An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high gain differential amplifier with

high input impedance and low output impedance. Typical uses of the operational am-
plifier are to provide voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and polarity), oscillators,
filter circuits, and many types of instrumentation circuits. An op-amp contains a num-
ber of differential amplifier stages to achieve a very high voltage gain.
Figure 14.1 shows a basic op-amp with two inputs and one output as would re-
sult using a differential amplifier input stage. Recall from Chapter 12 that each input
results in either the same or an opposite polarity (or phase) output, depending on
whether the signal is applied to the plus ( ) or the minus ( ) input.

Input 1 +

Output

Input 2 –

Single-ended input operation results when the input signal is connected to one input
with the other input connected to ground. Figure 14.2 shows the signals connected

+ +
Vo Vo

Vi
– –

Vi

(a) (b)
 for this operation. In Fig. 14.2a, the input is applied to the plus input (with minus in-
put at ground), which results in an output having the same polarity as the applied in-
put signal. Figure 14.2b shows an input signal applied to the minus input, the output
then being opposite in phase to the applied signal.

In addition to using only one input, it is possible to apply signals at each input—this
being a double-ended operation. Figure 14.3a shows an input, Vd, applied between
the two input terminals (recall that neither input is at ground), with the resulting am-
plified output in phase with that applied between the plus and minus inputs. Figure
14.3b shows the same action resulting when two separate signals are applied to the
inputs, the difference signal being Vi1 Vi2.

+ +
Vo Vo
Vd Vd
V1
– –

V2

(a) (b)

Vi 1 + Vo1

While the operation discussed so far had a single output, the op-amp can also be op-
erated with opposite outputs, as shown in Fig. 14.4. An input applied to either input
Vi 2 – Vo 2 will result in outputs from both output terminals, these outputs always being oppo-
site in polarity. Figure 14.5 shows a single-ended input with a double-ended output.
As shown, the signal applied to the plus input results in two amplified outputs of op-
posite polarity. Figure 14.6 shows the same operation with a single output measured

Vo1
+ Vo1
+
Vd
– Vi
Vo 2
–
Vo 2
between output terminals (not with respect to ground). This difference output signal
is Vo1 Vo2. The difference output is also referred to as a floating signal since nei-
ther output terminal is the ground (reference) terminal. Notice that the difference out-
put is twice as large as either Vo1 or Vo2 since they are of opposite polarity and sub-
tracting them results in twice their amplitude [i.e., 10 V ( 10 V) 20 V]. Figure
14.7 shows a differential input, differential output operation. The input is applied be-
tween the two input terminals and the output taken from between the two output ter-
minals. This is fully differential operation.

When the same input signals are applied to both inputs, common-mode operation re-
sults, as shown in Fig. 14.8. Ideally, the two inputs are equally amplified, and since
they result in opposite polarity signals at the output, these signals cancel, resulting in
0-V output. Practically, a small output signal will result.

A significant feature of a differential connection is that the signals which are oppo-
site at the inputs are highly amplified, while those which are common to the two in-
puts are only slightly amplified—the overall operation being to amplify the differ-
ence signal while rejecting the common signal at the two inputs. Since noise (any
unwanted input signal) is generally common to both inputs, the differential connec-
tion tends to provide attenuation of this unwanted input while providing an amplified
output of the difference signal applied to the inputs. This operating feature, referred
to as common-mode rejection, is discussed more fully in the next section.

One of the more important features of a differential circuit connection, as provided

in an op-amp, is the circuit’s ability to greatly amplify signals that are opposite at the
two inputs, while only slightly amplifying signals that are common to both inputs. An
op-amp provides an output component that is due to the amplification of the differ-
ence of the signals applied to the plus and minus inputs and a component due to the
signals common to both inputs. Since amplification of the opposite input signals is
much greater than that of the common input signals, the circuit provides a common-
mode rejection as described by a numerical value called the common-mode rejection
ratio (CMRR).

When separate inputs are applied to the op-amp, the resulting difference signal is the
difference between the two inputs.
Vd Vi1 Vi2 (14.1)

When both input signals are the same, a common signal element due to the two in-
puts can be defined as the average of the sum of the two signals.
1
Vc 2 (Vi1 Vi2) (14.2)

Since any signals applied to an op-amp in general have both in-phase and out-of-
phase components, the resulting output can be expressed as
Vo AdVd AcVc (14.3)

where Vd difference voltage given by Eq. (14.1)

Vc common voltage given by Eq. (14.2)
Ad differential gain of the amplifier
Ac common-mode gain of the amplifier

If opposite polarity inputs applied to an op-amp are ideally opposite signals, Vi1
Vi2 Vs, the resulting difference voltage is
Eq. (14.1): Vd Vi1 Vi2 Vs ( Vs) 2Vs
while the resulting common voltage is
1 1
Eq. (14.2): Vc 2 (Vi1 Vi2) 2 [Vs ( Vs)] 0
so that the resulting output voltage is
Eq. (14.3): Vo AdVd AcVc Ad (2Vs) 0 2 AdVs
This shows that when the inputs are an ideal opposite signal (no common element),
the output is the differential gain times twice the input signal applied to one of the
inputs.

If the same polarity inputs are applied to an op-amp, Vi1 Vi2 Vs, the resulting dif-
ference voltage is
Eq. (14.1): Vd Vi1 Vi2 Vs Vs 0
while the resulting common voltage is
1 1
Eq. (14.2): Vc 2 (Vi1 Vi2) 2 (Vs Vs) Vs
so that the resulting output voltage is
Eq. (14.3): Vo AdVd AcVc Ad(0) AcVs AcVs
This shows that when the inputs are ideal in-phase signals (no difference signal), the
output is the common-mode gain times the input signal, Vs, which shows that only
common-mode operation occurs.

The solutions above provide the relationships that can be used to measure Ad and Ac
in op-amp circuits.

1. To measure Ad: Set Vi1 Vi2 Vs 0.5 V, so that

Eq. (14.1): Vd (Vi1 Vi2) (0.5 V ( 0.5 V) 1V
1 1
and Eq. (14.2): Vc 2 (Vi1 Vi2) 2 [0.5 V ( 0.5 V)] 0V
Under these conditions the output voltage is
Eq. (14.3): Vo AdVd AcVc Ad(1 V) Ac(0) Ad
Thus, setting the input voltages Vi1 Vi2 0.5 V results in an output voltage
numerically equal to the value of Ad.
2. To measure Ac: Set Vi1 Vi2 Vs 1 V, so that
Eq. (14.1): Vd (Vi1 Vi2) (1 V 1 V) 0V
1 1
and Eq. (14.2): Vc 2 (Vi1 Vi2) 2 (1 V 1 V) 1V
Under these conditions the output voltage is
Eq. (14.3): Vo AdVd AcVc Ad (0 V) Ac(1 V) Ac
Thus, setting the input voltages Vi1 Vi2 1 V results in an output voltage
numerically equal to the value of Ac.

Having obtained Ad and Ac (as in the measurement procedure discussed above), we

can now calculate a value for the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), which is
defined by the following equation:

Ad
CMRR (14.4)
Ac

The value of CMRR can also be expressed in logarithmic terms as

Ad
CMRR (log) 20 log10 (dB) (14.5)
Ac
 It should be clear that the desired operation will have Ad very large with Ac very
small. That is, the signal components of opposite polarity will appear greatly ampli-
fied at the output, whereas the signal components that are in phase will mostly can-
cel out so that the common-mode gain, Ac, is very small. Ideally, the value of the
CMRR is infinite. Practically, the larger the value of CMRR, the better the circuit op-
eration.
We can express the output voltage in terms of the value of CMRR as follows:
AcVc
Eq. (14.3): Vo AdVd AcVc AdVd 1
AdVd
Using Eq. (14.4), we can write the above as

1 Vc
Vo AdVd 1 (14.6)
CMRR Vd

Even when both Vd and Vc components of signal are present, Eq. (14.6) shows that
for large values of CMRR, the output voltage will be due mostly to the difference
signal, with the common-mode component greatly reduced or rejected. Some practi-
cal examples should help clarify this idea.

Determine the output voltage of an op-amp for input voltages of Vi1 150 V, Vi2
140 V. The amplifier has a differential gain of Ad 4000 and the value of CMRR
is:
(a) 100.
(b) 105.

Solution
Eq. (14.1): Vd Vi1 Vi2 (150 140) V 10 V
1 150 V 140 V
Eq. (14.2): Vc (Vi1 Vi2) 145 V
2 2
1 Vc
(a) Eq. (14.6): Vo AdVd 1
CMRR Vd
1 145 V
(4000)(10 V) 1
100 10 V
40 mV(1.145) 45.8 mV
1 145 V
(b) Vo (4000)(10 V) 1 40 mV(1.000145) 40.006 mV
105 10 V

Example 14.2 shows that the larger the value of CMRR, the closer the output volt-
age is to the difference input times the difference gain with the common-mode sig-
nal being rejected.

An operational amplifier is a very high gain amplifier having very high input imped-
ance (typically a few megohms) and low output impedance (less than 100 ). The
basic circuit is made using a difference amplifier having two inputs (plus and minus)
and at least one output. Figure 14.10 shows a basic op-amp unit. As discussed ear-
lier, the plus ( ) input produces an output that is in phase with the signal applied,
while an input to the minus ( ) input results in an opposite polarity output. The ac
equivalent circuit of the op-amp is shown in Fig. 14.11a. As shown, the input signal
applied between input terminals sees an input impedance, Ri, typically very high. The
output voltage is shown to be the amplifier gain times the input signal taken through
an output impedance, Ro, which is typically very low. An ideal op-amp circuit, as
shown in Fig. 14.11b, would have infinite input impedance, zero output impedance,
and an infinite voltage gain.

Ro

Vd Ri Ad Vd Vo Vd Ad Vd Vo

(a) (b)

The basic circuit connection using an op-amp is shown in Fig. 14.12. The circuit
shown provides operation as a constant-gain multiplier. An input signal, V1, is applied
through resistor R1 to the minus input. The output is then connected back to the same
minus input through resistor Rf. The plus input is connected to ground. Since the sig-
nal V1 is essentially applied to the minus input, the resulting output is opposite in
phase to the input signal. Figure 14.13a shows the op-amp replaced by its ac equiv-
alent circuit. If we use the ideal op-amp equivalent circuit, replacing Ri by an infinite
resistance and Ro by zero resistance, the ac equivalent circuit is that shown in Fig.
14.13b. The circuit is then redrawn, as shown in Fig. 14.13c, from which circuit analy-
sis is carried out.