3) Opening to the tourism market (since 1990)
 Efforts to expand the country’s economic base and to encourage tourism
development;
 Passing of the Myanmar Tourism Law in 1990, which set guidelines for tourism
development;
 First economic opening of the tourism industry by allowing foreign investments,
joint venture partnerships between foreign and national stakeholders, and private
operations;
 Facilitation of entry by extending visa validity and opening of some border entry
points;
 Visit Myanmar Year in 1996: promotional campaign and official opening to
international tourism by government;
 Continuous growth of tourism demand and supply.
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In fact, with the political and economic opening of the country since 2010/11, a new stage of
tourism has begun as well.
In the past, the discussion on tourism in Myanmar used to be dominated by boycott calls from
opposition parties and international human rights organizations. Aligned with the general
economic boycott of the country, tourism boycott aimed at placing pressure on the existing
regime. Moreover, severe human rights violations (replacement, forced labour in tourist sites
and in infrastructure construction) associated with the promotional campaign of the “Visit
Myanmar Year” in 1996, spurred the discussion (Mowforth and Munt 2003: 290).
Controversies arose among NGOs and researchers alike over whether tourism to Myanmar
should be boycotted or not. Table 6 summarizes the most commonly used arguments for and
against tourism boycotts.
Table 6: Reasons for and against boycotting Myanmar as a tourism destination.
For Boycotting Myanmar Against Boycotting Myanmar
 Pressure on military regime:

Tourism boycott as part of the general  Negative impacts on local communities
economic boycott of the military-ruled and civil society:
country was announced to increase pressure Tourism boycott negatively impacts local
on the regime. communities as it hinders income, em-
 Human rights abuses: ployment, education and public awareness
Tourism development in Myanmar is asso- to their issues.
ciated with human rights abuses. For in-  Fall into oblivion:
stance, in 1990 the population of Bagan was ‘Fair tourism’ by informed and aware trav-
displaced to New Bagan, a place lacking ellers may cause increased awareness and
basic infrastructures at that time. Further, public attention to the issues of Myanmar
transport infrastructure (railways and roads) and its population.
were built with forced labour.  Structural support to the military regime:
 Economic support to military regime: The economic boycott (and thus the asso-
Many tourism companies were state-owned ciated tourism boycott as well) supported a
(at least in part), revenue from tourism stabilization of the regime since it stopped
mainly flowed to the regime rather than to political dialogue with international play-
the general population. ers like USA or Europe, who envisaged a
 Illusion of the dictatorship: political shift. Further, the boycott is
Tourism promotes the illusion of a free and supposed to have had negative influences
open country. on national economy, which most affected
 Cultural deterioration: broad base population.
Loss of cultural identity and acculturation
as a consequence of (irresponsible) tourism.
Source: Own summary, adapted from Info Birmanie (2008: 3ff.);
Häusler (2012); Von Hauff (2010: 43); Respect (2003: 8).
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Since the country started to make efforts to open up in 2010/11, several human rights
organizations and the opposition party has stopped calling for boycott. In 2010 the NLD
revised its call for a general tourism boycott to encourage independent travel, stated that
“those wishing to visit Burma in solidarity with the people – either as individuals or in small
groups – are now welcomed. However, boycotts on package tours and other large tourism
operations remain as they have only very limited contributions to local population in eco-
nomic and social perspective” (Tourism Concern 2012). Therefore, tourism development in
Myanmar in the future should aim to increase the benefits for Myanmar’s citizens and be
based on sustainability.
According to Respect (2003), there are different framework conditions for the sustainable
development of the country’s tourism industry. Potential barriers to sustainable tourism
development include the commercial utilisation of natural resources, the cultural exploitation
of ethnic groups and the absence of a free market economy (Respect 2003: 10). However,
mass tourism is not yet established, so there are a variety of opportunities for the tourism
industry to pave the way for sustainable development (Ibid.).
4.2.2 Current Status of Tourism: Facts and Figures
The tourism industry of Myanmar has experienced an enormous increase in the number of
international tourist arrivals since 1990.4 Figure 4 shows that the industry is characterized by
strong increases in tourism demand, from 21,600 international arrivals in 1990 to 391,200 in
2011. The year 2012 may see a further increase to 550,000 international arrivals as a result of
further efforts to achieve economic and political transformation and due to the considerable
international attention (mas|contour 2012: 1).
However, growth has not been continuous since 1990, due to some peculiar developments.
For instance, between 1993 and 1996 (the Visit Myanmar Year), the annual growth rate in
international tourist arrivals was between 50% and 80%. However, in 2007/08 (the years of
the Saffron Revolution) international tourism demand reportedly decreased by 22%. The av-
erage annual growth rate in international tourist arrivals between 1990 and 2011 in Myanmar
was +17%.5
4
The facts and figures on tourism in Myanmar mentioned below refer to international tourists. With hardly any
data on domestic tourism available, few sources refer to this subject. However, it is assumed that the vast
majority of domestic tourism activities are pilgrimages (Responsible Tourism Working Session 4, May 24,
2012), which particularly affect destinations of religious importance such as the Golden Rock in Kyaikto, the
temple city of Bagan and Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon.
5
The numbers given here are the author’s own calculations of growth rates, based on the available sources on
tourism arrivals mentioned above. For detailed information on tourist arrivals and growth rates see Annex 2.
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Figure 4: International tourist arrivals in Myanmar 1990–2011.

Source: Own illustration, adapted from MoHT (2011); MoHT (2012a); UNWTO (1989);
UNWTO (1996); UNWTO (2001); UNWTO (2006); UNWTO (2011). 6
The comparison of the numbers of tourist arrivals in Myanmar with those of neighbouring
ASEAN countries in Table 7 clearly shows that Myanmar “is still in its infancy” (Oo 2008:
24). Mature destinations such as Malaysia (24 million arrivals), Thailand (19 million) and
Singapore (13 million) are much more developed but also suffer negative impacts of mass
tourism. In 2011 Myanmar’s share of all international tourist arrivals in the ASEAN region
was about 1%.
Table 7: International tourist arrivals in the ASEAN region 2008–2011. 7
Country 2008 2009 2010 2011

Malaysia 22,052.5 23,646.2 24,577.2 24,714.3
Thailand 14,597.5 14,149.8 15,963.4 19,098.3
Singapore 10,116.5 9,681.3 11,638.7 13,171.3
Indonesia 6,429.0 6,323.7 7,002.9 7,649.7
Vietnam 4,253.7 3,772.3 5,049.9 6,014.0
Philippines 3,139.4 3,017.1 3,520.5 3,917.5
Cambodia 2,215.5 2,161.6 2,508.3 2,881.9
Laos 2,004.8 2,008.4 2,513.0 2,723.6
Myanmar 660.8 762.5 791.5 816.4
Brunei 225.8 157.5 104.4 242.1
ASEAN 65,605.5 65,680.3 73,752.6 81,229.0
Source: ASEAN (2012).
6
Data is based primarily on various issues of UNWTO’s Yearbook of Statistics. Tourist arrivals thus correspond
to international visitors to the economic territory of Myanmar and include both tourists and same day visitors.
From 1990 to 1999 arrival numbers included arrivals at Yangon by air, for the year 1994 entries from Chinese
border to Yangon by overland route were added to this list. Since 2000, this number comprises all tourist arrivals
through border entry points in Yangon. Data does not include border tourism to Myanmar.
7 In thousand arrivals. Data compiled by ASEAN includes international tourist arrivals at all the above
mentioned entry points (Yangon and border tourism).
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Asia is of exceptional importance as a source market for Myanmar (see Figure 5). In 2011 the
majority of all visitors (66%) came from there. The most important source markets in Asia are
China, Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea and Japan and the most important source markets in
other parts of the world are the USA, France and Germany (MoHT 2012a).
According to ASEAN (2012), there has been a significant shift in the dominance of visitors
from ASEAN countries in relation to non-ASEAN countries. Between 2008 and 2011, their
share in international tourist arrivals to Myanmar decreased from 70% to 12%. However, Oo
(2008:15 ff.) notes that Myanmar has great potential in attracting visitors from ASEAN and
Asian countries in the future because of its membership in the strategic alliances of ASEAN
and the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) and because of its location between the high-
population countries of India and China (Ibid.).
Most travellers now come to Myanmar as individual travellers, representing a share of 38% of
all international tourist arrivals. In addition, packaged tours (26%) and business travellers
(21%) make up the largest share in international tourists (MoHT 2012a). By now (2012) the
market has changed. Some hoteliers in Myanmar experience significant increases in the
number of business travel inquiries (Responsible Tourism Working Session 3, May 24, 2012).
Figure 5: International tourist arrivals in Myanmar 2011 by region of origin.

Source: Own illustration, adapted from MoHT (2012a).
Between 2008 and 2011, the average length of stay decreased from nine to eight days. At the
same time, more international tourists visited the country, spending more money than before
because expenditures per person and day increased from US$95 to US$120 (MoHT 2012a).
As a result, total earnings from tourism also increased, from US$165 million in 2008 to
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US$319 million in 2011. For the year 2012, a further increase to 390 million is expected, cor-
responding to about 50,000 jobs related to tourism (ADB 2012a).
However, unlike in other countries in Southeast Asia, in Myanmar macroeconomic revenues

from tourism are very small. In 2009 tourism contributed only 0.56% to the GDP (ADB
2012b; MoHT 2012a). According to UNESCAP (2011: 246), the average international tour-
ism expenditure in 2009 was approximately 3.6% of the GDP in the ASEAN countries, and in
Cambodia and Malaysia the contributions of international tourism expenditures to the GDP
were even higher (11% and 8.2% respectively).
About 1.3% of the employed population work in the tourism industry (hotels and restaurants),
with employment rates in this industry being significantly higher in urban areas than in rural
areas (UNDP 2011b: 38). Consequently, at the moment, tourism hardly benefits local
communities at all. Rather “[i]n popular tourist areas, inflation, the lack of tourism
infrastructure and large-scale development projects rarely benefits all, but rather only enriches
a few” (Valentin 2012). Possible reasons for the small contributions at the local level are
power disparities, the fact that the population relies heavily on agriculture, the strong
dominance of a few major destinations and the small number of tourism stakeholders. In
addition, due to certain legal restrictions imposed on community stays and a large number of
areas restricted to tourism, communities do not get the opportunity to benefit from tourism.
However, there are also a number of successful examples of community ownership in
Myanmar, such as at Inle Lake, where significant shares of the industry are already
community-based (Responsible Tourism Working Session 4, May 24, 2012).
Tourism supply in Myanmar is highly concentrated in the four main destinations of Yangon,
Bagan, Inle Lake and Mandalay (Info Birmanie 2011: 6). In 2011 more than 56% of all rooms
in tourist accommodation units were offered in these destinations (MoHT 2012a).8 Moreover,
along with Nay Pyi Taw Bagan, Yangon and Mandalay are the only international gateways to
Myanmar (Mekong Tourism Forum 2011: 6). As of 2011, there were about 25,000 hotel
rooms in the country, of which some 6,000 have been constructed after 2008. Most of these
new hotel rooms (1,700) are situated in the new capital, Nay Pyi Taw (MoHT 2008; MoHT
2012a).
8
Since no statistical data are available on the regional distribution of overnight stays and tourist arrivals, the
number of rooms in accommodation units is used to analyze the importance of tourism in individual destinations.
It should be noted that international tourists are not allowed to leave these units. Therefore, the numbers are
significant when analyzing tourism demand.
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Moreover, in recent years, the main destinations mentioned above have experienced
significant increases in tourist arrivals. For instance, the temple city of Bagan recorded an
enormous increase from 38,000 in 2008 to over 100,000 in 2011 (MoHT 2012c).
These increases and the future growth rates expected for 2012 and 2013 will be a major
challenge for the country in the upcoming years due to serious deficiencies in infrastructure,
with Yangon, Myanmar’s most important entry point, being “the one suffering the most of a
lack of facilities to accommodate the growing number of travellers” (TDNA 2012c). Although
there are plans to build new hotels in 2013, these hotels will not be able to satisfy the demand.
It must also be considered that only one third of the existing hotel rooms in the city are up to
international standards (Ibid.). As a result, hotel rates increased significantly in 2012. This led
to an intervention by the government, which limited room prices to a maximum of US$150.
Consequently, new investments in hotel and tourism infrastructure are required throughout
Myanmar in general and in Yangon in particular.
Tourism services in Myanmar are provided by a fairly small number of stakeholders. MoHT
annually announces the number of registered tour companies, hotels and transport companies
as well as the number of licensed tour guides. As of 2011, there were 760 predominantly
domestic tour companies, 731 hotels, 178 private transport companies and 3,160 licensed tour
guides in the country (MoHT 2012a).
The most important tourism institutions representing private-sector interests are the Myanmar
Tourism Federation, the Myanmar Hotelier Association, the Myanmar Travel Association and
the Myanmar Marketing Committee (Oo 2008: 18). In addition to representing the interests of
their own tourism segment, these associations implement promotional activities cooperatively,
make efforts to promote tourism development and provide training and education
opportunities (Mekong Tourism Forum 2011: 2). In doing so, MoHT encourages human
resource development in collaboration with the Ministry of Education, private-sector
representatives and ASEAN. Tourism education is provided in the form of hotel staff training,
guide training courses and licensing, sustainable tourism development courses and a diploma
course in tourism management studies (Ibid.: 7ff.).
The Ministry of Hotels and Tourism is the guiding institution with regard to tourism
development-related issues in Myanmar, and although regional and local representations do
exist, the Ministry has a centralized structure (Oo 2008:18).
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4.2.3 Outlook: Efforts to Promote Responsible Tourism Development
In response to the transformation of the country and the resulting increases in tourist arrivals,
MoHT is paving the way for responsible tourism development. The rationale behind the
current efforts is that “the Ministry also recognizes that the success of rapid tourism
development would not only have a boost on the sector and create a swift economic
development, but that it would also have challenges in the long-term success for sustainable
tourism development in the country” (MoHT 2012b: 4).
In recent months, MoHT, in collaboration with MTF and HSF, has initiated coherent
processes directed at responsible tourism practices and goals. The first step was to hold a
Tourism Working Group meeting in November 2011 with representatives from MoHT,
PATA, GMS and ADB, international experts and national tourism stakeholders to discuss
future directions of the industry.
In February 2012 the Nay Pyi Taw Responsible Tourism Statement was prepared at a three-
day conference, by which national tourism stakeholders expressed their commitment to
tourism development with sustainable development goals (Häusler 2012). The participants
agreed on four general objectives:
(1) Establishment of a policy to create clear guidelines and define the responsibilities
of the involved parties;
(2) Creation of formal training and education opportunities for the hospitality and tour-
ism sector;
(3) Creation of informal training opportunities for local communities to raise awareness
on tourism benefits and costs, and to encourage local involvement (CBT, supply
chain management);
(4) Implementation of regular stakeholder meetings (Ibid.: 6).
Another step towards sustainable development was the preparation of the Myanmar Respon-
sible Tourism Policy in May and June 2012, which was based on participatory information-
gathering workshops involving nearly 350 public and private stakeholders from Yangon,
Ngwe Saung, Bagan, Inle Lake and Kyiang Tong (MoHT 2012b: 5). The policy contains a
strategic vision, nine overall aims and 58 concrete action points for the achievement of sus-
tainable tourism practices.
The strategic vision to be followed by the guidelines of the policy takes into account the im-
provement of living standards, the economic empowerment of local communities, the conser-
vation of cultural and natural resources and responsible behaviour of all tourism stakeholders:
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Transformation
“We intend to use tourism to make Myanmar a better place to live in – to provide more
employment and greater business opportunities for all our people, to contribute to the
conservation of our natural and cultural heritage and to share with us our rich cultural
diversity. We warmly welcome those who appreciate and enjoy our heritage, our way of
life and who travel with respect” (MoHT 2012b: 6).
Nine guiding aims and related action points support this vision and provide directions for the
practical implementation of responsible tourism practices in Myanmar:
(1) Tourism is a national priority sector;

(2) Broad based local social economic development;
(3) Maintain cultural diversity and authenticity;
(4) Conservation and enhancement of the environment;
(5) Compete on product richness, diversity and quality – not just on price;
(6) Ensure health, safety and security of our visitors;
(7) Institutional strengthening to manage tourism;
(8) A well trained and rewarded workforce;
(9) Minimizing unethical practices (MoHT 2012b).
The focus of the Responsible Tourism Policy for Myanmar being on the responsibilities and
roles of tourism stakeholders, tasks are defined for every action point according to focal, advi-
sory and liaising roles and general support. In addition, the document provides guidelines for
the evaluation and monitoring of tourism development.
The Responsible Tourism Policy for Myanmar will serve as the framework for further steps
towards sustainable tourism development and it will provide the basis for the National
Tourism Master Plan, which is to be published in 2013, as well as for related regional
development strategies (MoHT 2012b: 26).
In October 2012 MoHT, MTF and HSF in cooperation with the Thailand-based NGO
Tourism Transparency published the cartoon booklet “DOs & DON’Ts for Tourists – How
you can visit Myanmar responsibly” (HSF et al. 2012). These guidelines for visitors intent to
create relationships “with local communities [that] will be friendly, more understandable and
beneficial for all” (HSF et al. 2012: 3).
4.3 Summary: Interrelations of Development and Tourism in Myanmar

It remains to be seen if Myanmar’s tourism stakeholders will be able to translate these efforts
into practice, and if so, how and to what extent. After all, the country is experiencing political,
economic, social and environmental changes, all of which it must handle simultaneously. In
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Transformation
the upcoming years, the country may also be overrun by international investors who are
looking for quick money.
This chapter has shown that Myanmar’s political situation has a strong influence on the stage
of national and tourism development. Political and economic opening and stability are thus
critical prerequisites for the country’s transformation to democracy, the improvement of the
well-being of Myanmar’s population and the growth of international tourism.
Key success factors for the country to develop are its resource richness and its strategic
location in the heart of Asia. However, the preservation and efficient utilisation of Myanmar’s
resources in particular is regarded as both a challenge and an advantage for the country in its
efforts to pave the way for sustainable development. Further, the strong dependence of the
majority of Myanmar’s population on the agricultural sector makes the sustainable use of re-
sources an imperative, now and in the long term.
Despite a low unemployment rate of 1.7%, poverty is widespread throughout the country due
to low returns to work resulting from very low education levels and a very small educated
workforce. In order to address these challenges, the quality of and access to education must be
improved, especially for the rural population, and additional or more efficient income sources
for rural communities should be found.
The considerations regarding tourism in Myanmar in this chapter show that the country
experienced enormous increases in international tourism arrivals in 2011/12 and is expected
to experience even higher growth rates in the upcoming years. There are few well-developed
mature tourism destinations, but on the whole tourism in Myanmar is undeveloped and the
industry consists of a very small number of stakeholders, resulting in large gaps between
tourism demand and supply.
The greatest challenge with regard to tourism development will be to deal with the ever-
increasing flow of international arrivals because soon the quantity and quality of the tourism
infrastructure, transport facilities, opportunities to purchase tourism-related goods and ser-
vices, and the available human resources will no longer be able to satisfy the demand.
As Chapter 3 has shown, community participation is a potential facilitator of the sustainable

development of the tourism industry. A broad involvement of communities may thus be a
solution to capacity shortage because it can promote the diversification of local economies,
benefit from synergy effects, enhance resource utilisation, organizational efficacy and local
capabilities, and effect economic and social empowerment.
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Transformation
In Myanmar, this would require the establishment of mechanisms to spread tourism further
throughout the country (provided that regional stability and security can be maintained), par-
ticularly to rural areas, to establish strong linkages to agricultural producers, to encourage
external intervention in the areas of finance and technical advice and to encourage the broad-
base development of an educated workforce.
The following chapter investigates these interrelations between community participation and
tourism development from the perspective of Myanmar. To this aim, a qualitative analysis is
provided which focuses on tourism stakeholders’ perceptions of and attitudes towards this
topic.
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5 Stakeholder’s Perspective on Community
Participation and Responsible Tourism
Development
5 Stakeholder’s Perspective on Community Participation and

The analyses and findings in this chapter are based on exploratory field research carried out in
May and June 2012. The author accompanied the national process of formulating the
Responsible Tourism Policy for Myanmar and conducted expert interviews with a special
focus on the respondents’ perceptions and expectations of responsible tourism, community
participation and tourism-related transformation.
The following section is a detailed description of the interview analysis process and the util-
ized GABEK methodology. The respondents’ perceptions and expectations of tourism devel-
opment, responsible tourism and community participation are investigated based on this
methodology. In addition, this chapter focuses on how the concepts of community
participation and responsible tourism are perceived by the stakeholders interviewed, as well as
on the influences and impacts of selected aspects of Myanmar’s tourism industry.
5.1 Methodology: Qualitative Case Study Research Using GABEK
To gain an in-depth understanding of tourism stakeholders’ expectations and perceptions of

community participation and responsible tourism in Myanmar, this study uses a qualitative
research approach. Qualitative research is defined as a
“multi method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to subject

matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of the meaning people
bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety
of materials – case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview,
observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts – that describe routine and
problematic moment and meaning in individual lives” (Denzin and Lincoln 1994: 2).
Qualitative research methods are identified as appropriate tools because the focus of the pre-
sent investigation is on stakeholders’ perceptions of and their attitudes towards community
participation in Myanmar and thus aims to analyse and interpret the meaning of this term from
the perspective of stakeholders in Myanmar.
This study employs an expert interview approach. This approach, “unlike questionnaire-based
interviewing which tends to be shallow and rigid, probes more deeply and allows for explana-
tions from respondents without necessarily jeopardising the goal of research” (Veal 1997,
cited in Manyara and Jones 2007: 634).
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However, in the literature, qualitative research methods and the associated tools are discussed
critically. In contrast to quantitative methods, they suffer from the absence of standardisation
in the research process. This presents the challenge of having to meet research-accredited
criteria such as validity, reliability and objectivity (Flick 2008: 192; Kelle 2007: 28). The pre-
sent investigation puts this criticism into perspective by using theoretical sampling during
data collection and the GABEK methodology during data analysis. Both these methodologies
ensure traceability and comprehensiveness.
Data collection
Semi-structured expert interviews were conducted to gain focused and detailed insights into
Myanmar’s tourism industry. Open-ended interview guidelines ensured the comparability of
the answers (see Annex 3). The interview guidelines consisted of nine open-ended questions
concerning four specific issues:
(1) Personal background in tourism;

(2) Tourism development in Myanmar since the country’s first efforts to open up in
2011;
(3) Community participation and responsible tourism;
(4) Expectations with regard to tourism development in Myanmar in the future.
The selection of interviewees was exploratory and opportunistic in nature. Unlike quantitative
research methods, qualitative research aims to achieve qualitative representation rather than
statistical representativeness (Kruse 2011: 86). Therefore, the investigation does not focus on
the quantity of instances of a particular type in reality but on the structure of the specific fea-
tures of a type (Ibid.).
From a scientific point of view, two different sampling strategies are used when applying
qualitative research methods: theory-based sample-setting before the research begins and
theoretical sampling between research processes. Both strategies are based on the principle of
maximum structural variation (Kleining 1982, cited in Kruse 2011: 87). In theoretical sam-
pling, the variation of respondents’ features (living conditions, age, income) benefits the
sample’s heterogeneity and thus its ability to represent a research field (Kruse 2011: 87). With
regard to the present investigation, other features of the interviewees than those described
become relevant.
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Accordingly, the interviewees were selected based primarily on their professional background
in Myanmar’s tourism industry. Interviews were conducted with representatives from the pri-
vate tourism sector, the public sector, NGOs and education and training institutions.9
In addition, the interviewees were classified according to their primary geographical area of
operation (developing destination, mature destination, throughout the country without further
specification) and their position in the business or organization. Table 8 below shows the
structure of the sample.
Table 8: Structure of the interview sample.
Category Expression Share
Accommodation unit 16%
Tour operator 24%

Transport company 8%
Tour guide 4%
Professional
Restaurant 4%
Background
Public sector 12%
NGO 20%
Education and training 12%
total 100%
Throughout the country 42%

Mainly in major tourism destinations 33%
Area of Operation
Mainly in developing tourism destinations 25%
total 100%
Owner/entrepreneur/freelancer 58%
Senior management 25%
Function
Middle management 17%
total 100%
Source: Own elaboration.
This sample only reflects a certain part of Myanmar’s tourism industry. It cannot reflect the
entire tourism sector’s perceptions and expectations with statistical reliability. Nevertheless,
9
Although more than half of the participants of the working sessions were representatives from the public sector,
they represent only twelve per cent of interviewees. It was the author’s feeling that the public sector
representatives were somewhat reluctant to participate in the expert interviews.
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thanks to theoretical sampling and the resulting structural variation, the sample can reflect the
selected part of Myanmar’s tourism industry and so the interviews provide a valuable basis
for data analysis using GABEK.
Data analysis
The computer-aided qualitative research method GABEK and the related software WinRelan
are tools for the holistic processing of (linguistic) complexity. Here, the focus is on the analy-
sis, organization, processing and presentation of verbal data to provide an understanding of
complex situations and to identify possible aims, goals and measures (Zelger 2004: 3). The
method also aims to encourage consensual problem solving or conflict resolution and can thus
“be applied as a decision support tool in practice” (Pechlaner and Volgger 2012: 4). GABEK
groups answers by topics, the systematic organization of coherent thoughts and their synthesis
and thus “does not bother so much about the who but rather about the what” (Pechlaner and
Volgger 2012: 9).
The steps of analysis include coding, data processing and data interpretation. After the tran-
scription of the recorded interviews, the textual data are divided into short sections referred to
as ‘text units’ or ‘sense units’. These units are defined as “meaningful, coherent thoughts
which present a comprehensive text containing at least three and at the most nine relevant
lexical concepts” (Zelger 2004: 12). Several steps of coding are conducted for each text unit,
as illustrated in Table 9.
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Table 9: Steps of interview analysis with WinRelan.

Degree of
Step of analysis Support by software Underlying rules
automation
Coding done without interpre-
1. Coding
tation
Length of the text units de-
Manual definition of text
pends on semantic meaningful-
a. Definition of units; display of each
No ness and the number of
text units text unit on an index
keywords used within a state-
card
ment (limited to 9)
Text units coded with a set of 3
Manual definition of
to 9 keywords that semantically
keywords; display of the
can stand on their own (each)
identified keywords in
and (as a set) are suited to rep-
b. Object- the same index card as
resent the core message of the
linguistic Low the underlying text unit;
text unit; keywords inductively
coding a list of previously de-
developed and remaining
fined keywords helps
within the respondents’ lan-
avoid synonyms and
guage; synonyms and
homonyms
homonyms avoided
Manual definition of
positive (+) or negative
(-) evaluations (binary
coding) for each key-
Respondents’ articulated
word, distinguishing
c. Coding of evaluations identified: posi-
No evaluations of bygone,
evaluations tively or negatively evaluated
current and target situa-
keywords marked as such
tion; display of the
evaluated keywords on
the same index card as
the underlying text unit
Display of the causally
coded keywords on the
same index card as the Implied influences and causal
underlying text unit; for relationships in the respon-
each pair of keywords dents’ statements identified:
d. Causal coding No
within a text unit, it is stated direct and inverse
possible to code direct relationships between
and inverse relationships keywords marked as such
(binary coding on a ma-
trix of keywords)
Number of (positive/
negative) evaluations Keywords categorized as basic
and (ingoing/outgoing) values, goals, measures, or ba-
causal relations is sic conditions and constraints;
e. Coding of rele- Low to
displayed for each several formal and content-
vancy Medium
keyword as a support to related rules exists for each
categorization, which category (for a full list of rules,
must be done manually see Buber and Kraler, 2000)
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Degree of
Step of analysis Support by software Underlying rules
automation
2. Data processing Interpretation clearly separated
and interpretation from coding
Keywords with coded object-
Interactive generation linguistic connections to a cen-
a. Display of
and display of associa- tral term; selection of keywords
association High
tion graphs based on the based on the research questions
graphs
object-linguistic coding and the number of underlying
text units
No predefined rules; good
b. Interpretation practice to derive a definition
of association No No of a concept based on stable
graphs connections to the research
questions
Interactive generation
Keywords with coded causal
and display of causal net
relations function as nodes, the
graphs based on the
coded causal relations define
c. Display of coding of causal rela-
the link and the direction of the
causal net High tions (links) and the
relationships; selection of key-
graphs coding of relevancy
words based on the research
(type of nodes); all inter-
questions and the number of
views are thrown to-
underlying text units
gether
No predefined rules; good prac-
d. Interpretation
tice to define some higher-order
of causal net No No
categories and assess patterns
graphs
based on the research questions
Source: Adapted from Pechlaner and Volgger (2012: 9).
One of the subjects of this study being tourism development in Myanmar over time, the
perceptions and attitudes of the respondents are analysed for different periods of time. There-
fore, for the evaluation of situations, a distinction is made between past, present (starting with
the reformation process in 2011) and target (i.e. future) developments. In Section 5.2.1, this
coding of evaluations is applied to provide a first overview of the respondents’ perceptions of
tourism development in Myanmar. In addition, aspects and issues associated with positive and
negative perceptions are described.
Sections 5.3 and 5.4 contain a detailed analysis of the terms ‘responsible tourism’ and
‘community participation’ to provide an understanding of these concepts from the perspective
of stakeholders in Myanmar. Generally speaking, GABEK is a useful tool to display the
meaning of a term in that it synthesises connections between the respondents’ expressions
(Zelger 2002: 70). Association graphs are used to illustrate connections between a central
term and key expressions that are most frequently associated with it in the underlying text
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units, and thus to derive a definition of the central term as perceived by the respondents. As
previously mentioned, this approach is employed to investigate the concepts of responsible
tourism (Section 5.3.1) and community participation (Section 5.4.1) from the perspective of
stakeholders Myanmar.
Cause-and-effect relations of selected terms are analysed to identify concrete measures and
implications with regard to community participation and responsible tourism development in
Myanmar. Based on causal coding, variables that influence and are influenced by a central
term are investigated. The causal net graph displays perceived cause-and-effect relations, with
a distinction being made between favourable and unfavourable effects, as well as between
different relationships of effects.10 The causal expressions are divided into four subcategories:
(1) Basic values and ethical ideals: build the framework for the development of mis-
sion statements and for orientation purposes;
(2) Goals: support the basic adjustment and justification of projects;
(3) Measures: have concrete implications;
(4) Conditions and constraints: indicate limitations and the framework of implementa-
tion (Zelger 2004: 37).
This holistic analysis allows the author to derive context-specific implications. Again, this
approach is applied to the concepts of responsible tourism (Section 5.3.2) and community
participation (Section 5.4.2), but also to the general investigation of tourism development in
Myanmar (Section 5.2.2) and the analysis of selected key issues (Section 5.5). These issues
are derived with regard to their stressed relevance in this study and include capacity, coopera-
tion and education.
5.2 Tourism Development in Myanmar

Based on the GABEK-aided interview analysis, an overall picture can be developed of how
the respondents perceive the transformation and the development of tourism. According to the
interviewees, the current process of political and economic opening already has an influence
on the country’s development, albeit not on a large scale: “I think one could say that there
have been changes since last year, but things are changing slowly” [B03]. Indeed, modifica-
tions to and reforms of a country’s economic, political and social systems require gradual
10
Positive relationship: an increase of variable A leads to an increase of variable B; negative relationship: an
increase of variable A leads to a decrease of variable B.
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reorganization. “For the first six months, things seemed to be the same, but all of a sudden
things started to change. Because it takes time. It takes time to get things organized” [A20].
5.2.1 Evaluation of Change
In addition to the above considerations by Myanmar respondents, Figure 6 displays the over-
all evaluation of tourism development in connection with the transformation of Myanmar with
respect to the past, present and target situations.
Figure 6: Respondents’ evaluation of past, present and target situations.

Source: Own illustration.11
According to the respondents, the predominately negative perception of past developments in

Myanmar (72.7%) is based on political conditions and constraints to development. The five
factors most frequently associated with negative views are the political situation in the past,
“Boycott Myanmar” campaigns, corruption, international sanctions and the lack of job op-
portunities. Positive perceptions of the past were related to measures and intrinsic values such
as compromise, tangible contributions to communities and personal value.
The present situation is considered to be positive in 47.1% of expressions. This is explained

by the ongoing change and the country’s opening, joint efforts to achieve responsible tourism
development initiated by MoHT and MTF, collaboration with ASEAN member countries and
increased cultural exchange. However, interviewees already perceive some negative impacts
of the transformation, particularly negative economic impacts. One respondent stated, “I feel
that we are in a transition period, we are becoming more commercialized, I would say”
11
Not all situations were evaluated with the same number of expressions. While the present situation of tourism
development and responsible tourism in Myanmar was considered to be positive or negative in 432 cases, the
past and target situations were much less frequently evaluated (110 and 168 times respectively).
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[F77]. Here, factors such as capacity shortage, price increases, competition, greed and con-
flicts between tourism development and communities result in a balanced evaluation of the
present.
The target situation is predominantly viewed optimistically, with 74.3% positive evaluations
of the future, with factors such as cooperation, education, knowledge, community-based tour-
ism and balanced developments mentioned frequently. However, there are also negative ex-
pectations for the future, particularly with regard to impacts of tourism such as exploitation of
natural resources and conflicts arising between the industry and local communities and local
culture and tradition. Issues of accessibility and capacity shortage also cause concerns about
the development of tourism in the future.
In order to gain a more detailed understanding of causal relations in tourism development in

Myanmar and to illustrate implications expressed by the respondents, the following section
examines the outcomes of the interviews using the causal net graph.
5.2.2 Causes and Effects
Various aspects are influenced by transformation and tourism development in Myanmar. For
instance, “we have seen some very positive effects [of the transformation], obviously, in terms
of the amount of revenue for the country and also in terms of giving more and more the local
community more and more opportunities to interact with international tourists” [E13]. Tour-
ism development and transformation are themselves affected by several variables. Figure 7
illustrates these cause-and-effect relations with respect to tourism development.
According to the respondents, several measures are in place to overcome the barriers to de-
velopment. For instance, the more tourism is spread geographically to different destinations,
the more likely Myanmar’s tourism will be able to develop: “For me, if we spread, [...]
tourism can easily extend to 1 million or 1.5 million. We can easily extend on this condition”
[F15]. Several interviewees stated that for this to happen in a sustainable way it would be
appropriate to weigh the conditions and impacts, and one respondent said that “there should
be a balanced development: balanced development of tourism products as well as balanced
development of human resources, balanced development of services” [C75].
Improvement of cooperation may be a suitable instrument to promote tourism development in

Myanmar as well. This includes cooperation both among tourism stakeholders in Myanmar
and across borders. In particular, given that tourism stakeholders “cooperate and collaborate
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with the leading countries [of GMS and ASEAN] [...], there will be time for Myanmar to learn
about tourism development and management and implement it in the country itself” [C45].
Other solutions recommended in this context are encouraging local enterprises and local
ownership by establishing community-based tourism goods and services and improving ac-
cessibility to rural areas. The interviewees also realise that community participation is another
variable that is influenced by the stage of tourism development because a growing industry
also provides a growing number of opportunities for communities to get involved.
Figure 7: Causal net graph: Tourism Development Myanmar.

(According to the respondents; all relationships are supported by at least one text unit.)
Large-scale campaigns to promote tourism may lead to tourism development and the Visit
Myanmar Year 1996 may have resulted in increases in the number international tourist arri-
vals, but this measure is perceived to have negative and unfavourable effects. The campaign is
associated with the displacement of local communities and very limited benefits for the broad
base of the country and is therefore considered harmful.
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Finally, tourism development in Myanmar is interrelated with the intended goals of commu-
nity development, education and the creation of job opportunities. One respondent described
this as follows: “It is beautiful because this is a new business, a new career for them which
never existed before. They were farmers, they were coconut plantation workers and they were
simple fishermen. [...] But from this, we have developed tourism careers, hotelier career. This
is very interesting” [A44].
5.3 Responsible Tourism in Myanmar

On the initiative of MoHT and MTF, Myanmar’s tourism industry has paved the way to
responsible tourism development in the form of the Responsible Tourism Working Week in
February 2012 and the national process of formulating the Responsible Tourism Policy for
Myanmar in May and June 2012. The following section analyses how the concept of respon-
sible tourism is understood and how the causal relations are expressed in the expert inter-
views.
5.3.1 An Approach to a Definition
The features most frequently associated with responsible tourism include inherent character-
istics of the country that are related to the stage of development and its cultural and natural
diversity, the impacts of tourism on the natural environment, the role of different stakeholders
and the need to take responsibility. Further, the roles and interactions of local communities,
tourists and local guides are crucial when defining responsible tourism from the perspective of
stakeholders in Myanmar. Figure 8 illustrates these associations.
Figure 8: Association graph: Responsible Tourism.

(According to the respondents; all relationships are supported by at least five text units.)
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When asked how they would define the concept of responsible tourism, several interviewees
stressed the importance of Myanmar’s identity, uniqueness and diversity: “I think responsible
tourism means that the country does not change its unique characteristics, its culture, its re-
ligion, its feel to accommodate tourists. Or else it would lose its identity. I think that is one of
the keys” [F35]. This shows that tourism has impacts on the identity of the country, and vice
versa. Myanmar’s cultural identity is also a source of tourism, although important attractions
have emerged independently of tourism: “When you go the Shwedagon pagoda there are
locals who pray there every day. And they do that regardless of whether the tourists are there
or not” [E44].
In addition to these inherent strengths, underlying texts also considered country-specific

challenges, in particular infrastructure development, safety and security issues.
Preservation, another aspect frequently associated with responsible tourism, is concerned with
the natural environment as a source of development. According to the interviewees, the public
sector must put systems in place which ensure that the environment is protected: “Responsible
not only means giving, but also protecting [...]. Without regulations we will spoil places, our
natural heritage” [A58].
This aspect also involves the responsibilities of private-sector stakeholders. For instance, tour
operators are considered to be in charge of informing and educating clients on environmen-
tally friendly behaviour. Additionally, according to the interviewees, tour guides are of ex-
ceptional importance where responsible tourism practices are concerned because they have
the ability to educate tourists and private-sector operations by providing insights into local
experiences.
In fact, as well as on the duties of the supply side, responsible tourism depends on the behav-
iour of tourists. Consequently, with ongoing efforts being made to establish responsible
tourism, visitors are increasingly required to act responsibly as well: “If people first inform
themselves, they can comply with control norms in the places to which they travel. If they
can’t comply with the cultural norms of a place it doesn’t matter what they do in terms of
donations or activities” [E32]. Visitors cannot act responsibly entirely on their own; rather,
“tourists need channels they can go through” [E79]. According to the respondents, these
channels must be established by the public sector as well as by the private sector.
Supporting communities in rural areas by involving them appropriately is another aspect of

responsible tourism in Myanmar. The interviewees realise that communities and villagers are
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significantly affected by tourism and therefore stress the need to spread benefits to community
levels.
From the above considerations we can derive a definition of the concept of responsible
tourism from the perspective of stakeholders in Myanmar:
Responsible tourism is an approach to tourism that aims to preserve and improve

Myanmar’s cultural and natural identity, which are the key sources of tourism de-
mand. At the same time, this approach involves facing inherent challenges,
particularly infrastructure development, safety and security issues and natural
degradation. Efforts to establish responsible tourism practices in Myanmar must
therefore place special emphasis on responsible and informed interaction between lo-
cal guides, tourists and local communities at the micro-level and on the creation and
implementation of facilitating channels and systems by the public and private sectors
at the macro-level.
Responsible tourism depends on a variety of variables. According to the respondents, it is

generally associated with positive causes and effects, as illustrated in the causal net graph in
Figure 9.
Without exception, causal relations that are connected to the term ‘responsible tourism’ are
of a favourable nature. Moreover, the causal net graph displays what the respondents know
about the theoretical concept of responsible tourism. A significant indicator for this finding
is the respondents’ definition of the approach’s main goals – improvements of living
standards and product quality in tourism. This goes along with the ‘mantra’ of responsible
tourism: “Making better places for people to live in and better places to visit” (ICRT
2012).
As mentioned earlier, national identity (in the sense of a country’s culture and natural
environment) is a basic condition for the implementation of responsible tourism practices
in Myanmar. According to the causal relations shown in Figure 9, responsible tourism
benefits national identity in that it promotes improvement and preservation. It helps
minimise the negative impacts of tourism through awareness-raising and the
institutionalisation of resource utilisation. Given this, tourism stakeholders “have to learn
to use [responsible tourism] and have to use this tool to preserve our place – not only the
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environment but also the culture and other things on which tourism can have an impact”
[B07].
Figure 9: Causal net graph: Responsible Tourism.

(According to the respondents; all relationships are supported by at least two text units.)
According to the interviewees, responsible tourism practices support measures such as

involving all tourism stakeholders in its implementation and encouraging intercultural ex-
change between host and guest communities: “The exchange must occur on both sides, it is
interaction between both sides and both sides must exchange one another” [E35].
The interviewees also believe that the concept encourages the creation of CBT products
and may thus be a useful tool to involve local communities in tourism practices.
5.4 Community Participation in Myanmar

The leading vision of the Myanmar Responsible Tourism Policy is that future directions
should “make Myanmar a better place to live in – to provide more employment and greater
business opportunities to all our people” (MoHT 2012c: 6). The following sections discuss
what integration of local communities in tourism industry means and what aspects influence
it.
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5.4.1 An Approach to a Definition
According to the respondents, key aspects associated with community participation in tourism
include different stakeholders, namely the private sector, local communities and tourists, as
well as conditions such as Myanmar’s inherent characteristics. Other connections identified
related to the stage of tourism development, cooperation, mutual understanding and tangible
contributions of tourism to local communities. Figure 10 displays the aspects the interviewees
associated with the concept of community participation.
Figure 10: Association graph: Community Participation.

(According to the respondents; all relationships are supported by at least six text units.)
When asked about community participation, respondents often mentioned tangible contribu-
tions to local communities, either in terms of employment and income or in terms of
donations and gifts. The most frequently mentioned benefits include money, donations to
schools, monasteries and orphanages, and the provision of community equipment such as
generators and buses. In addition, some respondents recognised the need for a way of support
that goes beyond material contributions: “If you give them a present for Christmas they are
happy for an evening. But to achieve growth, you must give them sustainable facilities. I think
this how we can both benefit” [G40].
Contributions are thus not only connected with donations. Moreover, the responsibilities of
private-sector representatives are clearly identified and recognised: “And the hoteliers also,
they cannot say, ‘OK, out of the revenue, this is the donation money.’ Donations don’t last
very long. And I think their participation, in terms of knowing what they are doing, is very
important” [C73].
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Mutual understanding and community participation are linked associations as well. All stake-
holders involved are required to make efforts to promote understanding. The following text
unit reflects this attitude towards the activities of tourists and the private sector: “Don’t just go
to the festival, for example. Look around and go back. The more tourists see, the more they
want to get involved. They want to understand how it works, the beliefs, how it all developed.
This we can only give by the way of community participation in the day-to-day business”
[G45].
Further, communities’ understanding of the tourism industry is associated with their

participation: “They do understand the term ‘tourist’ because you can tell who’s a foreigner.
But I am a tourist also if I move from one place to another. Community participation is im-
portant” [C67].
Understanding and cooperation are identified as important prerequisites for and outcomes of
involvement. However, genuine participation in tourism processes is unlikely to be achieved,
because the stakeholders concerned “want that participation. But, even at Inlay or in Bagan, I
don’t see any real community participation. It is actually always a separation line between
the tourists and the community” [F45].
From this we can derive the following definition of the concept of community participation
from the perspective of stakeholders in Myanmar:
Community participation is closely linked to Myanmar’s inherent characteristics

and stage of tourism development. Key characteristics are awareness and
understanding at all levels involved. Involvement is thus closely related to coop-
eration and strong linkages for interaction between local communities, the private
sector and tourists. Because the concept of participation in tourism is particularly
associated with employment and the implementation of goods and services, it
benefits local communities primarily in terms of tangible improvements and
financial contributions.
“If you don’t have any sort of community participation, community support or community
involvement you are basically visiting a museum” [E38]. This statement reflects the various
influences involvement of local communities can have on tourists’ experiences. In addition, a
number of favourable and unfavourable effects are linked to the concept of community par-
ticipation in Myanmar, as illustrated by the causal net graph in Figure 11.
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Figure 11: Causal net graph: Community Participation.

(According to the respondents; all relationships are supported by at least two text units.)
Underlying values that affect community participation can be either facilitating or hindering.
According to the interviewees, most supportive values are seen in local tradition and mutual
understanding. Understanding addresses the community in particular: “So, community
participation, unless they understand what tourism is, how can they participate” [C66].
Conversely, community participation also promotes understanding. Therefore, creating an
understanding through cooperation and interaction is an important issue. In fact, rural
communities “never experienced the steady income from tourism. They never understand
what it means. What you need to do is, you have to come to the villages and talk about tour-
ism” [B68].
Reluctance to participate is considered a hindering value. One interviewee noted that

“sometimes there is a cultural reluctance to share, especially something that might be seen as
poor” [E47]. As already stated in the theoretic discussion of the socio-cultural dimension of
community participation in Section 3.2.3, tourism goods and services must be developed to
suit local conditions and cultural identity. Consequently, plans to involve local communities
in Myanmar must take the above-mentioned aspect of reluctance and its underlying reasons
into consideration.
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Another aspect that should be mentioned here is that restrictions, particularly restrictions to
homestays and tourism in several areas, can limit the broad-based involvement of local com-
munities in tourism. One respondent mentioned that “we would love to have more homestays,
but they’re usually illegal. In some areas you just can’t stay overnight” [E65].
Moreover, limits are defined by the political situation in the past and its influences on the
present, as well as by widespread poverty. It therefore depends on “the situation; the political
situation makes our people too poor. So, with that problem, we can’t make any further steps
[towards CBT]” [C20]. This raises the question of whether tourism development can improve
the living conditions of the poor: “These rural areas, they need basic education, health care,
electricity, clean drinking water. And how tourism is supposed to bring these things to those
areas, I really don’t know” [E67].
Knowledge is an important facilitator because it provides the framework for the suggested
measures: to establish CBT projects, improve cooperation and make balanced tangible contri-
butions.
As a result, political stability, CBT and homestay licences, balanced industrial development
adapted to local conditions, education to promote understanding and tourism-related
knowledge, and contributing to the individual and community levels to fight poverty all po-
tentially result in greater involvement and benefits for local communities in Myanmar.
5.5 Selected Issues Facing Myanmar’s Tourism Industry

The following section investigates three key issues of Myanmar’s tourism industry: capacity
shortage, education and cooperation.
5.5.1 Capacity Shortage
In view of the poor tourism infrastructure and large increases in the number of international
tourist arrivals, capacity shortage is a serious issue that affects tourism development and
product quality in Myanmar. This is true for the technical aspects as well as the organizational
aspects of the tourism infrastructure: “The private sector is being overwhelmed and is not
prepared in the sense that they don’t have a system in place” [E21]. Figure 12 illustrates
cause-and-effect relations in connection with capacity shortage, allowing for further
investigation of this phenomenon.
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Figure 12: Causal net graph: Capacity Shortage.

According to the respondents, capacity shortage results from the transformation of the coun-
try, which leads to significant growth in tourism demand. At the same time, speculation on
land limits opportunities for capacities to be improved.
For instance, in Bagan, where land zoning regulations are in place which divide the area into
archaeological zones and hotel or extension zones, speculation on land is a problem. One
respondent describes this as follows: “The fourth extension zone is in that direction, they only
have two hotels, the rest are all occupied, all have been bought, but nobody builds in them”
[D19]. Although suggested measures include land-use zoning to address capacity shortage,
the above statement illustrates how important it is to actually implement existing regulations.
The existing transport system in general and domestic aviation in particular is another con-
straint to capacity development. Therefore, tourism must be spread geographically to new
destinations to relieve (air) traffic and to prevent overbooking. The aim of tourism
development is expressed in the following statement: “My wish is, of course, I want more
tourists and I want that people see the beautiful country. But it isn’t quite ready yet. It doesn’t
have enough hotels, nor does it have enough planes for domestic flights” [D86].
In conclusion, the public sector in particular must create an environment that regulates the
sustainable utilisation of land and tourism services by establishing and implementing land-
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Development
zoning regulations, by supporting activities for the development of new tourist destinations
and by encouraging private-sector investments in accommodation and transport infrastructure.
5.5.2 Education
As discussed in the country profile for Myanmar (Section 4.1), the country has a low level of
education and a small educated workforce. It is unclear whether or not – and, if so, how –
tourism can support national education systems. However, there are interrelations with tour-
ism development which are likely to be associated by the respondents in the context of
community participation in tourism.
Unlike most cause-and-effect relations concerning other terms investigated in this study, in-
fluences on education are invariably favourable. Figure 13 illustrates these dependencies.
Figure 13: Causal net graph: Education.

Education, which is considered to be one goal of sustainable tourism practices, is aligned with
the aims of employment, national development and tourism development. Therefore, creating
awareness is crucial. One respondent stated, “Let those in the community who understand
tourism tell people about the negative impacts of tourism, and also let them make them aware
of the positive effects” [C76].
Implications for education improvement mentioned in the interviews include the balancing
and sharing of benefits and responsibilities, community participation in tourism and the
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Development
commitment of NGOs. However, according to the respondents, the duties of NGOs are less
about tourism than about the establishment of basic facilities for water supply, health care and
education. Consequently, NGOs play a supporting role in the improvement of education in
connection with community participation in tourism.
Depending on the cause-and-effect relations, the private and public sectors must take the
leading role in addressing this issue. The private sector can help improve the level of
education of local communities by creating job opportunities and by providing informal in-
house training. The public sector can support this tourism-driven improvement of education
through efforts to balance the benefits and costs of tourism in an equitable way at the
individual and the community level. The public and private sectors must focus on various
forms and levels of participation of community members. This requires involvement during
different stages of tourism planning and management and at different power levels – from
passive participation to self-reliant action. Again, awareness of local conditions and constrains
as well as of the impacts and limits of tourism development is an important framework
condition.
5.5.3 Cooperation
Cooperation, teamwork, synergy and the involvement of all stakeholders are important as-
pects of responsible tourism and community participation. The investigations of the causal
relations in tourism development in Myanmar have even shown that cooperation is the key
instrument to use here.
However, during the interviews, there were also some respondents who expressed perceptions
of cooperation such as this: “People from Myanmar are not very good at teamwork. Team-
work is only good in monasteries, not in business” [B53]. “Another thing we don’t
understand is synergy: combining the strengths of different aspects” [C31].
Therefore, cooperation in connection with community participation is investigated from the

perspective of stakeholders in Myanmar. The relevant cause-and-effect relations are displayed
in the causal net graph in Figure 14.
According to the respondents, intrinsic values such as Buddhism and awareness are support-
ing variables with favourable effects. Even the natural disaster Cyclone Nargis12 and the
widespread poverty are considered to have a positive effect on cooperation in that the
12
In early May of 2008 Cyclone Nargis devastated the Irrawaddy delta region and resulted in economic damage
estimated at $4.1 billion and deaths of more than 138,000 people (UNESCAP 2011: 103).
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Development
suffering has caused people to help each other. One interviewee stated, “After Cyclone Nargis
people started to get used to working together, especially in the Irrawaddy River delta
region” [C24].
Moreover, the facilitating role of NGOs and broad involvement of stakeholders in decision-
making processes are suggested measures to enhance cooperation, according to the
respondents.
However, where there is business, there also is competition. Consequently, competition

among private stakeholders in day-to-day business is one of the key constraints to
cooperation.
Figure 14: Causal net graph: Cooperation.

Cooperation is not only an outcome of several variables; it is also a source. For instance, ac-
cording to the respondents, cooperation between private- and public-sector representatives,
NGOs and community members leads to an efficient organisation of tourism processes.
Stakeholder meetings and participatory planning approaches are appropriate implications sug-
gested by the respondents.
Moreover, collaboration with neighbouring countries (e.g., within ASEAN) may promote the
sustainable development of the country as whole and the tourism industry in particular.
Myanmar should therefore exchange lessons learned with other countries.
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Development
Finally, participatory approaches based on cooperation lead to the empowerment of

stakeholders involved in general and of local communities in particular.
In conclusion, cooperation is a key measure, which has to be considered and pursued by all
stakeholders involved. Although competition within the private sector is a major constraint,
this is an intrinsic characteristic of economic activities and is thus unlikely to be eliminated.
5.6 Summary: Transformation and Community Participation in Tourism

in the Context of Myanmar
The research method applied in this chapter is of an exploratory and qualitative nature.
Consequently, its scientific value relies on the subjective opinions of the respondents as well
as on the author’s interpretations. However, the theoretical sampling of interview partners
based on the principle of structural variation and the systematic analysis of the interviews
using GABEK have ensured the traceability and comprehensiveness of the research process.
The empirical analysis showed that tourism development and transformation are related not
only from a theoretical point of view. In the wake of the country’s economic and political
opening, tourism stakeholders in Myanmar in particular perceive changes on the demand side
which result not only in an increase in the number of tourist arrivals and increasing cultural
exchange but also in capacity shortage and price increases. While significant changes in the
tourism industry have yet to be made, the respondents were very optimistic about future
developments. The sustainable growth of the tourism industry is believed to increase the
country’s well-being through tourism-related infrastructure development, education and
employment.
According to the respondents, Myanmar’s cultural diversity and natural resources are key
conditions for the successful implementation of responsible tourism and community
participation.
The concept of responsible tourism is considered a tool for sustainable development, the aim
of which is to ‘make better places for people to live in and better places to visit’. The general
understanding and awareness of issues of responsible tourism development are believed to
result from activities the public and private sectors implement in this area with international
support. In the future, both the public- and the private-sector representatives must refer to
these successful measures and make further efforts to put efficient systems and channels in
place. In addition, the respondents stated that both sectors must promote mutual
understanding and awareness among all stakeholders involved.
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Development
The concept of community participation is particularly associated with income and employ-
ment generation. Respondents rarely consider community involvement at a self-reliant level.
This may have to do with the existing disparities power and standards of living in the country.
In fact, the former military regime prevented the empowerment of local communities. Still,
there are also power disparities within the industry. The constraints identified include the
dominance of a few major destinations and the small number of private-sector stakeholders.
Lack of motivation is also a potential barrier to community involvement. A comprehensive
analysis of the reasons would go beyond the scope of this study, but they should be
investigated nonetheless.
The analysis presented in this study has shown that the regulatory framework for tourism in
Myanmar, particularly with respect to homestays, prevents community involvement. There-
fore, political stability, CBT and homestay licences and balanced developments adapted to
local conditions are key facilitators of community participation from the perspective of
stakeholders in Myanmar.
In addition to the detailed analysis of community participation and responsible tourism, this
chapter has discussed these issues with a focus on three factors that affect Myanmar’s tourism
industry.
Given that capacity shortage results from gaps in tourism demand and supply in particular, the
public sector must create an environment that regulates the sustainable utilisation of land and
tourism facilities. This includes the establishment and implementation of regulations on land
zoning and supporting activities for the development of new tourist destinations and the
encouragement of private-sector investments in accommodation and transport infrastructure.
The investigation of tourism-driven improvement of education in Myanmar has shown that

both the private and the public sector must take the leading role in addressing this issue – the
private sector by creating job opportunities and providing informal in-house training, and the
public sector through efforts to balance the benefits and costs of tourism in an equitable way
at the individual level and the community level. Moreover, varied community participation,
awareness and understanding are also important facilitators.
Tourism industry can benefit enormously from joint efforts and synergy both within and out-
side the country. From the perspective of stakeholders in Myanmar, cooperation is thus a key
measure that must be considered and pursued by everyone involved.
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6 Conclusion
6 Conclusion
The main purpose of this thesis is to improve our understanding of the interrelations of
community participation in tourism and transformation processes. In attempting to attain this
objective, two approaches have been used: first, based on a systematic literature review, the
state of scientific research in this field has been discussed. Second, the field of research has
been considered empirically using the example of Myanmar, a country which is paving the
way to transformation and whose tourism stakeholders have made efforts towards the
responsible development of the industry. This chapter provides a synthesis of the theoretical
and empirical findings and presents an outlook for future research.
6.1 Central Findings and Implications

In the previous chapters, this thesis has highlighted that the interrelations of transformation
processes and community participation are, to a limited degree, symbiotic. But, because it is
necessary to consider individual contexts of transformation processes and due to the underly-
ing complexity of the concepts of tourism, sustainable development and community
participation, these interrelations are difficult to verify and impossible (or at least
inappropriate) to generalise.
Given this, one could say that there is neither one single answer to the question of how the
stage of development (of tourism and of a country) can benefit community participation. Nor
is there one single way to involve local communities in tourism practices to contribute to
transformation. However, following the aim of sustainable development and an approach to
govern tourism transformation in a responsible manner, some success indicators and implica-
tions that promote long-term growth, empowerment and well-being can be identified.
As outlined in the theoretical discussion, tourism is seen as a driver of economic development

because it contributes to the balance of payments, the diversification of economies and em-
ployment, particularly in developing countries. This thesis has also shown that in reality these
benefits are rather small due to leakages of tourism expenditure to external stakeholders, the
dominance of a few elite groups and the creation of jobs the majority of which are of a low-
paid and inferior nature. Therefore, the central question in every destination should be: How
to create mechanisms and systems which are aligned with economic development goals and
contribute to overall change as well?
Community participation has been regarded a means to achieve this for a long time because it
is associated with fewer power disparities amongst stakeholders and increased opportunities
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6 Conclusion
for economic benefits of local communities – in short, with social, institutional and economic
empowerment. Again, there is a gap between theory and practice. In reality, this approach
usually manifests itself in the form of passive involvement of community members in tourism
practices.
The theoretical discussion of community participation in tourism has also outlined that a high
degree of participation (including autonomous self-reliance) requires several conditions to be
met that do not necessarily exist in local communities, first and foremost capacities and
capabilities. Because the present discussion of community participation particularly addresses
developing and transformation countries (i.e. countries that are, by definition, in a process of
advancing their status), the question arises whether the aforementioned fact of low involve-
ment is a barrier to or just a necessary prerequisite for an advanced stage of involvement.
Further, the analysis has identified four dimensions (economic, environmental, socio-cultural,
organisational) of the field of research which have to be considered as interrelated elements
and which imply specific success indicators for the involvement of local communities:
 Economic empowerment addressing individual and community levels,

 Environmental awareness as the prerequisite for the appreciation, preservation and
efficient utilisation of resources,
 Social cohesion based on local identity, equity and interaction,
 Organisational efficacy through the institutionalisation of cooperation and power
distribution.
However, not every dimension has the same implications. While the greatest benefits of
community participation in tourism seemingly appear in economic aspects that also promote
the development of communities, the greatest risk identified is the degradation of the envi-
ronment and the traditional culture because the growth of tourism in peripheral areas often
goes hand in hand with the exploitation of these vulnerable assets. Equitable and efficient
distribution of power within the organisational dimension represents the biggest threat to
communities to get involved and for tourism development to benefit from this involvement.
These findings also illustrate the complexity of the field of research and the necessity of
holistic approaches in practice.
Myanmar is on the way to such a holistic approach to managing responsible development in

tourism. Since efforts have been made to open up the country in the form of economic and
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6 Conclusion
political reforms, the country appears to be on a path to democracy and market economy, but
it will be a long way to go.
This thesis has shown that Myanmar’s political situation has a significant influence on the
stage of national and tourism development. Thus, political and economic opening and stability
are critical prerequisites for the country’s transformation to democracy, the improvement of
the well-being of Myanmar’s population and the growth of international tourism. Although
tourism demand has gradually increased since the 1990s and although there have been enor-
mous increases since 2011, tourism in Myanmar is still undeveloped.
In the analysis of the national development and responsible tourism development, a special
focus has been on Myanmar’s unique identity. The country’s rich natural resources are im-
portant catalysts for economic development. At the same time, Myanmar’s unspoilt
landscapes and its cultural diversity are of major importance in attracting tourists.
Consequently, this conflict between the commercial utilisation of natural and human re-
sources to promote economic transformation and their preservation as important assets for
tourism must be faced.
There is an essential need for tourism stakeholders, first and foremost the public and private
sectors, to lobby for and promote the responsible utilisation and preservation of these
resources to other interest groups. Awareness needs to be built among public authorities, other
industries, local communities and tourists, or else the tourism industry will lose its competi-
tive advantage in the long run.
With their efforts to direct the industry towards responsible tourism practices and sustainable
development, the public and private sectors are taking the first steps to face future challenges.
Based on empirical findings, national stakeholders’ awareness of sustainable development
issues and the concept of a collaborative, responsible tourism governance approach is an im-
portant advantage for the future. However, the main threats the case study analysis has identi-
fied include capacity shortage, the low level of education and barriers to cooperation in the
industry.
Few destinations and stakeholders dominate the tourism supply in Myanmar. The main
challenges for the future which result from this concentrated supply arise from a lack of
capacity in terms of human resources, accommodation, transport systems and purchase of
tourism-related goods and services. Moreover, the concentration leads to very limited benefits
at the local and individual levels. This makes the development of the tourism industry an
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6 Conclusion
economic and political issue. In order to make tourism grow, a framework must be established
to spread demand and supply both geographically and organisationally.
The investigation of community participation in tourism in Myanmar has shown that, like
elsewhere, participation in this country is primarily associated with economic benefits and the
passive involvement of the local population. Nevertheless, due to the political situation in the
past, restrictions to tourists on where and how they are allowed to travel and due to the
dominance of a few destinations and stakeholders, tourism is still largely undeveloped and,
from a solely economic point of view, communities actually benefit very little from tourism
development.
The theoretical and empirical findings of this study can be used to derive some key implica-
tions which may pave the way for tourism-driven transformation in Myanmar:
 Development of different forms of tourism at different destinations which create vari-

ous benefits and costs, encourage interaction between tourists and local community
members and truly consider inherent characteristics of the places where tourism oc-
curs;
 Building capacities – tangible (e.g., transport system, hotel construction) and intangi-
ble (e.g., training, education, institutions);
 Mobilisation for external (national and international) intervention for technical and
financial support whilst defining clear exit strategies;
 Establishment of participatory decision-making mechanisms, effective communication
and information systems which enable cooperation between all tourism stakeholders.
Finally, as previously outlined, there is no ‘one model fits all’ solution. But, a process that is
based on long-term justification, transparency, open dialogue, reliability, mutual understand-
ing and participation in tourism has a good chance of improving the well-being of everyone
involved.
6.2 Limitations of the Study and Outlook for Further Research

The results of this thesis raise several issues for future research. As outlined, there is a great
complexity inherent to the concepts of community participation, transformation and
responsible tourism development. This thesis has used two methodologies which aim to
reduce complexity and thus contribute to a general understanding of multifaceted systems and
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6 Conclusion
relations. However, both methodologies lack flexibility and thus only partly allow for a holis-
tic understanding.
Consequently, this thesis can only analyse some of them and attempt to provide further
insights by investigating one selected case. Benchmarking developments in other countries in
transformation could be a means to improve our overall understanding and, although there
will not be one single solution, to identify commonalities and derive success indicators for
action.
Moreover, with regard to the case study on Myanmar, several open questions remain. The
country is highly dynamic – what is true today is not necessarily true tomorrow. Observing
developments over a longer period of time would therefore be interesting as well as relevant.
This thesis has investigated community participation in Myanmar, mainly from a private-
sector perspective. In order to gain a better understanding, a detailed investigation is needed
of the perceptions and attitudes of those most affected (the communities), of those in power
(the public sector) and of those encouraged to bring change (NGOs).
Page | 85
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Page | xxi
Annex
Annex
(1) Systematic Literature Review: Analysis Stage IIII
(2) International Tourist Arrivals in Myanmar 1990–2012
(3) Interview Guideline
Page | xxii
Annex 1: Systematic Literature Review: Analysis Stage III
Relevant key Data type and
Research Main conclusions/recommendations by the
Publication words Regional methodology as Main results
Author(s) Main focus question/objective of authors
Title (as named in Focus described by the (with relevance for the thesis’ research question)
the study (with relevance for the thesis’ research question)
the article) authors
 Township tourism not necessarily adequate
means for local economic development 
investigation of other avenues needed
 Increased promotion of local ownership of
tourism enterprises, local entrepreneurship
and local participation needed
 Briefing of tourists about appropriate behav-
iour towards locals/local culture
 Encouragement of small group travel, tourist
 Gap between demand and supply of township tourism spending, and overnight stays
Rethinking products (quantity & quality)  Responsibilities of the government: broad
township tour-  Low level of transformation in tourism system, low range of strategic interventions such as es-
ism: Towards  Qualitative: share of community-owned enterprises, market entry tablishment of adequate infrastructure, de-
responsible Responsible Structured face- barriers experiences by locals velopment of regulatory framework
Soweto, How can township
tourism devel- Tourism; Responsible to-face and  No significant benefits for local communities due to  Responsibilities of DMOs/local tourism
South tourism contribute to
Booyens opment in South townships; Township telephone inter- control of outsiders (limited contact tourists-locals, authorities: (1) efforts to spread benefits, and
Africa local economic
(2010) African town- visitor de- Tourism views with key low occupancy rates), high share of packaged tours, to manage tourism impacts, (2) enhance co-
development in a
ships. mand; heri- Development stakeholders few donations by tourists for local causes, lack of operation with local communities, tourism
responsible way?
tage; Soweto  Literature re- management and tourism-related skills organisations and private sector, (3) stake-
In: view  Barriers to tourism development: (1) access to fi- holder involvement to decision-making
Development nance, (2) lack of tourism specific infrastructure, (3) process, (4) integration of tourism develop-
Southern Africa poor information and marketing, (4) crime and vio- ment into a broader local economic devel-
lence opment strategy
 Require outsiders to obtain permits when
operating in the community
 Increase interaction tourist-locals e.g., by
offering volunteer work (managed by NGOs)
 Diversification of tourism products by con-
sumer-oriented product development, crea-
tive innovations
 Detailed and sensitive planning crucial aim-
ing for local development
 Qualitative:  Lacking of sharing information due to administrative  Rigid government structures (top-down
Governance Semi-structured, culture (comprises all stakeholders, although NGOs command and control nature) don’t have ca-
Capacity and key-informant had the most complete information) pacity to enable integrated development
Stakeholder interviews  Governing instruments entirely in the hand of state  Greatest obstacle for sustainable tourism
governance To what extend can
Interactions in  Analysis of administration – main aim: remain power of development: socio-political constrains op-
capacity and Coastal coastal tourism be
the Development secondary data influential stakeholders erating on decentralization and participatory
stakeholder Areas in developed and man-
and Management from state agen-  Constraints to development of community-based governance
interactions in Morocco aged in a sustainable
Caffyn and Jobbins of Coastal Tour- cies projects and NGOs due to lack of awareness from  Conflicts in programmes and policies due to
(2003) ism: Examples / connection and Tuni- and integrated way in
 Theoretical local authorities and a lack of social struc- lack of information sharing, of integrated
with Tourism sia countries with cen-
from Morocco background: tures/institutions analysis and reliance on instrumental action
development tralised governance
and Tunisia Kooiman’s con-  Constraints for stakeholder interaction/participation: discouraging participation in governance
and manage- systems and a deficit
cept of (1) high level of hierarchy (inflexibility, time con-  Shift towards sustainable management plans
ment of local democracy?
In: governance suming), (2) bureaucratic structures, (3) power dis- only addresses environment  broader in-
Journal of Sus- capacities and parities, (4) regulatory framework (NGOs) , (5) inter- clusion of social, economic and political as-
tainable Tourism stakeholder service rivalry (private), (6) lack of engagement, (7) pects needed
involvement no community groups in place, (8) lack of human,  More balanced power relations and better
social, capital resources communication systems needed
 Aspects supporting stakeholder interaction (public):  Need for scientific research
accountability, command, close supervision to subor-
dinates
 Perception of tourism impacts (pos: employment, tax,  In industrialized countries, residents request
 Quantitative: standard of living etc. and neg: noise, acculturation, stakeholder collaboration as they are most
Residents atti-  What role do
Sustainable Standardised crime etc.) strongly influences future support for affected by tourism  involvement in plan-
tudes towards residents play in
tourism policy; Attitudes and New questionnaire tourism development ning, implementing and monitoring
sustainable the tourism devel-
community perceptions of Braunfels, survey (430  Strong attitude of a respondent toward CP  less  Long-term planning requires involvement of
Choi and Murray community opment process?
development; locals towards Texas, households) supportive for future tourism development, less likely several stakeholders, government with an
(2010) tourism  Which indicators
resident atti- a sustainable USA  Theoretical to perceive positive impacts, but more likely to per- integral role in determining and implement-
influence their at-
tudes; plan- tourism devel- framework re- ceive its negative impact  attitudes reflect past ex- ing policies
In: titudes towards
ning; structural opment and CP lies highly on periences  Empowerment to meet criticism that CP is
Journal of Sus- sustainable com-
equation model social exchange  Need for involvement of local community in deci- minimal, passive, partial, static and short-
tainable Tourism munity tourism?
theory sion-making process and huge willingness of locals to lived  information, education, training of
participate identified locals, public and private sectors
 In particular poverty and marginalisation
have to be addressed to meet the objectives
of environmental protection of the area as
they are main causes for environmental deg-
radation (e.g., by overfishing)
A Socioeconomic  Adequate provision of alternative economic
Perspective of opportunities, integrated with tourism devel-
Environmental Environmental Kepulauan opment strategies
Intrinsic  Qualitative:
Degradation at degradation; Seribu  Environmental degradation in the case study site is  Provision of a working community educa-
tourism causes Assessment of the Field observa-
Kepulauan Indonesia; Marine caused by (1) social factors such as lack of locals’ tional/vocational facility
of the internal social and economic tions, semi-
Fauzi and Buchary Seribu Marine Kepulauan National participation in governance and lack of effective  Participation  consensus building on
problems from impact establishing structured inter-
(2002) National Park, Seribu, marine Park, communication, and (2) economic factors such as development objectives, decision making at
a socio-eco- marine protected views
Indonesia protected Indonesia demand and supply, human resources, gear produc- a local level, encourage local ownership
nomic per- areas in Indonesia  Analysis of
areas; socio- tivity and employment prospects alike  Training programmes  local employment
spective secondary data
In: economics in tourism industry
Coastal Man-  Limitation of commercial fishing
agement  Provision of opportunities to communities to
learn from other communities’ success sto-
ries
 Enforcement of conservation laws
 Increasing effective communication systems
to all stakeholders
Sustainable De-  Broad involvement of governments at various levels  Although positive impacts have been
velopment of in management issues, top-down achieved, locals don’t experience positive
Eco-Cultural  High level of benefits to local community (tourism developments as a result of the top-down ap-
Tourism in Re- trade – souvenirs, restaurants etc., recreational activi- proach, lack of information and communica-
Lugo
mote Regions: Development Assessment of tour-  Open-ended ties, standards of living) tion between stakeholders
Lake,
Lessons Learned anthropology ism development interviews with  Some locals started tourism programs that fit local  Insufficient local participation and empower-
Gang Southwest
(2011)
from SW China / related to eco-
China
activities and their villagers conditions ment because development did not specify
cultural tour- impacts on all stake-  Analysis of  Improvement of local capacity (infrastructure, roads, how to enhance empowerment
In ism holders’ involvement secondary data sewage system) was addresses by government after  Transparency of government policies and
International first tourism developments have been implemented measures taken related to tourism is crucial
Journal of  Impacts of eco-cultural tourism: development of  Stakeholder theory and approach should be
Business An- agriculture, stock raising, traditional handicraft, other applied by the government to coordinate in-
thropology industries in the study and neighbouring villages terest of all stakeholders
 MOA model acceptable fit to the data  extend to
which community members participate in tourism de-
 MOA model as a succinct framework to
velopment depends on motivation, opportunity, abil-
analyze factors influencing community’s de-
ity
cision to participate and impacts of their
 M: negative relationship: perceived benefits of tour-
participation behaviour contribution to
ism – level of participation  locals do not always
scientific research and to tourism practices in
Testing the participate although they think tourism makes posi-
Integration of the destinations as MOA can be applied to en-
Efficacy of an MOA model, Motivation-  Quantitative: tive contributions;
means (process and able or facilitate CP
Integrative tourism par- opportunity- Charleston, standardised reasons: (1) other factors also influence CP (e.g.,
conditions) and the  Major factor for nonparticipation: lack of
Model for Com- ticipation; ability model South questionnaire costs of participation); (2) contribution to the com-
Hung, Sirakay-Turk ends (outcomes or opportunity  DMOs/local tourism authori-
munity Partici- motivation; as an inte- Carolina, (296 house- munity, not to individuals; (3) lack of interest in par-
and Ingram end results) of CP in ties: public meetings, introduce mechanisms
pation opportunity; grated ap- USA holds) ticipation (local authorities take responsibility  CP
(2010) tourism (analysis promoting CP  communication and infor-
ability; com- proach  Theory relies not necessary)
from the standpoints mation needed
In: munity partici- investigating highly on MOA  O: positive relation between level of CP and openness
of community mem-  Perceived benefits should be personally
Journal of Travel pation CP model of local political structure (in supporting CP in tour-
bers) relevant to community members in order to
Research ism decision-making); top-down governance  lack
increase motivation
of opportunity to CP  esp. in developing countries a
 Other aspects of ability (financial resources,
shift in local political paradigm needed
travel experience, accessibility to informa-
 A: positive relation between awareness/knowledge of
tion) should be taken into account in further
tourism development and CP; various means on a lo-
investigations
cal level (television broadcasting, newspapers, pam-
phlets)
 Negative tourism impacts (crime, tourism harass-
ment) as results of a lack of community involvement
(exclusion through tourism enclaves) and low level
benefits to communities living next to tourism resorts
 Definition as tourism as an economic sector
 Need for a paradigm shift to alternative forms of
needed  appreciation of local authorities of
tourism addressing planning, managing, controlling,
the need for an overall strategic plan and co-
reviewing and decision-making processes
ordination of activities
 Tourism as the most important economic sector in the
 Careful segmentation and niche marketing
Caribbean due to consistent stagnation in other eco-
for market broadening and growth
nomic sectors
 Need for planning of overall infrastructure
 Differentiations of four segments of “community” in
Future Chal- and logistics for resort cities as adequate for
 Analysis of the Caribbean based on their tourism involvement: (1)
lenges for Tour- expanding local communities, additional
secondary data Communities investing in Tourism – leading business
ism in the Future chal- Local inclusion and tourists and new (in-)direct job opportunities
 Theoretical persons and small entrepreneurs, high degree of local
Caribbean lenges of the participation as a new  Government responsible for sustainable
Jayawardena The Car- background: ownerships benefits overall development of these
(2002) / mature desti-
ibbean
paradigm for tourism
Pyramid of economies; (2) Communities of workers directly em-
development (sound environmental man-
In: nation of the development in the agement systems, quality assurance systems)
Tourism Seg- ployed in tourism – confident level, training, cohe-
Social and Caribbean Caribbean and reducing strong dependency on North
mentation siveness of employees, good relationship between
Economic Stud- American feeder market
Model (POTS) management and workers as prerequisites of motiva-
ies  Balance of development and sustainability as
tion and therefore, of success; (3) communities indi-
important strategic goal (moderation, con-
rectly involved but benefiting from tourism – related
trol, co-ordination)
to level of linkage tourism and other economic sec-
 Eco-tourism and special interest tourism play
tors, vending as an important source of income, qual-
a key role in the shift from mass tourism to a
ity of products requires support and technical
more community-oriented approach
expertise from private tourism sector and govern-
 All stakeholders’ involvement required (to
ment; (4) other communities – resentments and hos-
meet on a common platform)
tility from communities within/near tourism centres
not/very little receiving benefits from the industry 
evaluation of community’s sensitivity to the industry
in planning sustainable tourism as an essential policy
goal
 Motivation for communities to encourage in tourism:
job creation, general community development, in-
creased revenue; CBT ensures supplementing of lo-
cals´ income and equitable share of benefits
 Limitations to community approaches: centralised
decision-making and administration, lack of coopera-
tion and coordination between agencies and sectors,
lack of financial and human resources, domination of
community ventures by elite community members
 Success factors of community approaches: empower-
ment, protection of stakeholders’ interests, account-
ability, monitoring/evaluation
 Enhanced inclusiveness: increasing supply of agricul-
tural produce to tourism (awareness-raising/education
to farmers and traders), support for development of
arts and craft (upgrading skills, assisting with access
to loans, marketing support)
Social mediation
Madagas-
in remote devel-
car
oping world  Qualitative: 32  Local attachment to the guide tends to create a local
(remote
tourism locations Role of local/regional interviews with involvement beyond the pure business aspect  Increased use of local guides with strong
Local guides; regions in
– the significance guides as social guides (different  Social involvement (in the field of education and social relationships to host communities 
sustainable developing
of social ties Role of local mediators between regions, con- health) an important element of the guides’ efforts enhance involvement, enrich mutual experi-
development; countries
between local guides in a host society and ducted between  Responsibility of the guide: educate tourists on ence, support local sustainable development
social media- with limited
Jensen guides and host sustainable tourists as a means 2005 and 2008) behaviour, cultural norms, taboos etc  Major catalyst of the commitment to visita-
tion; social tourism
(2010) communities in (participatory) for sustainable  Field trip  Remoteness of communities (linked to accessibility, tion: long-term process of cultivating per-
ties; remote exposure
sustainable tourism devel- tourism development experience and degree of social isolation, missing infrastructure, low sonal trust and familiarity
communities; and poorly
tourism development  emphasis on the observation, level of contact to contemporary society) influences  Tourism growth  degradation of social
developing developed
opment significance of social interviews with motivation to cultivate social ties with the regional depth of host-visitor/host-guide encounters
countries tourism
ties village repre- guide in order to gain welfare benefits possible
structures)
In: sentatives  Social ties as facilitators, not prerequisites
Journal of Sus-
tainable Tourism
 Small scale CBT-projects can empower local commu-
nities by giving them a sense of pride in and aware-
ness of the importance of their natural resources and  Prerequisites for success of CBT projects:
Community-
 Quantitative: control over their development; counterbalance to satisfaction of opinion leaders, secure sup-
based Tourism: Community- Impacts of Why did the commu-
Kimana questionnaire mass tourism port from official leaders, integration of op-
A Factor-Cluster based tourism; CBT projects nity-based tourism
wildlife survey (176  To survive in global competition CBT-projects need eratives (=the general populace)
Segmentation Kenya; Kenya in wildlife project of Kimana not
Kibicho sanctuary, community support – local tourism authority as a significant actor  CBT helps in avoiding stakeholder-conflicts,
Approach wildlife re- reserves on succeed in its objec-
(2008) Kenya members, ran- (e.g., in terms of providing access to financial re- improving coordination of policies and re-
serve; Kimana attitudes of tive of producing
dom sample) sources), local authority as main hindrance lated actions, using synergy effects (knowl-
In: wildlife sanc- local commu- attitudinal changes by
 Literature re-  Lack of leadership structure  lack of mutual respect edge, insights, capabilities), but is hard to be
Journal of Sus- tuary nity members the local community?
view and shared learning between locals and public sector, translated into reality due to power dispari-
tainable Tourism
lack of CP in decision making ties
 Homogenous community  subcategories: the opera-
tives, the opinion leaders, the official leaders
 Community benefits are hindered by inher-
ent sectoral features of tourism (high invest-
ment cost, substantial leakages, knowledge-
intensity, capital-intensity, power/control of
multinational private companies) and rural
community challenges (lack of resources,
Community-  To some extend employment revenue alleviated power, business knowledge)
 Qualitative:
based natural poverty and acts as livelihood diversification strategy  Implementation of linkages with local and
interviews with
resource man- To which degree did in the staff members’ households in the study area domestic economy are identified as a more
Contribution of staff members
agement, poverty Tourism; community involve-  Economic empowerment of communities is in parts effective means and is therefore needed for
CBNRM to and representa-
alleviation and conservation; ment in CBRN met as wage revenues flow from households to transmitting economic benefits to local
sustainable tives from mid-
livelihood diver- community- Ngamiland, (through wage in- greater community, but not extensive, as money stays communities ( local enterprise develop-
Lepper and tourism devel- dle/upper
sification: A case based natural Botswana come and fee reve- mostly within (surrounding) households ment)
Schroenn Goebel opment, local management
study from resource nue) contribute to  Income supports long-term poverty reduction by  Scale and type of tourism directly affect
(2010) poverty alle- level of com-
northern Bot- management poverty alleviation enabling education and local entrepreneurship level of benefits (e.g., high-end tourism 
viation and munity trustee
swana (CBNRM); and livelihood diver-  Impacts of employment limited by capacity con- high share of expenditures leaks to interna-
livelihood initiative
Botswana sification in the study straints within local labour force and a lack of additional suppliers; lower budget tourism  ex-
diversification  8 months of
In: area? tional demand penditure is more likely to support local
field observa-
Development  No contribution through community-based organiza- development)  local capacity building to
tion
Southern Africa tions’ (CBO) fee revenue enable local value creation
 Low efficacy of CBOs  review of manage-
ment structures, building of financial man-
agement capacity of CBOs needed
 Significant tangible benefits from sustainable
use of resources are of importance, their ab-
sence threats to conservation and tourism
 Characteristics of CBEs: (1) community-owned, (2)  External intervention should mainly be advi-
full CP in its development and management, (3) sory and facilitative, avoiding interfering in
communities as the main beneficiaries; (4) purposing community internal affairs
sustainability and enhancing conservation  Integration of sustainability approach to
 Catalysts for establishment: external intervention ensure longevity (esp. clear defined exit
 Literature re- (mainly), community leaders, private sector strategies for outsiders)
Community- view on Kenyan  External intervention: major force behind develop-  Sensitisation and empowerment of local
based Tourism Community- tourism devel- ment of CBEs ( in drafting of proposals, resource communities and their leader to enable in-
Enterprises based tourism;  Development of a opment  case mobilization, awareness creation, funding, capacity formed decisions, secure capacity building
Development in indigenous detailed under- study analysis building, infrastructure development, business plan- and promote transparency
Potential and
Kenya: An tourism entre- standing of CBEs (Kenyan CBEs) ning and development) due to lack of lack of local  Potential benefits are proportional to the
challenges for
Exploration of preneur-ship;  Identification of  Qualitative: knowledge level of local CP
poverty alle- Kenya
Manyara and Jones Their Potential sustainable catalysts for CBE semi-structured  Main reasons for failure of CBEs: (1) lack of commu-  Benefits need to be spread from community
viation by
(2007) as Avenues of tourism devel- establishment interviews with nity support due to inadequate sensitisation during to household level
community-
Poverty Reduc- opment;  Identification of key stake- initial phase, (2) lack of basic skills and knowledge,  Importance of appropriate policy framework
based enter-
tion economic the role and de- holders (3) poor management, (4) unfavourable partnerships, to support CBEs
prises (CBE)
development; gree of external  Theoretical (5) poor leadership, (6) lack of reinvest-  Neo-colonial model in place – whereby
In: poverty reduc- intervention background: ment/maintenance, (7) petty politics, elitism, (8) lack control of tourism resources is vested in the
Journal of Sus- tion participatory of exit strategies for external intervention, (9) lack of hands of a few foreigners
tainable Tourism rural appraisals transparency  CBEs without significant impacts on poverty
(PRAs)  Success factors of CBEs: (1) CP, (2) local ownership, reduction by now – due to reliance on donor
(3) capacity to manage and operate CBEs funding, dependencies are created (which are
 Success indicators: (1) high occupancy rate, (2) high indicators for poverty)
visitor numbers, (3) revenue generation, (4) commu-  CBEs need to emphasise independence,
nities’ development priorities (e.g., access to educa- address local community priorities, enhance
tion, health services, clean water, infrastructure community empowerment and transparency,
development, support of diversified livelihoods) discourage elitism, promote effective com-
 CBEs & poverty reduction: no significant impact on munity leadership and develop community
poverty yet, but potential is seen esp. by enhanced capacity to greatly enhance its impacts on
linkages, generation of employment, increased in- economic development and poverty reduc-
come, CBEs potential as an umbrella for SMTE tion
growth, diversified livelihoods, social development of
communities
 Surveyed case as an exceptional example of a
community with high levels of strong community-
oriented interaction, open communication, participa-
tion, tolerance and distributive justice  key ele-
ments for promotion/establishment of locally driven
goals and actions
 Community agency as the key element en-
 Exchange of ideas, support for adaption of key deci-
hancing a community’s capacity to adapt to
sions, emergence of collaborative organizations 
changing conditions and, at the same time,
interaction/open communication  removal of de-
guide how tourism development is con-
velopment barriers (lack of knowledge, access to in-
ducted in their community
formation, low confidence, limited resources)
 Establishment of community-based produc-
 Broad CP as prerequisite for tourism-driven change
tive, financial and commercial institutions to
 informed decisions reflecting common concerns,
Community accomplish local sustenance and develop-
needs and wants;
agency and Community ment requires economic base (needs the for-
 Varied CP (different CP levels)  capacity for direct
sustainable agency; sus- Investigation of mation of capital)
Achievement change in the community
tourism devel- tainable tour- La For- social processes in  Prerequisites for sustainable community
of sustainable  Qualitative: key  Economic sustainable practices highly depend on
Matarrita-Cascante, opment: the case ism; tuna, which local residents practices: (1) pro-interactional and tolerant
tourism prac- informant inter- access to resources and self-reliance
Brennan and Luloff of La Fortuna, community- Costa Rica engage to achieve attitudes between and within stakeholders;
tices by local views; partici-  Local ownership as facilitator for community control
(2010) Costa Rica based tourism; community agency (2) organizational efforts reflecting intra-
social interac- pant observation  solve common problems (e.g., income distribution,
Costa Rica; La (micro level ap- and intergenerational equity in the use, man-
tional elements poverty, unemployment, extra-local dependence)
In: Fortuna; field proach) agement and distribution of resources
 Direct access to natural resources (land, capital for
Journal of Sus- theory  Facilitator: establishment of community
tourism businesses) associated with improved eco-
tainable Tourism organizations
nomic conditions  community capacity to control,
 Local ownership as a double-edged sword:
manage, respond to tourism-related change in the
decline in CP due to huge efforts necessary
community
maintaining own business
 Community agency  appropriate responding to
 Understanding of historical and culture
increased social problems associated with population
specific elements intrinsic to the community
and infrastructural growth resulted from tourism de-
is key to CP efforts and encouragement of
velopment  benefits for residents and increased at-
different stakeholders
tractiveness for visitors
 Tourism development caused a shift in community
members’ perception of natural environment: from
utilitarian to appreciative  pro-environmental atti-
tudes and actions  sustaining natural amenity-
driven tourism
 Appropriate management of common pool resources
(CPR=resources jointly used by a group of persons)
essential for sustainable development
 Instrument: functional zoning taking into account
different community interests (agricultural, historical
and cultural traditions, religious and native customs,
new economy based on tourism and recreation)
 Prior to conservation efforts (zoning) potential threats
to ecosystems due to growing tourist flows and ab-
sence of special regulation
 Special rules for tourist activities in order to not
exceed carrying capacity of most attractive sites
 Functional zoning plan based on: (1) principle of
Common-pool
investing in natural capital as an operational tool of
resources in Eats  Area for tourism and recreation of mostly
sustainability; (2) principle of responsibility for eco-
Russia: a case local and regional significance  stable but
system integrity
study on the not large financial income from tourism
Common-pool  Declaration of six functional zones: (1) strictly pro-
creation of a new  creation of an institution for community-
resources; Alkhanay Creation and devel- tected zone – conservation of genetic resources; (2)
national park as Management based CPRs governance required financial
Community- National opment of protected protected zone – organized excursions with guides,
Murota and a form of com- and govern- resources  governmental support for the
based govern- Park, areas based on com- Analysis of secon- includes most sacred places and natural monuments,
Glazyrina munity-based ance of local community needed
ance; Alk- Russia munity-based gov- dary data limited entrance; (3) zone for ecological tourism –
(2010) natural resource common-pool  State ownership of natural resources as a
hanay National ernance and bike/horse rides, temporary camps, non-commercial
governance resources necessary but not sufficient condition for
Park; Gold functional zoning fishing are permitted; (4) service zone – includes
successful community-based governance
mining; Russia tourist facilities (restaurants, camps, cottages), ad-
In:  Institutional innovations (responsible man-
ministration office, homes for park rangers; (5) eco-
Environmental agement) crucially significant for sustainable
nomic and recreational zone near local settlements –
Economics and governance of natural resources
under park administration control, local people are
Policy Studies
allowed to cut timber and go hunting (both non-
commercial), collect firewood, berries, mushrooms,
matches local needs while assigning responsibility to
local community for good management of forest re-
sources; (6) agricultural zone – sustainable agricul-
ture under control of park administration
 High investments in park infrastructure (roads, infor-
mation centres...) exceed economic benefits  no
positive impacts on the welfare of the local popula-
tion, yet
 Intrinsic values based on religious and cultural tradi-
tions identified as stronger motivation than economic
revenue
 Tourism can lead to exploitation/destruction of natu-  2 paths to address conflicts culture – tourism
ral environment  alternative forms less impacting industry: (1) formulations of and adherence
Towards a Code  How does tourism
the environment are needed to a corporate code of conduct; (2) use of
of Conduct for development af-
 Relationship locals – tourists depend on different models of morality to aid in solving ethical
the Tourism fect its surround-
types of social, economic, and political development dilemmas
Payne and Industry: An Business ethics ings?
 Literature re-  Understanding of tourism impacts on a culture of  Values action should rely on: justice (e.g.,
Dimanche Ethics Model / in tourism /  What are, there-
view particular importance when industry employs work fairness ,good faith in transactions), integrity
(1996) industry fore, key elements
force from that culture: employees perceiving nega- (e.g., honesty, sincerity, respect), compe-
In: of a code of con-
tive tourism impacts are less likely to provide friend- tence (e.g., degree of capabilities, reliability,
Journal of Busi- duct for the tour-
liness and service quality qualification) and utility (e.g. ,efficacy)
ness Ethics ism industry?
 Local work force mainly in low level positions  Creation of codes of ethics for each eco-
 Responsibility of local government: set a framework nomic element of tourism industry that fit in
that provides training and opportunities for local a larger framework
community members to attain higher level position in  Code of ethics should include: (1) limited
tourism businesses; implement effective guidelines to resources  sustainable economic develop-
assure fairness in hiring both ‘traditional’ and ‘non- ment requires setting limits on growth; (2)
traditional’ (e.g., older people, immigrants, handi- tourism is a community-based industry 
capped people) consideration of socio-cultural costs of tour-
 Responsibility of private sector: fair wage and work ism development; (3) tourism is a service-
contract “Compensation is both as result and cause of oriented industry ethical treatment of em-
productivity” ployees and customers
 Effects of culture on tourism: values as determination
aspects for goals and behaviour to gain social (dis-)
approval; development of social institutions; conven-
tions and practices; set of spoken and body language
of the society
 involvement of community is key to sustainable
development and needed in every planning phase;
 participatory tourism planning as part of the local
consciousness of a destination
 manifestation of CP in political and socioeconomic
activities – direct involvement via committees, work-
shops; indirect involvement through public meetings,
surveys etc.
 CBT as one approach in CP addressing negative
tourism impacts in rural areas
 CBT aims: empowerment to self-reliance, utilisation  Local tourism grows with an increase of
of group processes in decision making, supporting awareness and involvement of locals in their
Community people’s human rights and capabilities, raise income, community planning process
Participation in Interrelation of  Quantitative: improve standards of living  Connections to local mass media supports
a Local Tourism community questionnaire  Main constraints: (1) local’s lack of time for tourism awareness raising for tourism development
Planning Process development survey – house- involvement; (2) limited degree in decision making; issues and private sector networking
community Which are the limits
– A Case Study and tourism Samui holds; descrip- (3) lack of awareness  small number of participants  Replication of the study setting to other
participation, and strengths that
Pongponrat and of Nathon Com- planning/de- Island, tive statistics  not fully represent all community members; (4) communities desirable
community arise from which
Pongquan munity on Samui gree of inten- Thailand  Qualitative: key lack of organisational and management skills  Locals and key stakeholders to involve par-
development, degree of CP within
(2007) Island, Thailand sity of informant inter-  High perceived benefits for locals in different dimen- ticularly in decision making- and monitor-
tourism plan- the tourism planning
participation views; field ob- sions: (1) social: awareness (changing way of life, ing/evaluation phase
ning process process?
In: within the servation, focus tourism impacts, community rights and roles), pro-  Consensus on various development activities
Asia-Pacific process of group discus- motion, preservation and consciousness of local cul- needed
Journal of Rural planning sion ture and tradition; (2) economic: income,  Participatory adjusting of monitor-
Development employment, group strengthening, investment input, ing/evaluation of activities
productivity; (3) institutional: planning and manage-  Identification of specific problems and needs
ment skills, training, capacity building, creating of communities is crucial
strategies, clear roles and responsibilities as well as
cooperation between public sector and community,
power distribution, consensus building; (4) manage-
ment skills in resource utilisation, conservation of lo-
cal environment
 degree of participation in planning process is the
highest in decision making and implementation
 intensity of CP is highly linked to household income
and benefits gained in capacity building
 importance of local leadership
 Establishment of (sustainability-oriented)
 Sociocultural institutions to make participation offers more
Local discourses  Sustainable nature-based tourism can be an important
sustainability of adequate to specific issues
and international facilitator for local community development
tourism perceived  Qualitative:  Awareness-raising and information for tour-
initiatives: Sustainable  The PAN parks contribute to the community in vari-
by local stake- semi-structured ists: the greater the knowledge about local
sociocultural tourism; Oulanka ous ways (creation of networks, attracting tourists,
holders in the interviews with conditions the more likely tourists value
Puhakka, Sustainability of nature-based National parks National helping businesses in marketing efforts), but also
study site key target them and act in a responsible manner
Sarkki, Cottrell and tourism in Ou- tourism; as tools for Park, have negative impacts due to introduction of a set of
 The role of an groups  Establishment of participation, transparency,
Siikamäki lanka National national parks; regional Finland internationally defined values (e.g., hamper socio-
area’s certification  Quantitative: open communication, active learning process
(2009) Park, Finland certification; development cultural development by restricting local people’s tra-
(by the interna- questionnaire to meet contradictions resulted from utilisa-
PAN Parks; ditional rights)
tional organisation study (314 re- tion of public goods
In: Finland  Tourism development might lead to a gap between
PAN) in commu- spondents)  Change in management practice (decentrali-
Journal of Sus- those who are involved in tourism and those who are
nity and tourism zation) to provide a holistic basis for exam-
tainable Tourism not
development ining benefits and burdens of tourism
development in the park
 Tourism as a significant tool for regional develop-
ment  governments support and encourage tourism,
more often than other sectors, as a development tool
 Tourism can drive economic growth (developing
destinations) and contribute to the revitalisation of
towns and communities (mature destinations)
 Public policy shift from neo-liberalism to new region-
alism  changes in the organisation of tourism: from
government of relatively centralised regulation and
administrative control to a broader, governance-ori-
 New Regionalism as a planning framework
ented role  increased role for local and regional
from the perspective of stakeholders, plan-
Tourism, Public stakeholders in fostering economic development
ners, and tourism practitioners
Policy and Tourism Analysis of recent  “Post Fordism” which is understood as a more flexi-
 Challenges for sustainable community devel-
Regional Devel- development New institutional policy ble and dynamic pattern of production and consump-
opment: (1) to reconcile issues of democracy
opment: A Turn from a collabo- Zealand responses to regional tion than the traditional Fordism-approach led in
and economic rationality in the planning
Shone and Memon from Neo-liber- rative and (country development in order Analysis of secon- tourism to decline of mass tourism and increase of
(2008) alism to the New / strategic perspective) to discuss the role dary data specialised types of tourism, innovative packaging of
process, (2) to overcome discrepant policy
goals, (3) to foster collaboration and coop-
Regionalism sustainable and potential of products and experiences
eration between potential tourism competi-
development tourism to contribute  New Regionalism as a bottom-up approach; its princi-
tors, (4) to facilitate the alignment of
In: perspective to this development ples of integration, collaboration and cooperation are
multiple tourism visions toward a common
Local Economy ideal prerequisites for the establishment of regional-
goal to achieve broader regional develop-
level networks
ment
 Main barriers for implementation of integrative re-
gional tourism planning: (1) Public sector capacity
issues (organisational, institutional, cognitive) (2) in-
volved private sector stakeholders are, at the same
time, potential partners and competitors  tension
between democracy and economic rationality
 Rise of new conflicts as marginal groups become
more articulate and elite groups are able to gain a
greater slice of participatory benefits through their
own networks
 Significant tensions between China’s drive for “mod-
ernization” and “progress” and the sustainable devel-
opment since transformation
 China rather went through transformation than transi-  Tourism industry in China is dominated and
tion as the change was characterised by adjustments, governed by the supply side
not by a collapsing system  Large scale tourism development within
 Sound legislative, regulatory and governance regimes relatively short time spans, as China has ex-
Tourism govern- Multidisciplinary
Transition/ in place in the wider economy; environmental as- perienced it, need direct central government
ance and sus- approach analysing
transformation; sessment of development planning and implementa- involvement
tainable national Sustainable Investigation on the tourism politics,
gradualism; China tion as fundamental state policy  Re-emergence of entrepreneurship after
development in tourism devel- interrelation of development and
market econ- (country  Particularly at local levels economic development is socialist regime as one important factor the
Sofield and Li China: a macro- opment from a tourism growth, planning based on
omy; harmony; perspective) prioritised over environmental sustainability country’s progress towards a market econ-
(2011) level synthesis macro-govern- governance and 17 years of re-
keystone  Challenge for environmental sustainability: cultural omy
ance perspec- sustainable develop- search, practical
industry; gap between international and Chinese traditional  Economic involvement through “town and
In: tive ment in China experience and
sustainable value systems village enterprises” (TVE) which were de-
Journal of Sus- discussions with
tourism  Tourism contributed to freedoms in China as it veloped as commune business model but af-
tainable Tourism key stakeholders
caused relaxed travel restrictions, ter transformation became more market-
 Utilisation of mass tourism as a means for obtaining oriented  TVEs (under collective owner-
and demonstrating modernization ship) became important drivers of develop-
 Huge economic impacts at a national level (revenue ment of tourism sites in rural areas
generation, employment opportunities, indirect bene-
fits through the multiplier effect)  tourism as a pil-
lar industry of China
 Changing productive structures: downgrading of
agriculture, dependence of many economic sectors on
tourism (dominance of the tertiary sector), large in-
crease of multi-employment and the black economy
 Changing family structures: from the paternal model
to a new type of family characterised by individual-
ism and collectivism in decision-making; upgraded
role of the younger and women due to ‘touristifica-
 Changing basic priorities of tourism policy
tion’ and alternative income opportunities
Tourism Devel- (environmental conservation, alternative
Coastal  Downgrading of the role of customs as a result of the
opment in Greek tourism, promotion of locality as result of
and insular  Changing role of urbanisation imposed by tourism and the created sub-
Insular and Socioeconomic natural and cultural resources) as respond to
areas in social structures stitutes of urban entertainment (restaurants, bars etc.)
Coastal Areas: changes as mass tourism impacts
Greece resulting from  Spread of tourism income  expanded middle class
Sociocultural drivers of and  Awareness-raising among community mem-
(among tourism develop-  growing importance of social positioning
Tsartas Changes and results from bers on the need for alternative models of
(2003) Crucial Policy / tourism devel-
others ment Literature review  Perceptions/attitudes of locals towards tourism are the
tourism development
Mykonos,  Mass tourism, more positive, the earlier the stage of tourism devel-
Issues opment and the  Crucial tourism policy issues in the future:
Crete, related problems opment
related policy (1) ability of the concept of sustainable de-
Corfu) and criticisms of  Negative tourism impacts in the study site depend on:
In: issues velopment to survive as a constituting ele-
tourism policies (1) state’s decision to promote mass tourism; (2) ac-
Journal of Sus- ment of local tourism; (2) operational
ceptance of this model by the locals
tainable Tourism linkage between sustainable development
 Negative impacts caused attitudinal shifts: (1) new
and the classic model of mass tourism
institutional framework allowing CP in planning
process; (2) upgrading of scientific dialogue on tour-
ism development; (3) growing environmental aware-
ness; (4) increased emphasis on local characteristics,
sustainability and product quality when designing de-
velopment models
 Progressive decentralisation of competences to the
local level direct involvement of representative of
local interest in decision-making
 Strengthening of local tourism development through
large amount of EU financed initiatives, funding
schemes and development programs focussing on in-
frastructural improvements and the promotion of al-
ternative forms of tourism  know-how transfer in
planning and operating to the countryside; introduc-
tion of training/education facilities which most bene-
fited the younger and women; enhanced conservation
of environment and cultural heritage
 Indicator system consists of 4 interrelated models: (1)
Land-use tourism model: identification of types of
 Guided growth takes place (quality improve-
 Development of tourism, understanding of different stages of devel-
ment of urban areas, development of green
a theoretical opment, identification of influence factors on evolu-
spaces, improvement in environmental man-
Measuring model for sus- tion of tourism; (2) Pressure indicators: reflecting
agement...)
Sustainability in tainable tourism tension of tourism on natural and cultural environ-
 Financial benefits occur from economic
a Mass Tourist Torrevieja, indicators based ment; (3) State-quality indicators: current situation of
Why and how can the dynamism and they materialise in local reve-
Destination: Spain on analysis and natural environment, quality of life (locals), satisfac-
Application of incorporation of the nues
Pressures, (urban redesign of pre- tion (tourists); (4) Political and social response indi-
sustainable principles of sustain-  Negative perceptions of locals (health ser-
Perceptions and area in the existing models cators: measures to be taken in regard to (1)-(3),
Vera Rebollo and tourism prac- able development vice shortage, traffic...) and tourists are par-
Baidal (2003)
Policy Responses / tices to mass
Mediterra-
lead to qualitative
 Qualitative: placing of management measures
ticularly related to overcrowding of the area
in Torrevieja, nean investigations  Tourism caused great economic dynamism and em-
tourism desti- change and restruc- in summers
Spain Region) on every identi- ployment opportunities
nations turing in mature  Weak sustainability of the study site as the
fied indicator by  Dynamism directly related to real estate and tourist
tourism destinations? local type of tourism (sun-and-beach) does
In: stakeholder-in- activities also has negative impacts on quality of life
not benefit the use of natural resources
Journal of Sus- terviews, sec- (health service, street safety and loss of local identity)
 When growth level is reached more sound
tainable Tourism ondary data  Suggestions by interviewed locals did not include
policies should be applied to balance eco-
analysis or oth- limits of urban growth and tourism as they are seen as
nomic, environmental and socio-cultural di-
ers the drivers of the municipality´s development and
mensions
prosperity, but rather in the need for public invest-
ment (hospital, better roads etc.)
 Tourism impacts on the social structure and
communities depend on the nature (type) of tourism
 Increasing trend for eco-tourism to less developed
countries and remote areas
 Conditions for sustainable development:
(1) Parallel development of local industry and sus-
Conditions for
tainable tourism development;
the Transforma-
(2) Long-term justification;  Shift of paradigms from ecological sustain-
tion of Eco-
Identification of the (3) Consumer education (initiated by private sector: ability to a more holistic approach is re-
Tourism into
Welford and conditions for sus- tour operators/service providers)  increased sus- quired esp. in practice
Sustainable Sustainable
Ytterhus
Tourism / tourism / tainable management Literature review tainability and quality of experiences;  Derived conditions for sustainable develop-
(1998) of tourism destina- (4) Fiscally neutral local taxation (tourists should be ment have to be adapted to local context and
tions expected to (voluntary) contribute to the costs of local need to be considered in the context of each
In:
development and management); tourist destination
European Envi-
(5) Promoting environmental conservation;
ronment
(6) open and transparent dialogue for change man-
agement involving a broad base of stakeholders; (7)
Building on strong local cohesion: responsibility of
tour operators to identify locations which are charac-
terized by strong cohesion to enable the community
to maintain their traditional social and cultural norms,
to direct tourism development and to ensure sustain-
able development (requires more efforts in ini-
tial/product development phase but is more likely to
be successful in the long-term);
(8) Tourist participation  integral part of the desti-
nation, tourists add to the diversity rather than just
consuming;
(9) supply chain management, locally purchasing
policies  supply chain to be integrated into the des-
tination itself;
(10) Dynamic destination management policy and
strategy  policy including codes of conduct for
tourists, service providers and local community
Source: Own summary.

Annex
Annex 2: International Tourist Arrivals in Myanmar 1990–2012
Year International Tourist Arrivals Annual Growth Rate (in %)
1990 21,598 /
1991 22,647 4.9
1992 26,607 17.5
1993 48,425 82.0
1994 80,408 66.0
1995 117,000 45.5
1996 172,000 47.0
1997 189,000 9.9
1998 201,000 6.3
1999 198,210 -1.4
2000 207,665 4.8
2001 204,862 -1.3
2002 217,212 6.0
2003 205,610 -5.3
2004 241,938 17.7
2005 232,218 -4.0
2006 263,514 13.5
2007 248,076 -5.9
2008 193,319 -22.1
2009 243,278 25.8
2010 310,688 27.7
2011 391,176 25.9
201213 550,000 40.6
Source: Own summary, adapted from mas|contour (2012); MoHT (2011); MoHT (2012a);
UNWTO (1989); UNWTO (1996); UNWTO (2001); UNWTO (2006); UNWTO (2011).
13
Data estimated.
Annex
Annex 3: Interview Guideline
Personal Background in Tourism
1. What position do you hold in your organization? What activities and responsibilities
are connected to that position?
Tourism development in Myanmar since the country’s first efforts to open up in 2011
2. Could you please tell a few words about tourism industry in Myanmar?
3. How did these things change within the last year?
Community participation and responsible tourism
4. From your point of view, what is the meaning of ‘Responsible Tourism’?
5. From your point of view, what is the meaning of ‘Community Participation’ in

connection with tourism development?
6. In your opinion, which factors support community participation in Myanmar´s tourism

industry?
7. Which factors hinder such developments?
8. How could deeper community participation be achieved?
Expectations with regard to tourism development in Myanmar in the future
9. Finally, what are your personal wishes regarding tourism development in the future?
Affidavit
Affidavit
I hereby declare that I wrote this thesis on my own and without the use of any other than the
cited sources and tools and all explanations that I copied directly or in their sense are marked
as such. The thesis has not yet been handed in neither in this nor in equal form at any other
official commission.
Berlin, 30 October 2012
________________________
Dörte Kasüske

Community Participation in The Context of Transformation Processes

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Community Participation in The Context of Transformation Processes

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Master’s Thesis

Katholische Universität Eichstätt-Ingolstadt

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Harald Pechlaner

October 31, 2012

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ v

List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. vi

1.1 Research Question and Aims ........................................................................................... 1

1.2 Methodology .................................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Structure ........................................................................................................................... 2

2 General Considerations on Development, Tourism and Participation .................................... 4

2.1 Development and Transformation .................................................................................... 4

2.2 Tourism and Development ............................................................................................... 6

2.3 Tourism and Sustainable Development ............................................................................ 9

2.4 Community Participation in Tourism ............................................................................. 12

3 Community Participation and Responsible Tourism Development ...................................... 16

3.1 Methodology: Systematic Literature Review ................................................................. 16

3.2 State of Scientific Research ............................................................................................ 18

3.2.1 Economic Dimension .............................................................................................. 20

3.2.2 Environmental Dimension....................................................................................... 24

3.2.3 Socio-cultural Dimension ........................................................................................ 27

3.2.4 Organizational Dimension....................................................................................... 30

3.3 Summary: Theoretical Understanding of Development and Participation in Tourism .. 34

3.3.1 Overall Objectives ................................................................................................... 34

3.3.2 Success Indicators ................................................................................................... 34

3.3.3 Concluding Implications ......................................................................................... 36

4 Myanmar: A Destination in Transformation ......................................................................... 39

4.1 A Country Profile of Myanmar ...................................................................................... 39

4.1.1 Geography ............................................................................................................... 41

4.1.2 History ..................................................................................................................... 42

4.1.3 Socioeconomic Factors ........................................................................................... 44

4.2 Tourism in Myanmar ...................................................................................................... 46

4.2.1 Background: Tourism in the ‘Pre-Opening Era’ ..................................................... 46

4.2.2 Current Status of Tourism: Facts and Figures ......................................................... 48

4.2.3 Outlook: Efforts to Promote Responsible Tourism Development .......................... 53

4.3 Summary: Interrelations of Development and Tourism in Myanmar ............................ 54

5 Stakeholder’s Perspective on Community Participation and Responsible Tourism

5.1 Methodology: Qualitative Case Study Research Using GABEK .................................. 57

5.2 Tourism Development in Myanmar ............................................................................... 63

5.2.1 Evaluation of Change .............................................................................................. 64

5.2.2 Causes and Effects .................................................................................................. 65

5.3 Responsible Tourism in Myanmar ................................................................................. 67

5.3.1 An Approach to a Definition ................................................................................... 67

5.3.2 Causes and Effects .................................................................................................. 69

5.4 Community Participation in Myanmar ........................................................................... 70

5.4.1 An Approach to a Definition ................................................................................... 71

5.4.2 Causes and Effects .................................................................................................. 72

5.5 Selected Issues Facing Myanmar’s Tourism Industry ................................................... 74

5.5.1 Capacity Shortage ................................................................................................... 74

5.5.2 Education ................................................................................................................. 76

5.5.3 Cooperation ............................................................................................................. 77

5.6 Summary: Transformation and Community Participation in Tourism in the Context of

6.1 Central Findings and Implications ................................................................................. 81

References ............................................................................................................................... xiv

Annex ..................................................................................................................................... xxii

ASEAN – Association of Southeast Asian Nations

BTI – Bertelsmann Transformation Index

CBT – Community-based Tourism

GABEK – Holistic processing of complexity

GDP – Gross Domestic Product