CHROMOSOMES

1. Etymology  Originated from the Greek word (chroma, colour) and (soma, body).
2. DEFINITION “A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single
piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes
also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions”.
3. Discovery
4.  First described by Strausberger in 1875.
5.  The term “Chromosome”, however was first used by Waldeyer in 1888.
6. Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Chromosomes
7. Prokaryotic Chromosomes
8.  Genomes are simple and the organization of DNA is also different.
9.  Genomes are contained in single chromosomes, which are usually circular DNA molecules.
10.  DNA is associated with proteins but no histones present.
11.  DNA packaging is different from and is not well understood.
12.  Variation in genome length bearing genes.
13.  RNA viruses having smallest genome.

14. Eukaryotic Chromosomes

15.  Genomes are composed of multiple chromosomes, each containing a linear molecule of DNA.
16.  Histones are unique feature of eukaryotic cells.
17.  The packaging of DNA is due to histones.
18. Chemical Composition
19.  Composed of thin chromatin threads called Chromatin Fibers.
20.  Interphase chromatin consists of about 30 - 40% DNA, 50 - 65% protein and 1-10% RNA.
21.  Metaphase chromosomes contain 15 - 20% DNA, 10 - 15% RNA and 65 - 75 % protein.
22.  DNA consists of nucleotides while the primary protein component is histones.
23.  Histones strongly attracted to the negatively charged phosphate groups of the DNA.
24.  There are 5 major types of Histones.
25.  Thousand of other types of proteins involved in DNA replication and gene expression.
26.  The degree to which DNA is condensed is expressed as its packing ratio.
27.  Packing ratio - the length of DNA divided by the length into which it is packaged.
28.  To achieve the overall packing ratio, DNA is not packaged directly into final structure of chromatin.
29.  Chromatin is composed of repeating 200 base pair unit, which were called nucleosome.
30.  Nucleosome was described by Roger Kornberg in 1974.
31.  146 base pairs of DNA wrapped 1.75 times around a histone core.
32.  One molecule H1 is bound to the DNA as it enters and exits each nucleosome core particle.
33.  This forms a chromatin subunit known as Chromatosome; consist of 166 base pairs of DNA.
34.  The histones cores act as magnetic forms for the coiling of DNA.
35.  Nucleosomes wraps up into higher order coils called super coils.

36. Structure of Chromosome

37.  Typically a chromosome is made of two chromatids, a centromere and a secondary constriction.
38.  Sister chromatids are two identical copies of the chromosome connected by a centromere.
39.  The two chromatids of one homologous chromosome with respect to those of the other homologue are
called Nonsister chromatids.
40. Centromere
41.  The region where two sister chromatids of a chromosome appear to be joined during cell division is
called Centromere.
42.  Also termed as Primary constriction.
43.  Darkly-stained region.
44.  In humans, the centromere contains 1–10 million base pairs of DNA.
45.  First part of chromosomes to be seen moving towards the opposite poles during anaphase.
46. Kinetochore
47.  The kinetochore is the protein structure on chromosomes where the spindle fibers attach during cell
division to pull the chromosomes apart.
48.  DNA sequence within these regions is called CEN DNA of about 120 bp.
49.  Sub-domains, CDE-I, CDE-II and CDE-III.
50.  A complex of three proteins called Cbf-III binds to normal CDE-III regions but can not bind to a CDE-III
region with a point mutation.

51. Telomere
52.  Derived from the Greek nouns telos "end" and merοs "part"
53.  A telomere is a region of repetitive DNA sequence at the end of a chromosome, which protects the end of
the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighbouring chromosomes.
54.  Required for the replication and stability of the chromosome.
55.  McClintock noticed that if two chromosomes were broken in a cell, the end of one could attach to the
other and vice versa. Species Repeated Sequence Arabidosis TTTAGGG Human TTAGGG Slime Mold
TAGGG

56. Regions of Chromosomes  Several different chemical techniques are used to identify certain
chromosomal regions by staining them so that they form chromosomal bands.  There are 2 types of
regions in chromosomes.
57. Euchromatin
58.  Light staining regions.
59.  Lightly packed form of chromatin and is often under active transcription.
60.  Found in both cells with nuclei and cells without nuclei.
61. Heterochromatin
62.  Darkly staining and tightly coiled throughout the cell cycle and that is, for the most part, genetically
inactive.
63. Constitutive Heterochromatin
64.  It is fixed and irreversible in form and function.
65.  It does not reverse to the euchromatic stage.
66.  Chromosomes 1, 9, 16 and the Y chromosome contain regions of constitutive heterochromatin.
67. Facultative Heterochromatin
68.  It has the faculty to return to the normal euchromatic state.
69.  Consists of euchromatin that takes on the staining and compactness characteristics of heterochromatin
during some phase of development.
70.  The inactive X chromosome is made up of facultative heterochromatin.
71. Types of Chromosomes Autosomes & Allosomes
72. Autosomes
73.  Chromosomes that are not directly concerned with reproduction and sex determination are called
autosomes.
74.  These are identical in both the two sexes in man.
75.  They have loci occupied by autosomal genes.
76.  The term "autosome” was coined by T.H. Montogomery in 1904.
77. Allosomes/Heterosome
78.  These chromosomes are directly associated with reproduction and differ from autosomes in size, form
and behaviour.
79.  Usually there is a single pair of allosomes in mammals termed as 'X" and "Y" chromosomes.
80.  In bugs of Heteroptera like locusts, the female has two X chromosomes while the male has one X. The Y
chromosome is absent in these species.
81. Types of Chromosomes Based on the position of Centromere
82. 1. Metacentric Chromosomes
83.  The two arms are equal in length.  Appears in 'V' shape.
84. 2. Submetacentric Chromosomes  Also called as Heterobrachal.  Chromatids of one side are slightly
longer than the other side.  Resemble the letter 'L'.
85. 3. Acrocentric Chromosomes  Centromere is located closer to one end of chromatid.  The small round
structure is termed as satellite.  Resemble the lettar 'j'.
86. 4. Telocentric Chromosomes  Also called as monarchial type.  Centromere at the end of chromosomes.
 Not seen in human cells.  Resemble the lettar 'i'.
87. Types of Chromosomes Based on the number of Centromere Based on the number of
Centromere, chromosomes are grouped into five types.
88.  Chromosomes without centromere are called Acentric Chromosomes.
89.  Chromosomes with one centromere and called Monocentric Chromosomes.
90.  Chromosomes having two centromeres are called Dicentric Chromosomes.
91.  Chromosomes having more than two centromeres are called Polycentric Chromosomes.
92.  Chromosomes Diffuse. Also known as Holocentric Chromosomes.  The entire length of the
chromosome acts as the centromere.
93. Homologous and Non Homologous Chromosomes
94. Homologous chromosomes
95.  Chromosome pairs of the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern, with genes for the same
characteristics at corresponding loci.
96.  The pair (synapse) during meiosis.
97.  Each pair contains genes for the same biological features, such as eye color, at the same locations (loci)
on the chromosome.
98. Non Homologous chromosomes
99.  Chromosomes that are not members of the same pair.
100.  Each chromosome of the pair is obtained from the each parent in diploids and contains all the gene pool
of that organism.
101. Special Types of Chromosomes
102. Polytene chromosomes
103.  The nuclei of the salivary gland cells of the larvae of dipterans like Drosophila have unusually long and
wide chromosomes, 100 or 200 times in size of the chromosomes in meiosis and mitosis of the same
species.  Salivary gland cells do not divide after the glands are formed, yet their chromosomes replicate
several times (a process called endomitosis) and become exceptionally giant-sized.  They are discovered
 by Balbiani (l881) and named by Koller.  The endomitosis process result in the production of 2X
chromosomes, where X gives the number of multiplication cycle. They have alternating dark and light
bands. The dark bands are disc- shaped structures occupying the whole diameter of chromosome. They
contain euchromatin  The light bands are fibrillar and composed of heterochromatin.
104. Lampbrush Chromosome  Discovered by Ruckert in 1892.  Formed during the diplotene stage in
the nuclei of oocytes during the active synthesis of mRNA molecules for the future use.  It contains a main
axis whose chromonemal fibres (DNA molecule) gives out lateral loops throughout its length.
105. B Chromosomes  Many organisms have a special chromosome in addition to the autosomes which are
called B chromosomes.  Also termed as supernumery or accessory chromosomes or accessory fragments.
 Smaller than autosomes and the number varies from 0 to 30 /cell.  In some animals they may be
derivatives of sex chromosomes.  May have negative affects on the cell.
106. Holokinetic Chromosome  In insects of the order Hemiptera and in some monocotyledonous plants
the kinetic activity is distributed over the entire chromosome.  The term diffuse centromere bas been used
as an alternative.  In 1966 Flach observed this type of centromere in some primitive Dicotyledons along
with pseudoscorpion and Ascaris.
107. Number of Chromosomes
108.  Normally all the indiviuals of a species have the same number of chromosomes.  Closely related species
usually have similar chromosome number.  Presence of a whole set of chromosomes is called Euploidy. 
It includes haploids, diploids, triploids, tetraploids etc.  The condition in which the chromosomes sets are
present in multiples of “n” is Polyploidy.
109. Chromosome Size  The size of chromosomes shows a remarkable variation depending upon the stages
of the cell division.  Longest and thinnest in Interphase.  Progressive decrease in their length with an
increase in thickness in prophase.  Most easily observed during metaphase when they are very thick, quite
short and well spread in the cell. Chromosomes are smallest in anaphase. Therefore, chromosomes
measurements are generally taken during mitotic metaphase.
110. Karyotype
111.  A karyotype is the number and appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell.  It
describes the number of chromosomes, and what they look like under a light microscope.  Attention is
paid to their length, the position of the centromeres, banding pattern, any differences between the sex
chromosomes, and any other physical characteristics.  The study of whole sets of chromosomes is
sometimes known as karyology.  Karyotypes can be used for various purposes; such as, to study
chromosomal aberrations, cellular functions, taxonomic relationships, and to gather information about past
evolutionary events. Karyotype of Human Female
112. Functions of Chromosomes
113.  In charge of all the processes.
114.  “Packaging material” that binds DNA and protein together.
115.  Protein synthesis steps are the responsibility of genes.
116.  Very important roles in the development of an individual.
117.  They are the 'vehicles of heredity'.
118.  DNA provides the genetic information for various cellular functions essential for survival, growth,
development etc.
119.  Chromosomes protect the genetic material (DNA) from being damaged during cell division.
120.  Essential for the process of cell division and are responsible for the replication, division and creation of
daughter cells.
121.  Centromeres perform an important function in chromosome movement during cell division.