Interior Lighting Design

HandbookERCO
ofEdition
Rüdiger Ganslandt
Harald Hofmann
Lighting Design
~A,__="~-- D
1,20 m
Vieweg
Rüdiger Ganslandt
Born in 1955. Studied German, Art and the
History of Art in Aachen, Germany. Member of
the project team on 'imaginary architecture'.
Book publications on tapies relating to
sciences and humanities, article on lighting
design. Joined Erco in 1987, work on texts
and didactic concepts. Lives in Lüdenscheid,
Germany.
Harald Hofmann
Born in 1941 in Worms, Germany. Studied
Electrical Engineering at Darmstadt University
ofîechnology from 1961to1968. Gained a
doctorate in 1975. Worked as
an educator and researcher in the Lighting
Technology department at Darmstadt University
ofîechnology until 1978. Joined Erco in 1979 as
Head of Lighting Technology. Professor of
Lighting Technology in the Faculty of
Architecture at
the Darmstadt University ofîechnology since
1997.
Title Handbook of Lighting Design
Au th ors Rüdiger Ganslandt

Harald Hofmann
Layout and otl aicher and

graphie design Monika Schnell
Drawings otl aicher Reinfriede

Bettrich Peter Graf
Druckhaus Maack
Reproduction Druckhaus Maack, Lüdenscheid

OffsetReproTechnik, Berlin
Reproservice Schmidt, Kempten
Druckhaus Maack, Lüdenscheid

Setti ng/pri nti ng
C. Fikentscher GroBbuchbinderei
Book binding Darmstadt
© ERCO Leuchten GmbH, Lüdenscheid

Friedr. Vieweg 8 Sohn Verlagsgesellschaft
mbH, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden 1. edition
1992
The Vieweg publishing company is a Ber-

telsmann International Group company.
Ali rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced in any form or by any
means without permission from the publisher.
This applies in particular to (photo)copying,
translations, microfilms and saving or
processing in electronic systems.
Printed in Germany
Rüdiger Ganslandt Handbook of ERCO Edition
Harald Hofmann
Lighting Design
Vieweg
About this book Wide interest has developed in light and and comprehensible mariner. Background
lighting, not least because the growing information is provided through a chapter
awareness of architectural quality has given dedicated to the history of lighting.
rise to an increased demand for good The second part of the Handbook deals with
architectural lighting. Standardised lighting the basics of lighting technology and surveys
concepts may have sufficed light sources, contrai gear and luminaires
to light the concrete architecture of the recent available. The third part deals with concepts,
past, but the varied and distinctive strategies and the processes involved in
architecture of modern-day buildings requires lighting design.
equally differentiated and distinctive lighting. ln the fourth part there is a comprehensive
An extensive range of light sources and collection of design concepts for the most
luminaires are available for this task; with frequent requirements of interior lighting. The
technical progress the scope of lighting glossary, index and bibliography provided to
technology has expanded, and this has in assist users of this Handbook in their daily
turn led to the development work facilitate the search for information or
of increasingly more specialised lighting further literature.
equipment and tools. lt is this fact
that makes it increasingly difficult for the
lighting designer to be adequately informed
regarding the comprehensive range of lamps
and luminaires available and to decide on the
correct technical solution to meet the lighting
requirements of a specific project.
The Handbook of Lighting Design covers
the basic principles and practice of
architectural lighting. lt exists as much as a
teaching aid, e.g. for students of architecture,
as a reference book for lighting designers.
The Handbook does not intend to compete
with the existing comprehensive range of
specialist literature on lighting engineering,
nor to be added to the limited number of
beautifully illustrated volumes containing
finished projects. The Handbook aims
to approach and deal with the subject of
architectural lighting in a practical
Contents Foreword
1.0 History
1.1 The history of architectural lighting 12
Daylight architecture 12
1.1.1
1.1.2Artificial lighting 13
1.1.3Science and lighting 15
1.1.4Modern light sources 16
Gas lighting 17
1.1.4.1
Electrical light sources 18
1.1.4.2
1.1.5Quantitative lighting design 22
Beginnings of a new age kind lighting design 22 The
1.1.6
influence of stage lighting 24
1.1.6.
1 Qualitative lighting design 24
Lighting engineering and lighting design 25
1.1.6.2
1.1.6.3
2.0 Basics
2.1 Perception 28
2.1.1Eye and camera 28

2.1.2Perceptual psychology 29
Constancy 31
2.1.2.1
Laws of gestalt 33
2.1.2.2
2.1.3Physiology of the eye 36
2.1.4Objects of peception 38
2.2 Terms and units 40
2.2.1Luminous flux 40
2.2.2Luminous efficacy 40
2.2.3Quantity of light 40
2.2.4Luminous intensity 40 lllu
2.2.5minance 42
2.2.6Exposu re 42
2.2.7Luminance 42
2.3 Light and light sources 43
2.3.1Incandescent lamps 45
Halogen lamps 49
2.3.1.1
2.3.2Discharge lamps 52
Fluorescent lamps 53
2.3.2.1
Compact fluorescent lamps 54 High-
2.3.2.2
voltage fluorescent tubes 55 Law-
2.3.2.3
pressure sodium lamps 56 High-
2.3.2.4
pressure mercury lamps 57 Self-
2.3.2.5
ballasted mercury lamps 58 Metal
2.3.2.6
halide lamps 59 High-pressure sodium
2.3.2.7
lamps 60
2.3.2.8
2.4 Contrai gear and contrai equipment 65
2.4.1Contrai gear for discharge lamps 65

2.4.1.1
Fluorescent lamps 65
2.4.1.2
Compact fluorescent lamps 66 High-
2.4.1.3
voltage fluorescent tubes 66 Law-
2.4.1.4
pressure sodium lamps 66 High-
2.4.1.5
pressure mercury lamps 66 Metal
2.4.1.6
halide lamps 67 High-pressure sodium
2.4.1.7
lamps 67
2.4.2Compensation and wiring of discharge lamps 67 Radio-
2.4.3interference suppression and limiting other interference
67
2.4.4Transformers for low-voltage installations 68
2.4.5Contralling brightness 71
Incandescent and halogen lamps 71
2.4.5.1
2.4.5.2 Law-voltage halogen lamps 71
2.4.5.3 Fluorescent lamps 71
2.4.5.4 Compact fluorescent lamps 72
2.4.5.5 Other discharge lamps 72 Remote
2.4.6 contrai 72
2.4.7 Lighting contrai systems 72
2.4.7.1 Lighting contrai systems for theatrical effects 73
2.5 Light - qualities and features 74
2.5.1 Quantity of light 74

2.5.2 Diffuse light and directed light 76
2.5.2.1 Modelling 77
2.5.2.2 Brilliance 78
2.5.3 Glare 79
2.5.4 Luminous colour and colour rendering 83
2.6 Contralling light 85
2.6.1 The principles of contralling light 85

2.6.1.1 Reflection 85
2.6.1.2 Transmission 85
2.6.1.3 Absorption 87
2.6.1.4 Refraction 87
2.6.1.5 lnterference 87
2.6.2 Reflectors 88
2.6.2.1 Parabolic reflectors 89
2.6.2.2 Darklight reflectors 90
2.6.2.3 Spherical reflectors 90
2.6.2.4 lnvolute reflectors 90
2.6.2.5 Elliptical reflectors 90
2.6.3 Lens systems 91
2.6.3.1 Collecting lenses 91
2.6.3.2 Fresnel lenses 91
2.6.3.3 Prajecting systems 91
2.6.4 Prismatic systems 92
2.6.5 Accessories 92
2.7 Luminaires 94
2.7.1 Stationary luminaires 94

2.7.1.1 Downlights 94
2.7.1.2 Uplights 97
2.7.1.3 Louvred luminaires 97
2.7.1.4 Washlights 100 lntegral
2.7.1.5 luminaires 101 Movable
2.7.2 luminaires 102 Spotlights
2.7.2.1 102 Wallwashers 103
2.7.2.2 Light structures 104
2.7.3 Secondary reflector luminaires 105
2.7.4 Fibre optic systems 105
2.7.5
3.0 Lighting design
3.1 Lighting design concepts 110
3.1.1 Quantitative lighting design 110

3.1.2 Luminance-based design 112
3.1.3 The principles of perception-oriented lighting design 115 Richard
3.1.3.1 Kelly 115
3.1.3.2 William Lam 117
3.1.3.3 Architecture and atmosphere 118
3.2
Qualitative lighting design 119
3.2.1
3.2.1.1 Praject analysis 119
3.2.1.2 Utilisation of space 119 Psychological
3.2.1.3 requirements 122 Architecture and
atmosphere 122
3.2. Project development 123
2 Practical planning 126
3.3
3.3.1 Lamp selection 126 Modelling
3.3.1.1 and brilliance 127 Colour
3.3.1.2 rendering 127
3.3.1.3 Luminous colour and colour temperature 128
3.3.1.4 Luminous flux 128
3.3.1.5 Efficiency 128
3.3.1.6 Brightness contrai 130
3.3.1.7 Ignition and re-ignition 130
3.3.1.8 Radiant and thermal load 130
3.3.2 Luminaire selection 132
3.3.2.1 Standard product or custom design 132
3.3.2.2 lntegral or additive lighting 132 Stationary or
3.3.2.3 movable lighting 136
3.3.2.4 General lighting or differentiated lighting 136 Direct or
3.3.2.5 indirect lighting 136
3.3.2.6 Horizontal and vertical lighting 138
3.3.2.7 Lighting working areas and floors 138
3.3.2.8 Wall lighting 139
3.3.2.9 Ceiling lighting 141
3.3.2.10 Luminance limitation 141
3.3.2.11 Safety requirements 143
3.3.2.12 Relation to acoustics and air conditioning 143
3.3.2.13 Accessories 143
3.3.2.14 Lighting contrai and theatrical effects 144 Lighting
3.3.3 layout 144
3.3.4 Switching and lighting contrai 150
3.3.5 Installation 152
3.3.5.1 Ceiling mounting 152
3.3.5.2 Wall and floor mounting 154
3.3.5.3 Suspension systems 154
3.3.6 Calculations 154
3.3.6.1 Utilisation factor method 154
3.3.6.2 Planning based on specific connected load 157 Point
3.3.6.3 illuminance 158
3.3.6.4 Lighting costs 159
3.3.7 Simulation and presentation 160
3.3.8 Measuring lighting installations 168
3.3.9 Maintenance 169
4.0 Examples of lighting concepts
4.1 Foyers 173

4.2 Lift lobbies 180
4.3 Corridors 184
4.4 Staircases 188
4.5 Team offices 192
4.6 Cellular offices 198
4.7 Executive offices 203
4.8 Conference rooms 207
4.9 Auditoriums 213
4.10 Canteens 217
4.11 Cafés, bistros 221
4.12 Restaurants 225
4.13 Mu ltifunctiona 1 spaces 229
4.14 Museums, showcases 236
4.15 Museum, galleries 241
4.16 Vaulted ceilings 249
4.17 Sales areas, boutiques 252
4.18 Sales areas, counters 256
4.19 Administration buildings, public areas 259
4.20 Exhibitions 264
5.0 Appendix
llluminance recommendations 270

Classification of lamps 271
Glossary 272, bibliography 282, acknowledgements 286, index 287
1.0 History
1.1 History
1. 1 1.1.1 Daylight architecture
The history For the most part of the history of mankind,

from the origins of man up to the 18. century,
of architectural there were basically two sources of light
available. The aider one of these two is
lighting daylight, the medium by which
we see and to whose properties the eye has
adapted over millions of years.A considerable
time elapsed before the stone age, with
its development of cultural techniques and
tools, added the flame as a second, artificial
light source. From this time
on lighting conditions remained the sa me for a
considerable time. The paintings
in the cave of Altamira were created to be
viewed underthesame lightas Renaissance and
Baroque paintings.
Lighting was limited to daylight and fla me
and it was for this very reason that man has
continued to perfect the application of these
two light sources for tens of thousands of
years.
1.1.1 Daylight architecture
ln the case of daylight this meant consistently

adapting architecture to the requirements for
lighting with natural light. Entire buildings and
individual rooms were therefore aligned to the
incidence of the sun's rays. The size of the
rooms
was also determined by the availability of
natural lighting and ventilation. Different basic
types of daylight architecture developed in
conjunction with the lighting conditions in the
various climatic zones of the globe. ln cooler
reg ions with
a predominantly overcast sky we see
the development of buildings with large, tall
windows to allow as much light into the building
as possible. lt was found that diffuse celestial
light produced uniform lighting; the problems
inherent to bright sunshine - cast shadow, glare
and overheating of interior spaces - were
restricted to a few sunny days in the year and
could be ignored.
ln countries with a lot of sunshine
these problems are critical. A majority
of the buildings here have small windows
located in the lower sections of the buildings
and the exterior walls are highly reflective. This
means that hardly any direct sunlight can
penetrate the building. Even today the lighting
is effected in the main by the light reflected from
the building's surfaces, the light being dispersed
in
the course of the reflection process and a large
proportion of its infrared component dissipated.
Wh en it came to the question ofwhether
there was sufficient light, aspects
relating to aesthetic quality and perceptual
psychology were also taken into account when
dealing with daylight, which is evident in the
way architectural details are treated. Certain
elements were designed differently according to
the light available to promote the required
Daylight architecture: Sunlight architecture:
spatial effect through the interplay of light and
large, tall windows. small, low windows, shadow. ln direct sunlight reliefs, ledges and the
reflective outer walls.
12
1.1 History
1.1 History
1.1.2Artifical
1.1.2 Artificial lighting
lighting
fluting on colurnns have a three-dimensional

effect even if they are of shallow depth. Such
details require far more depth under diffuse
light to achieve the sa me effect. Facades in
southern countries therefore only needed
--11
shallow surface structures, wh ereas the a rch
itectu re of more northern latitudes - and the
design of interior spaces - was dependent on
more pronounced forms and accentuation 1
through colour to underline the structure of
...... i
surfaces.
But light does not only serve to render
~ .· lililllbîj!!
spatial bodies three-dimensional. lt is an
Fi;-. I~ nn.mpf~tr.ihllmmpt'l mr 1=dn"rC'rt'! Miruçr.'llill~
excellent means for controlling our perception
on a psychological level. ln old Egyptian
temples - e.g. in the sun temple
of Amun Re in Karnak or in Abu Simbel
t-"Jt;:, Î. r!J.tt'ln\b~i!'Dllf'r
mri:;n111,rr.1. - you
1-'l;i:: • .F\ Pntl'"11l• RcC11rm'l;n~mn .•.•
will not find light in the form of uniform ambient l1n'n111•r,
lighting, but as a means to accentuate the

essential - colonnades that gradually becorne
darker allow
the viewer to a da pt to lower lighting levels,
the highlighted image of the god then
appearing overwhelmingly bright in contrast.
An architectural construction can function
The influence of light on similar to an astronomical clock, with special
northern and southern lighting effects only occurrinq on significant
architectural design. ln days or du ring particular periods in the year,
the sou th spatia 1 for ms when the sun rises or sets, or at the summer or
are aligned to the
correlation of the steep the winter solstice.
angle of incident sunlight ln the course ofhistory the ski li to create
and light reflected from purposefully differentiated daylighting effects
the ground. ln the north it has been continually perfected,
is the low angle of the
sun's rays that affects the
reaching a climax in the churches of Oil lamp made of brass
shape of the buildings. the Baroque period, - e.g. the pilgrimage
church in Birnau or the pilgrimage church
designed by Dominikus Zimmermann
in Upper Bava ria - , where the visitor's
gaze is drawn from the diffuse brightness
I~iliC!lifOia tll'ldLu1i;_~lU.11"8 L:nn110
of the nave towards the brightly lit
fo'ig.:\.
filr i1Cl1r rltlc.hllgci ore. altar area, where intricate wood carvings
decorated in gold sparkle and stand
out in relief.
1.1.2 Artificial lighting
A similar process of perfection also took place

in the realm of artificial lighting,
a development that was clearly confined by the
inadequate luminous power provided by the
light sources available.
The story began when the flame, the
source of light, was separated from fire, the
source of warmth - burning branches were
removed from the fire and used for
a spécifie purpose. lt soon becarne obvious that
it was an advantage to select pieces of wood
Greek oil lamp, a mass
that cornbust and emit light particularly well, and
item in the ancient world
the branch was replaced by especially resinous
pi ne wood. The next step involved not only
relying
on a natural feature of the wood, but, in the
case of burning torches, to apply flammable
material to produce more light artificially. The
development of the oil lamp and the candie
meant that man then had compact, relatively
safe light sources
at his disposai; select fuels were used eco-
1
3
~
Fi;t:::. IL l.ip:rni11lnm111'".
lln1u11•t· der Schli::b<:li:m1fl'Co.
f'li-:.l:!.
1.i~l11ln.m11f! \'fl11 l!
ohm a llrl\.lcr.
Lamps and burners da- was transported to the fla

ting back to the second me via the capillary action
halfofthe19. century, of the wick alone, earlier
copper engravi ng. Based lamps that used th ick-bod
on the construction of the ied vegetable oils required
Argand burner, the oil more costly fuel supply
lamp was adapted solutions involving
through numerous upturned glass bottles or
technical innovations to spring mechanisms. ln the
meet a wide variety of case of especiallyvolatile
requirements. or thickbodied oils there
The differences between were special wickless
lamps with fiat wicks and lamps available that
th ose with the more produced co m bu st i b 1 e
efficient tubular wicks are g a se ou s mixtures
clearly evident ln later through
paraffin lamps the light the inherent va pour
fuel pressure produced
by the volatile oil or by
external compression.
1
4
1.1 History
1.1.3 Science and lighting
nomically in these cases, the torch holder was lmproved oxygen supply together with an
reduced to the wick as a means of transport for enlarged wick surface meant a huge and
wax or oil. instantaneous improvement in luminous
The oil lamp, which was actually developed efficiency. The next step involved surrounding
in preh istoric ti mes, represented the highest wick and fla me with a glass cylinder, whereby
form of lighting engineering progress for a very the chimney effect resulted
long time. The lamp itself- la ter to be joined by in an increased through-put of air and
the candlestick - continued to be developed. Ali a further increase in efficiency. The Argand
sorts lamp became the epitome of the oil
of magnificent chandeliers and sconces were lamp. Even modern day paraffin lamps work
developed in a wide variety of styles, but the according to this perfected principle.
flame, and its luminous power, remained
unchanged. Optical instruments have been recognised as
Compared to modern day light sources this aids to controlling light from very early times.
luminous power was very poor, Mirrors are known to have been used by ancient
and artificial lighting remained a makeshift Greeks and Romans and the theory behind their
device. ln contrast to daylight, which provided application set down in writing. There is a tale
excellent and differentiated lighting for an entire about Archimedes setting fire to enemy ships off
space, the brightness of a fla me was always Syracuse using concave mirrors.
restricted to its direct environment. People And there are staries of burning glasses, in
gathered around the element that provided light the form of water-filled glass spheres.
or positioned it directly next to the abject to be At the turn of the first millennium, there
lit. Light, albeit weak, began to were a number of theoretical works in Arabia
mark man's night-time. To light interiors brightly and China concerning the effect of optical
after dark required large lenses. There is in fact concrete evidence of
numbers of expensive lamps and fixtures, which these lenses dating from
were only conceivable for courtly gatherings. Up the 13th century. They were predominantly used
to the late 18th century architectural lighting as in the form of magnifying glasses
we know it today remained the exclusive or spectacles as a vision aid. The material first
demain of daylighting. used was ground beryl. This costly semi-
precious stone was later replaced by glass,
manufactured to a sufficiently clear quality. The
German word for glasses
is "Brille", demonstrating a clear semantic link to
1.1.3 Science and lighting the original material used for the vision aid.
ln the late 16th century the first telescopes
Paraffin lamp
with Argand burner. The reason why the development of efficient were designed by Dutch lens grinders. ln the
artficial light sources experienced 17th century these instruments were then
:::::--::::·::~:i~
~::.-\
a period of stagnation at this point intime lies in
man's inadequate knowledge in the field of
perfected by Galileo, Kepler
and Newton; microscopes and projector
.~' 1.
science. ln the case of the oil lamp, it was due equipment were then constructed.
to man's fa Ise conception of the combustion At the sa me time, some basic theories
process. Until the about the nature of light originated. Newton
birth of modern chemistry, the belief laid down held the view that light was made up of
by the ancient Greeks was taken numerous particles - a view that can be
to be true: during the burning process retraced to ancient time. Huygens, on the other
a substance called "phlogistos" was released. hand, saw light as
According to the Greeks, any material that could a phenomenon comprising waves. The two
be burned therefore consisted of ash and competing theories are substantiated by
I
phlogistos (the classical elements of earth and a series of optical phenomena and existed side
fire), which were separated du ring the burning by side. Today it is clear that light
process - phlogistos was released as a fla me, can neither be understood as a purely
earth remained in the form of ash. particle or wave-based phenomenon,
lt is clear that the burning process could but only through an understanding of the
not be optimised as long as beliefs were combination of bath ideas.
based on this theory. The raie With the development of photometrics - the
of oxidation had not yet been discovered. lt was theory of how to measure light - and
only through l.avoisier's experiments that it illuminances - through Baguer and Lambert in
became clear that combustion the 18th century, the most essential scientific
was a form of chemical action and that the principles for workable lighting engineering were
flame was dependent on the presence of air. established.
Christiaan Huygens. Isaac Newton. l.avoisier's experiments were carried out in The application of these various correlated
the 1770s and in 1783 the new findings were findings was restricted practically exclusively to
applied in the field of lighting. Francois Argand the construction of optical instruments such as
constructed a lamp that was to be named after the telescope and the microscope, to
l
him, the Argand lamp. This was an oil lamp with instruments therefore that allow man to
a tubular wick, whereby air supply to the flame observe, and are dependent on external light
was effected from within the tube as well as sources. The active contrai of light using
from the outer surface of the wick. reflectors and lenses, known to be theoretically
possible and
-·-· "·----o/
-- O • TT r -T·- -~"":-- .•
'' .- ~
15
1.1 History
1.1.4 Modern light sources
occasionallv tested, was doomed to fail due

to the shortcomings of the light sources
available.
ln the field of domestic lighting the tact
that there was no controllable, centrally
situated light available was not considered to
be a concern. lt was cornpensated for by
family gatherings a round the oil lamp in the
evenings. This shortcoming gave rise to
considerable problems in other areas,
however. For example,
in lighting situations where a considerable
distance between the light source and
the abject to be lit was required, above ail,
therefore, in street lighting and stage lighting,
and in the area of signalling, especially in the
construction of lighthouses. lt was therefore not
surprising that
the Argand lamp, with its considerably improved
luminous intensity not only served to light living-
rooms, but was welcomed in the above-
mentioned critical areas and used to develop
systems that control light.
This applied in the first place to street and
stage lighting, where the Argand lamp found
application shortly after its development. But
the most important use was for lighthouses,
Beacon with Fresnel which had previously been poorly lit by coal
lenses and Argand fires or by using
burners.
a large number of oil lamps. The proposai to
light lighthouses using systems comprising
Argand lamps and parabolic mirrors was made
in 1785; six years later the idea was used in
France's most prominent lighthouse in
Cordouan. ln 1820 Augustin Jean Fresnel
developed a composite system of stepped lens
and prismatic rings which could be made large
enough
to concentrate the light from lighthouses; th is
construction was a lso first insta 1 led
in Cordouan. Since then Fresnel lenses have
been the basis for all lighthouse beacons and
have also been applied in numerous types of
projectors.
The Argand lamp marked the climax of

a development which lasted tens of thousands
ofyears, perfecting the use of the
fla me as a light source. The oil lamp at its very
best, so to speak. Scientific progress, which
rendered this latter development possible, gave
rise to the development
Fresnel lenses and of completely new light sources, which
Argand burners. The revolutionised lighting engineering at an
inner section of the
luminous beam is con-
increasingly faster pace.
centrated via a stepped
lens, the outer section
deflected by means
of separate prismatic
Augustin Jean Fresnel.
rings.
1
6
1.1 History
1.1.4.1 Gas lighting
The first competitor to theArgand lamp was gas

lighting. People had known of
the existence of combustible gases sin ce the
17th century, but gaseous substances were first
systematica lly u nderstood
and produced within the framework of modern
chemistry. A process for recovering lighting gas
from minerai coal was developed in parallel to
the Argand lamp experimentation.
Towards the end of the 18th century the
efficiency of gas lighting was demonstrated in a
series of pilot projects - a lecture hall in Lbwen lit
by Jan Pieter Minckellaers; a factory, a private
home and even
an automobile lit by the English engineer William
Murdoch. This new light source achieved as yet
unknown illuminance levels. lt was, however, not
yet possible to introduce this new form of lighting
on
a large scale due to the costs involved in the
Lighting shop windows manufacture of the lighting gas and
using gas light (a round in removing the admittedly foul-smelling
1870) residues. A number of small devices were
developed, so-called thermo-lamps,
which made it possible to produce gas for
lighting and heating in individual households.
These devices did not prove to
be as successful as hoped. Gas lighting only
Carl Auer v. Welsbach. becarne an econornic proposition with
the coupling of coke recovery and gas
production, then entire sections of towns cou Id
benefit from central gas supply. Street lighting
was the first area
to be connected to a central gas supply,
followed gradually by public buildings and
finally private households.
As is the case with ail other light sources a
series of technical developments made gas
lighting increasingly more efficient. Similar to the
oil lamp a variety of different burners were
developed whose increased flame sizes
provided increased luminous intensity. The
Argand principle involving the ring-shaped flame
with its oxygen supply from bath sides could
also be applied in the case of
gas lighting and in turn led to unsurpassed
luminous efficacv.
The attempt to produce a surplus of oxygen
in the gas mixture by continuing to develop the
Argand burner produced
a surprising result. As ail the carbon contained in
the gas was burned off to produce gaseous
carbon dioxide, the glowing particles of carbon
that incorporated the light produced by the fla
me were no longer evident; this gave rise to the
extraordinarily hot, but barely glowing flame of
the Bunsen burner. There was therefore
a limit to the luminous intensity of selfluminous
fla mes; for further increases
in efficiencv researchers had to fall back on
other principles to produce light.
One possibility for producing highly efficient gas

lighting was developed through the phenomenon
of thermo-luminescence, the excitation of
Drummond's limelight. The incandescent mantle luminescent material by
as invented by Auer v.
Welsbach.
1
7
1.1 History
heating. ln contrast to thermal radiation,

luminous efficacv and colour appearance in this
process were not solely dependent on the
temperature, but also on the kind of material;
more and whiter light
was produced using temperature radiation
methods.
The first light source to work accordinq to
this principle was Drummond's limelight, which
was developed in 1826. This involved a piece of
limestone being excited to astate of thermo-
luminescence with the aid of an oxy-hydrogen
burner. Limelight is admittedly very effective, but
requires considerable manual contrai with the
result that it was used almost exclusively for
effect lighting in the theatre.
lt was only in 1890 that Austrian chernist Carl
Auer von Welsbach came up with
a far more practical method for utilising thermo-
luminiscence. Auer von Welsbach steeped a
cylinder made of cotton fa bric
in a solution containing rare earths - substances
that, similar to limestone, emit
a strong white light when heated. These
incandescent mantles were applied to Bunsen
burners. On first ignition the cotton fa bric
burned, leaving behind nothing but the rare
earths- the incandescent mantle in effect.
Through the cornbination of the extremely hot fla
me of the Bunsen burner and incandescent
mantles comprising rare earths, the optimum
was achieved in
the field of gas lighting.Just as the Argand lamp
continues to exist today in the
form of the paraffin lamp, the incandescent or
Welsbach mantle is still used for gas lighting,
e.g. in camping lamps.
Jablotschkow's version of
the arc lamp, exposed
and with glass bulb.
1.1.4.2 Electrical light sources
Hugo Bremer's arc lamp.

A simple spring
o Incandescent gas light was doomed to go the
way of most lighting discoveries that were fated
mechanism automatically to be overtaken by new light sources just as they
controls the distance
between the four carbon are nearing perfection. This also applies to the
electrodes set in the candie, which only received an optimised wick in
shape of a V. 1824 to prevent it from smoking too rnuch.
Similarly, the Argand lamp was pipped at the
post by the development of gas lighting, and for
lighting using incandescent mantles, which in
turn had to compete with the newly developed
forms of electric light.
ln contrast to the oil lamp and gas lighting,
which bath started life as weak light sources and
Arc lig hting at the Place
de la Concorde. were developed to becorne ever more efficient,
the electric lamp embarked on its career in its
brightest form. From the beginning of the 19th
centuryit was a known fact that by creating
voltage between two carbon electrodes an
extremely bright arc could be produced. Similar
to Drummond's limelight, continuons manual
adjustment was required, making it difficult for
this new light source to gain acceptance, added
to the fact that arc lamps first had to be
operated on batteries, which was a costly
business.
18
1.1 History
Siemens' arc lamp dating

back to 1868. According
to the description: an
adjustable spotlight
complete with "concave
mirror, carriage, stand
and antidazzle screen" -
the oldest luminaire
in Siemens' archives
documented in the form
of a drawing.
1
9
1.1 History
About mid-century self-adjusting lamps were

developed, thereby eliminating the problem of
manu al adjustment. Generators that cou Id
guarantee a continuous supply of electricity were
now also available.
lt was, however, still only possible to operate one
Heinrich Goebel, experi- arc lamp per power source; series connection -
mental incandescent "splitting the light", as it was called - was not
lamps (carbon filaments in possible, as the different burning levels of the
air-voici eaude-cologne individual lamps meant that the entire series was
bottles). quickly extinguished. This problem was only
solved in the 1870s. The simple solution was
provided by Jablotschkow's version of the arc
lamp, which involved two parallel carbon
electrodes set in a plaster cylinder and allowed
to burn simultaneously from the top downwards.
A more complex, but also more reliable solution
was provided by the differential lamp, developed
in 1878 by Friedrich v. HefnerAlteneck, a
Siemens engineer, whereby carbon supply and
power constancy were effected via an
electromagnetic system.
Now that light cou Id be "divided up" the arc
lamp became an extremely practical light source,
which not only found individual application, but
was also used on a wide sca!e. lt was in fact
applied wherever its excellent luminous intensity
cou Id be putto good use - once again in
lighthouses, for stage lighting; and, above ail,
for ail forms of street and exterior lighting. The
arc lamp was not entirely suitable for application
Joseph Wilson Swan, in private homes, however, because it tended to
Swan's version of the produce
incandescent lamp with far too much light - a novelty in the field of
graphite filament and lighting technology. lt would take other forms of
spring base.
electric lighting to replace gas lighting in private
living spaces.
lt was discovered at a fairly early stage, that

electrical conductors heat up to produce a
sufficiently great resistance, and even begin to
glow; in 1802 - eight years before his
spectacular presentation of the first arc lamp -
Humphrey Davy demonstrated how he cou Id
make a platinum wire glow by means of
electrolysis.
The incandescent lamp failed to establish
Thomas Alva Edison,
itself as a new light source for technical
Edison lamps, platinum reasons, mu ch the sa me as the arc lamp.
and carbon filament There were only a few substances that had a
version, as yet without the melting point high enough to create
typical screw cap.
incandescence before melting. Moreover, the
high level of resistance required very thin
filaments, which were difficult to produce, broke
easily and burnt up quickly in the oxygen in the
air.
First experiments made with platinum wires
or carbon filaments did not produce much more
than minimum service life. The life time could
only be extended when the filament -
predominantly made
of carbon or graphite at that time - was prevented
from burning up by surrounding it with a glass
bulb, which was either evacuated or filled with
inert gas. Pioneers in this field were Joseph
Wilson Swan, who preceded Edison by six
months with his graphite lamp, but above
20
1.1 History
ail Heinrich Goebel, who in 1854 produced

incandescent lamps with a service life
of 220 hours with the aid of carbonized bamboo
fibres and air-void eau-de-cologne bottles.
The actual breakthrough, however, was
indeed thanks to Thomas Alva Edison, who in
1879 succeeded in developing an industrial
mass product out of the experimental
constructions created by his predecessors.
This product corresponded in many ways to the
incandescent lampas we know it today- right
down to the construction of the screw cap.
The filament was the only element that
remained in need of improvement.
Edison first used Goebel's carbon filament
comprising carbonized bamboo. Later synthetic
carbon filaments extruded from cellulose nitrate
were developed. The luminous efficacv always
the main weakness of incandescent lamps, cou
Id, however, only be substantially improved with
the changeover to metallic filaments. This is
where Auer von Welsbach, who had already
made more efficient gas lighting possible
Cooper-Hewitt's low- through the development of the incandescent
pressure mercury lamp. mantle, cornes into his own once again. He
This la m p worked used osmium filaments derived through a
much like a modern- laborious sintering process. The filaments did
day fluorescent tube
but did not conta in
not prove to be very stable, however, giving way
a ny fi uorescent materia to tantalum lamps, which were developed a little
1, so only very little later and were considerably more robust. These
visible light was pro- were in turn replaced by lamps
duced. The lamp was
mounted in the centre like
with filaments made of tungsten, a material still
a scale beam, because it used for the filament wire in lamps today.
was ignited bytipping the
tubes by means of a Following the arc lamp and the incandescent
drawstring.
lamp, discharge lamps took their place as the
third form of electric lighting. Again physical
findings were available long before the lamp
was putto any practical use. As far back as the
17th century there were reports about lu
minous phenomena in mercury barometers.
But it was Humphrey Davy once again who
gave the first demonstration of how a
discharge lamp worked. ln tact, at
the beginning of the 18th century Davy ex-
amined ail three forms of electric lighting
systematically. Almost eighty years passed,
however, before the first truly functioning
discharge lamps were actually constructed, and
it was only after the incandescent lamp had
established itself as a val id light source, that
the first discharge lamps with the prime purpose
of producing light were brought onto
the market. This occured at around
the turn of the century. One of these
Theatre foyer lit by was the Moore lamp - a forerunner of the
Moore lamps. modern-day high voltage fluorescent tube. lt
consisted of long glass tubes of various
shapes and sizes, high voltage
and a pure gas discharge process. Another was
the low-pressure mercury lamp, which is the
equivalent of the fluorescent lamp as we know it
today, except that it had no fluorescent coating.
21
1.1 History
1.1.5 Quantitative lig hting design
1.1.6 Beginnings of new lighting design
The Moore lamp - like the highvoltage inadequate light sources had been the main
fluorescent tube today - was primarily used for problem to date, lighting specialists were then
contour lighting in architectural spaces and for faced with the challenge
advertising purposes; its lu minous intensity of purposefully controlling excessive
was too low amounts of light. Specialist engineers
to be seriously used for functional lighting. The started to think about how much
mercury va pour lamp, on the other hand, had light was to be required in which situations and
excellent lu minous efficacy values, which what forms of lighting were to be applied.
immediately established it as a competitor to Task lighting in particular was examined in
the relatively inefficient incandescent lamp. lts detail to establish how great an influence
advantages were, however, outweighed by its illuminance and the kind of lighting applied had
inadequate colour rendering properties, which on productivity.
meant that it could only be used for simple The result of these perceptual physiological
lighting tasks. investigations was a comprehensive
There were two completely different ways work of reference that contained
of solving this problem. One possibility was to the illuminance levels required for certain
compensate for the missing spectral visual tasks plus minimum colour rendering
components in the mercury vapour discharge qualities and glare limitation requirements.
process by adding lu minous substances. The Although this catalogue of standards was
result was the fluorescent lamp, which did designed predominantly as an aid
produce good colour rendering and offered for the planning of lighting for workplaces, it
enhanced luminous efficacy due to the soon became a guideline for lighting
exploitation of the considerable ultra-violet in general, and even today determines lighting
emission. design in practice. As a planning aid it is
American light tower The other idea was to increase the almost exclusively quantityoriented and should,
(San José 1885). pressure by which the mercury vapour was therefore, not be regarded as a comprehensive
discharged. The result was moderate colour planning aid for ail possible lighting tasks. The
rendering, but a considerable increase in aim
luminous efficacy. Moreover, this meant that of standards is to manage the a mou nt of light
higher light intensities available in an economic sense, based on the
could be achieved, which made the high- physiological research that had been done on
pressure mercury lampa competitor to the arc human visual requirements.
lamp. The fact that the perception of an abject is
more than a mere visual task and that, in
addition to a physiological process, vision is
also a psychological process, was disregarded.
1.1.5 Quantitative lighting design Quantitative lighting design is content with
providing uniform amblent lighting that will meet
the re-quirements of the most difficult visu al
A good hundred years after scientific research
task to be performed in the given space, while
into new light sources began
at the sa me time adhering to the standards
ail the standard lamps that we know today had
with regard to glare limitation and colour
been created, at least in their basic form. Up to
distortion. How we see architecture, for
this point intime, sufficient light had only been
instance, under a given light, whether its
available during daylight hours. From now on,
structure is clearly legible and its aesthetic
artificial light changed dramatically. lt was no
quality has been enhanced
longer a temporary expedient but a form
by the lighting, goes beyond the realm of a set
of lighting to be taken seriously, ranking with
of ru les.
natural light.
llluminance levels similar to th ose of
daylight could technically now be produced in
interior living and working spaces or in exterior
spaces, e.g. for the lighting of streets and
public spaces, or for
the floodlighting of buildings. Especially in the
case of street lighting, the temptation to turn 1.1.6 Beginnings of a new kind of lighting
night into day and to do away with darkness design
altogether was great. ln the United States a
number of projects were realised in which lt was, therefore, not surprising that alongside
entire towns were lit by an array of light towers. quantative lighting technology and planning a
Floodlighting new approach to designing with light was
on this scale soon proved to have more dis- developed, an approach that was related far
advantages than advantages due to glare more intensely
problems and harsh shadows. The days to architectural lighting and its inherent requ
of this extreme form of exterior lighting were irements.
therefore numbered. This developed in part within the
framework of lighting engineering as it was
known. Joachim Teichmüller, founder of the
Bath the attempt to provide comprehensive lnstitute for Lighting Technology
street lighting and the failure of these attempts in Karlsruhe, is a name that should be men-
was yet another phase in the application of tioned here. Teichmüller defined the
artificial light. Whereas term "lichtarchitektur" as architecture that
22
1.1 History
conceives light as a building material and

incorporates it purposefully into the overall
architectural design. He also pointed out - and
he was the first to do so - that, with regard to
architectural lighting, artificial light can surpass
daylight, if it is a pp lied purposefully and in a
differentiated way.
Lighting engineers still tended to practise a
quantative lighting philiosophy. lt was the
architects who were now beginning to develop
new concepts for architectural lighting. From
time immemorial, daylight had been the defining
agent. The significance of light and shadow and
Joachim Teichmüller.
the way light can structure
a building is something every architect
is familiar with. With the development of more
efficient artificial light sources,
the knowledge that has been gained of daylight
technology was now joined by
the scope offered by artificial light. Light no
longer only had an effect coming from outside
into the building. lt cou Id light interior spaces,
and now even light from inside outwards. When
Le Corbusier described architecture as the
"correct and magnificent play of masses
brought together in light", this no longer only
applied to sunlight, but also included the
artificially lit interior space.
This new understanding of light had
special significance for extensively glazed
facades, which were not only openings
to let daylight into the building, but gave the
architecture a new appearance at night through
artificial light. A German style of architecture
known as "Glaserne Kette" in particular
interpreted the building as a crystalline, self-lu
minous creation. Utopian ideas of glass
Wassili Luckhardt
architecture, luminous cities dotted with light
(1889-1972): Crystal on towers and magnificent glazed structures, à la
the sphere. Cult Paul Scheerbart, were reflected in a number of
building. Second ver- equally visionary designs of spar-
sion. Crayon, a round
1920.
kling crystals and shining dames. A little later, in
the 1920s, a number of glass architecture
concepts were created; large buildings such as
industrial plants or department stores took on
the appearance of self-illuminating structures
after
dark, their fa cades divided up via the inter-
change of dark wall sections and light glazed
areas. ln these cases, lighting design clearly
went far beyond the mere creation of
J. Brinkmann, L. C. van der
Vlugt and Mart Stam: recommended illuminances.
Van Nelle tobacco factory, lt addressed the structures of the lit
Rotterdam 1926-30. architecture. And yet even this approach did
not go far enough, because it regarded the
building as a single entity, to be viewed from
outside at night, and disregarded users of the
building and their visual needs.
Buildings created up to the beginning of the
second world war were therefore characterised
by what is, in part, highly differentiated exterior
lighting. Ali this, however, made little difference
to the trend towards quantitative, unimaginative
interior lighting, involving in the main standard
louvred fittings.
2
3
1.1 History
ln order to develop more far-reaching aspects began to develop in the USA

architectural lighting concepts, man after the second world war. One of the
had to become the third factor alongside pioneers in the field is without doubt Richard
architecture and light. Perceptual psychology Kelly, who integrated existing ideas from the
provided the key. n contrast to physiological
1 field of perceptua 1 psychology and stage
research, it was not simply a question of the lighting to create one uniform concept.
quantitative limiting values for the perception of Kelly broke away from the idea of uniform
abstract "visu al tasks" Man as a perceiving illuminance as the paramount criterion of
being was lighting design. He substituted the issue of
the focus of the research, the question of how quantity with the issue of different qualities of
reality perceived is reconstructed in the process light, of a series of functions that lighting had to
of seeing. These investigations soon led to meet to serve the needs of the perceiver. Kelly
evidence that perception differentiated between three basic functions:
was not purely a process of reproducing amblent light, focal glow and play of brilliance.
images, nota photographing of our environ- Ambient light corresponded to what had up
Ambient light. ment. lnnumerable optical phenomena proved to then been termed quantitative lighting.
that perception in volves a corn plex General lighting was provided that was
interpretation of surrounding stimuli, sufficient for the perception of the given visual
that eye and brain constructed rather than tasks; these might include the perception of
reproduced an image of the world a round US. abjects and building structures, orientation
ln view of these findings lighting acquired a within an environ ment or orientation while in
totally new meaning. Light was no longer just a motion.
physical quantity that provided sufficient Focal glow went beyond this general
illumination; it became a decisive factor in lighting and allowed for the needs of man as a
human perception. Lighting was not only there perceptive being in the respective environ ment.
to render things and spaces a round us visible, Focal glow picked out relevant visu al
it determined the priority and the way individual information against a background of ambient
abjects in our visu al environment were seen. light; significant areas were accentuated and
less relevant visual information took second
place. ln contrast to uniform lighting, the visual
environment was structured and cou Id be
perceived quickly and easily. Moreover, the
1.1.6.1 The influence of stage lighting viewer's attention could be drawn towards
individual abjects, with the result that focal glow
not only contributed towards orientation, but
Lighting technology focussing on man as a
cou Id also be used for
perceptive being acquired a number of
the presentation of goods and aesthetic
essential impulses from stage lighting. ln the
abjects.
theatre, the question of illuminance levels and
Play of brilliance took into account the fact
uniform lighting is of minor importance. The aim
that light does not only illuminate abjects and
of stage lighting is not
express visual information, but that it could
to render the stage or any of the technical
become an abject
equipment it comprises visible; what
of contemplation, a source of information, in
the audience has to perceive is changing
itself. ln this third function light
scenes and moods - light alone can be applied
could also enhance an environment in
on the same set to create the impression of
an aesthetic sense - play of brilliance from a
different times of day, changes in the weather,
simple candie flame to a chandelier could lend
frightening or romantic atmospheres.
a prestigious space life and atmosphere.
Stage lighting goes much further
These three basic lighting categories
in its intentions than architectural lighting does -
provided a simple, but effective and clearly
it strives to create illusions, whereas
structured range of possibilities that allowed
architectural lighting is concerned
lighting to address the architecture and the
with rendering real structures visible. Never-
abjects within an environ ment as well as the
theless stage lighting serves as an example for
perceptual needs of the users of the space.
architectural lighting. lt identifies methods of
Starting in
producing differentiated lighting effects and the
the USA, lighting design began to change
instruments required to create these particular
gradually from a purely technical discipline to
effects - bath areas from which architectural
an equally important and indispensible
lighting can benefit. lt is therefore not surprising
discipline in the architectural design process -
that stage lighting began to play a significant
the competent lighting designer became a
raie in the development of lighting design and
recognised partner
that a large number ofwell-known lighting
in the design team, at least in the case of
designers have their roots in theatre lighting.
large-scale, prestigious projects.
1.1.6.2 Qualitative lighting design
A new lighting philosophy that no longer

confined itself exclusively to quantitative
24
1.1 History
1.1.6.3 Lighting engineering and lighting design of discharge lamps with metal halide sources.
Concentrated light can be applied effectively
over larger distances. The
The growing demand for quality lighting design third new development is the compact
was accompanied by the demand for quality fluorescent lamp, which combines the
lighting equipment. Differentiated lighting advantages of the linear fluorescent with
required specialised luminaires designed to smaller volume, thereby achieving improved
cape with specific lighting tasks. You need optical contrai, ideally suited to energy-efficient
completely different luminaires to achieve fluorescent downlights, for example.
uniform washlight over a wall area, for example, Ali this means that lighting designers have
than you do for accentuating one individual a further range of tools at their disposai for the
abject, or different on es again for the creation of differentiated lighting to meet the
permanent lighting in a theatre foyer than for the requirements of
variable lighting required in a multi-purpose hall the specific situation and the perceptual
or exhibition space. needs of the people using the space.
The development of te ch ni cal possibi- lt can be expected in future that progress in the
lities and lighting application led to field of lighting design will depend on the
a productive correlation: industry had to meet continuing further development of light sources
the designers' demands for new luminaires, and and luminaires, but above ail on the consistent
further developments in the field of lamp application of this 'hardware' in the interest of
technology and luminaire design were promoted qualitative lighting design. Exotic solutions -
to suit particular applications required by the using equipment such as laser lighting or
lighting designers. lighting using huge reflector systems - will
New lighting developments served to allow remain isolated cases and will not become part
spatial differentiation and more flexible lighting. of general lighting practice.
Exposed incandescent and fluorescent lamps
were replaced by a variety of specialised
reflector luminaires, providing the first
opportunity to direct light purposefully into
certain areas
or onto objects-from the uniform lighting of
extensive surfaces using wall or ceiling washers
to the accentuation of a precisely defined area
by means of reflector spotlights. The
development of track lighting opened up further
scope for lighting design, because it allowed
enormous flexibility. Lighting installations cou Id
be adapted to meet the respective requirements
Focal glow.
of the space.
Products that allowed spatial differentiation
were followed by new developments that
offered time-related differentiation: lighting
contrai systems. With the use
of compact contrai systems it has become
possible to plan lighting installations
that not only offer one fixed application, but are
able to define a range of light scenes. Each
scene can be adjusted to suit the requirements
of a particular situation. This might be the
different lighting conditions required for a
podium discussion or for a si ide show, but it
might also be a matter of adapting to changes
within a specific environ ment: the changing
intensity of daylight or the time of day. Lighting
contrai systems are therefore a logical
consequence of spatial differentiation, allowing
a lighting installation to be utilised to the full - a
seamless transition between individual scenes,
which is simply not feasible via ma nuai
switching.
There is currently considerable research
and development being undertaken in
the field of compact light sources: among the
incandescents the halogen lamp, whose
sparkling, concentrated light provides new
concepts for display lighting. Similar qualities
are achieved in the field
Play of brilliance
25
2.0 Basics
2.1 2.1 Perception
2.1.1 Eye and camera
Perception Most of the information we receive about the

world a round us is through our eyes. Light is
not only an essential prerequisite and the
medium by which we are able
to see. Through its intensity, the way it is
distributed throughout a space and through its
properties, light creates specific conditions
which can influence our perception.
Lighting design is, in tact, the planning of our

visual environ ment. Good lighting design aims
to create perceptual conditions which allow us
to work effectively and orient ourselves safely
while promoting a feeling of well-being in a
particular environ ment and at the sa me time
enhancing that same enviroment in an
aesthetic sense. The physical qualities of
a lighting situation can be calculated and
measured. Ultimately it is the actual effect the
lighting has on the user of
a space, his subjective perception, that decides
whether a lighting concept is successful or not.
Lighting design can therefore not be restricted
to the creation
of technical concepts only. Human perception
must be a key consideration in the lighting
design process.
Spherical aberration.
Projected images are 2.1.1 Eye and camera
distorted due to the
curvature of the retina.
The process of perception is frequently
explained by comparing the eye with
a camera. ln the case of the camera,
an adjustable system of lenses projects the
reversed image of an abject onto a light-
sensitive film. The amount of light is controlled
by a diaphragm. After developing the film and
reversing the image during the enlarging
process a visible, twodimensional image of the
Chromatic aberration. abject becomes apparent.
Images are blurred due to Similarly, in the eye, a reversed image is
the various degrees of
refraction of spectral projected onto the inner surface of
colours. the eye, the so-called fundus oculi,
via a deformable lens. The iris takes on the
function of the diaphragm, the lightsensitive
retina the raie of the film.
The image is then transported via the optic
nerve from the retina to the brain,
where it is adjusted in the cortex and made
available to the conscious mind.
Comparing the eye with the camera in this way

makes the process of vision fairly easy to
understand, but it does not contribute to our
comprehension of perception. The fault lies in
the assumption that
the image projected onto the retina is identical
to the perceived image. The tact that the retina
image forms the basis for perception is
undisputed, but there are considerable
differences between what is actually perceived
in our field of vision and the image on the
retina.
Firstly, the image is spatially distorted
through its projection onto the curved surface
of the retina - a straight line is as a rule
depicted as a curve on the retina.
28
2.1 Perception
2.1.2 Perceptual psychology
their point. But not one of these schools of This spherical misrepresentation is ac-
thought is able to give a plausible explanation companied by clear chromatic aberration - light
for ail the phenomena that occur during the of various wavelengths is refracted to varying
visual process. degrees, which produces coloured rings around
There is an indication that the spatial the abjects viewed.
aspect of perception is innate. If you place The eye is therefore a very inadequate
new-born animais (or six-monthold babies) Perceptual
on constancy: optical instrument. lt produces a spatially
a glass panel that overlaps a step, they will perception of a shape in spite distorted and non-colour corrected image on the
avoid moving onto the area beyond the step. of the fact that the image on retina. But these defects are not evident in our
the retina is changing with
This indicates that the innate visual recognition actual perception of the world a round us. This
the changing perspective.
of depth means that they must somehow be eliminated
and its inherent dangers have priority over while the image is being processed in the brain.
information relayed via the sense of touch,
which tells the animal, or baby, that they are on
a safe, fiat surface. Apart from this corrective process there are a
On the other hand, it can be demonstrated number of other considerable differences
that perception is also dependent on previous between the image on the retina and what we
experience. Known shapes are more easily actually perceive. If we perceive abjects that are
recognised than unknown ones. Once arranged within a space, this gives rise to
interpretations of complex visual shapes have images on the retina whose perspectives are
been gained, they distorted.
rem a in, and serve as a source of reference for A square perceived at an angle, for example,
future perception. will produce a trapezoidal image on the retina.
ln this case experience, and the ex- This image may, however, also have been
pectations linked with it, may be so strong that produced by a trapezoidal surface viewed front
missing elements of a shape are perceived as on, or by an unlimited number of square shapes
complete or individual details amended to arranged at an
enable the abject to meet our expectations. angle. The only thing that is perceived is one
When it cornes to perception, therefore, single shape - the square that this image has
bath innate mechanisms and experience have actually produced. This perception of a square
a part to play. lt may be presumed that the shape remains consistent, even ifviewer or
innate component abject move, although
is responsible for organising or structuring the the shape of the image projected on the retina
information perceived, whereas on a higher is constantly changing due to the changing
level of processing experience helps us to perspective. Perception cannot therefore only
interpret complex shapes and structures. be purely a matter of rendering the image on
the retina available to our conscious mind. lt is
1
Perception of a sha pe
based on shadow formation more a result of the way the image is
alone when contours are interpreted.
missing.
As for the issue of whether impressions
received via the senses alone determine
perception or whether the information 2.1.2 Perceptual psychology
also has to be structured on a psychical level,
again there is evidence to prove bath these Presenting a model of the eye to demonstrate
concepts. The fact that a grey area will appear the similarities to the workings of
light grey if it is edged a camera does not provide any explanation as
in black, or dark grey if it is edged in white can to how the perceived image cornes into being -
be explained by the fact that the stimuli it only transports the abject to
perceived are processed directly - brightness is
Recognising an overall be perceived from the outside world to the
perceived as a result shape by revealing cortex. To truly understand what visual
essential details.
of the lightness contrast between the grey area perception is ail about, it is not so much the
and the immediate surroundings. What we are transport of visu al information that is of
considering here significance, but rather the process involved in
is a visual impression that is based exclusively the interpretation of this information, the
on sensory input which is not influenced by any creation of visu al impressions.
criteria of order linked with our intellectual The next question that arises is whether
processing of this information. our ability to perceive the world a round us is
On the other hand, the fact that vertical innate or the result of a learning process, i.e.
lines in a perspective drawing whether it has to
appear to be considerably larger further back in be developed through experience. Another point
the drawing than in the foreground, can be Matching a colour to the to be considered is whether sense impressions
000
explained by the fact that the drawing is respective pattern perceived.
The colour of the central grey
interpreted spatially. Aline that is further away,
point adjusts itself to the
i.e. in the background, must be longer than black
a or white colour of the
from outside alone are re-sponsible for the
perceived image or whether the brain translates
these stimuli into a perceivable image through
000
line in the foreground in order to produce anrespective perceived pattern the application of its own principles of order.
equivalently large retina image - in the depth of five
of There is no clear answer to this question.
the space a line of effectively the same length Perceptual psychology is divided on this point.
will therefore be interpreted and perceived as There are, in fact, a number of contradictory
000
being longer. opinions, each of which can provide evidence of
va rio us kinds to prove
30 2
9
2.1 Perception
The perception of the

lightness of the grey
surface depends on its
immediate surroundings.
If the surrounding
field is lightan identical
shade of grey will appear
to be darker than when
the surrounding field
is dark.
Consta ncy with regard to ln this case the per-

perception of size. Due to spective interpretation
the perspective leads to an optical illu-
interpretation of this sion. The vertical line to
illustration the luminaires the rear appears
are ail perceived as being to be longer than a line of
the sa me size in spite of identical length in the
the variations in size of foreground due to the
the retina images. perspective interpretation
of the picture.
The continuous lumi-

nance gradient a cross
the surface of the
0
walls is interpreted as
a property of the lighting
D
of the wall. The wall
reflectance factor is assu
med to be constant. The
grey of the sharply framed
picture is interpreted
as a property of the
material, although the
luminance is identical to
the luminance of the
corner of the room.
2.1 Perception
~-- 2.1.2 Perceptual psychology
~
= = = =~
ChangeOurof apparent
perception knowledge of distance distortion of abjects. They guarantee that the
from
ratios1 igtherefore
ht/da rk togives rise to a change changing trapezoidal and ellipsoidal forms in the
black/white if the spatia 1
in the way we perceive things. As the distances
interpretation retina image can be perceived as spatial
in thefigure
of the drawing are however fictitious, we can say
changes. manifestations of constant, rectangular or round
that there is evidence that the brain is able to abjects, while taking into consideration the angle
perform interpretative processes that are not at which the abject is viewed.
dependent on external stimuli. Perception When it cornes to lighting design there is a
therefore cannot be attributed to one principle further complex of constancy phenomena that
alone, but results from various mechanisms. are of significance; those which contrai the
~ ------- perception of bright-ness. Through the
~~ identification of the luminous reflectance of a
surface
it becomes apparent that a surface reflects light
2.1.2.1 Constancy differently depending on the intensity of the
surrounding lighting, i.e. the luminance of a
Even if there is not one simple expia nation for surface varies. The illuminated side of a
the way perception works, the question unicoloured abject has a higher luminance than
regarding which objective the various the side that receives no direct light; a black
mechanisms serve remains an interesting one. abject in sunlight shows a considerably higher
Optical illusions provide an opportunity to level of luminance than a white abject in an
examine the effects and aims of perception. interior space. If perception depended on seen
Optical illusion is not a case of a perceptual faux luminance, the luminous reflectance would not
pas, but can be regarded as the border case of be recognised as a constant property of an
a mechanism that provides essential information abject.
under everyday conditions. This indicates that A mechanism is required that determines
bath phenomena described above, bath the the luminous reflectance of a surface from the
changing perception of brightness ratio of the luminances of this surface to its
on identical surfaces and the erroneous surroundings. This means that a white surface
perception of lin es of equal length, can be is assumed to be white bath in light and shade,
explained as stemming from one common because The spatial impression is
in relation to the surrounding sufaces determined by the
objective. unconscious assumption that
= it reflects more light. There is, however, the light cornes from above. By
borderline case, as indicated above, where two inverting the picture the
surfaces of the sa me colour are perceived as perception of elevation and
One of the most important tasks of perception is depth is changed.
to differentiate between constant abjects and being of a different brightness under the same
changes in our surroundings in the continuously lighting due to different surrounding surfaces.
changing shapes and distribution of brightness
of the image on the retina. Sin ce constant
abjects also produce retina images of varying
shapes, sizes and brightness arising due to
changes in lighting, distance or perspective, this The ability of the perceptual process to
indicates that mechanisms must exist to identify recognise the luminous reflectance
these abjects and their properties and to of abjects un der different illuminance levels is
perceive them as being constant. actually only half the story. There must be
additional mechanisms that go beyond the
perception of luminous reflectance, while
processing varying gradients and sharp
Our misinterpretation of lines of the sa me differences in luminance.
length shows that the perceived size of
an abject does not depend on the size of the We are familiar with changing luminance levels
retina image alone, but that the distance of the on the surfaces around us. They may be the
observer from the abject result of the type of lighting: one example of this
is significant. Vice versa, abjects of known is the graduai decrease in brightness a long the
sizes are used to judge distances or rear wall of a space that is daylit from one side
to recognise the size of adjacent abjects. only. Or they may arise from the spatial form of The spatial quality of an
Judging from daily experience this mechanism the illuminated abject: examples of this are the object can be recognised
purely from the gradient of
is sufficient to allow us toperceive abjects and formation of typical shadows on spatial bodies the shadows.
their size reliably. A persan seen a long way such as cubes, cylinders or spheres. A third
away is therefore reason
not perceived as a dwarf and a house on the for the presence of different luminances may lie
horizon notas a small box. Only in extreme in the quality of the surface. Uneven reflectance
situations does our perception deceive us: results in uneven luminance even if the lighting
looking out of an aéroplane abjects on the is uniform. The aim of the perceptual process is
ground appear to be tiny; the viewing of abjects to decide whether an abject is of a single colour,
that are considerably farther away, e.g. the but not lit uniformly, or whether it is spatially
moon, is much more difficult for us to handle. formed or a uniformly
lit abject with an uneven reflection factor.
Just as we have mechanisms that han die the

perception of size we have similar mechanisms
that balance the perspective
31
2.1 Perception
The example shown here serves to explain this

process. As a rule the folded card is perceived
as if it is being viewed from the outside (fold to
the front). ln this case it appears to be
uniformly white but lit from one side. If the card
is seen as being viewed from inside (fold to the
rear). it is perceived as being uniformly lit but
with one half coloured black. The luminance
pattern of the retina image is therefore
interpreted differently: in one case it
is attributed to a characteristic black/white
coloration of the perceived abject; in the other
case perception does not caver
the different luminance in the perception of the
apparently uniformly white card:
it is taken to be a feature of the lighting
situation.
One characteristic feature of perception is,

therefore, the preference for simple
The lighting distribution and easily comprehensible interpretations.
on an unstructured wall Differences in luminance are effectively
becomesa dominant
feature, whereas the sa
eliminated from the perceived images to a
me lighting distribution large extent or especially emphasized de-
on a structured wall is pending on whether they are interpreted as a
interpreted as back- characteristic feature of the abject
ground and not per-
ceived.
or as a feature of the surroundings - in this
case, of the lighting.
These mechanisms should be taken into

consideration when designing the lighting for a
space. The first conclusion that can be drawn
is that the impression of uniform brightness
does not depend
on totally uniform lighting, but that
it can be achieved by means of luminance
gradients that run uniformly.
On the other hand irregular or uneven
luminances can lead to confusing lighting
situations. This is evident, for example, when lu
minous patterns created on the walls bear no
relation to the architecture. The observer's
attention is drawn to a luminance pattern that
cannot be explained through the properties of
the wall, nor
as an important feature of the lighting.
If luminance patterns are irregular they should,
therefore, always be in accordance with the
architecture.
The perception of colour, similar to the

perception of brightness, is dependent on
surrounding colours and the quality
Light distribution that is as disturbing patterns The position of the of the lighting. The necessity to interpret
not aligned with the a rch that do not relate to the lu minous beam deter- colours is based on the tact that colour
itectu ra 1 structure of the space. mines whether it
space is perceived appearances around us are constantly
is perceived as back-
changing.
ground or as a distur-
bing shape. A colour is therefore perceived as being
constant bath when viewed in the bluish light of
an overcast sky or in warmer direct sunlight -
colour photographs taken un der the sa me
conditions, however, show the colour shifts we
expect under the particular lighting.
D D Perception is therefore able to adjust

to the respective colour properties of the
lighting, thereby providing constant colour
perception under changing conditions. This
only applies, however, when
32
2.1 Perception
the entire environment is lit with light of the mechanism is stronger than our conscious
same luminous colour and the lighting does reason ing.
not change too rapidly.
If different lighting situations can be compared This example shows that the complex and in
directly, the contrast due to different luminous consistent patterns of the retina image are
colours will be perceived. ordered in the course of the perpetual process
This becomes evident when the observer to enable us to interpret
moves through spaces that are lit differently, whatwe perceive easily and clearly. ln our
but above ail when different light sources are example, a portion of these patterns within one
used within one room or picture are grouped together to form an image,
if the observer is in a space comprising i.e. an abject of interest while the rest of the
coloured glazing and in a position to compare patterns are regarded as the background and
the lighting inside and outside the building. their properties
Lighting a space using different luminous by and large ignored.
colours can be done effectively, if the change Moreover, the fact that of the two in-
of lu minous colour bears a clear relation to terpretations the vase is the preferred one
the respective environment. shows that this process of interpretion
is subject to certain rules; that is to say, that it
is possible to formulate laws according to
which certain arrangements are grouped
2.1.2.2 Laws of gestalt together to form shapes,
i.e. abjects of perception.
The main theme of this chapter so far has been
the question of how the properties of abjects - These ru les are not only of value when it
size, form, reflectance and colour - are cornes to describing the perceptual process,
perceived as being constant in spite of changing they are also of practical interest for the lighting
retina images. designer. Every lighting installation comprises
These considerations did not include how the an arrangement
abject itself is perceived. of luminaires - on the ceiling, on the walls or in
Before properties can be attributed to an the space. This arrangement is
abject, the abject itself must be recognised, that not perceived as su ch, but is organised into
is to say, distinguished from its surroundings. forms or groups in accordance with the laws
The process of identifying this abject in the of gestalt. The architectural setting and the
profusion of continuously changing stimuli on lighting effects produced by
the retina is no less problematic than the the luminaires give rise to further patterns,
perception of abjects. Orto put it in more which are included in our perception
general terms: how does the perceptual of the overall situation.
process define the structures its attention has lt might occur that these structures are
been drawn to and how does it distinguish them reorganised visually to su ch an extent that we
from their surroundings. do not perceive the patterns
as intended, but other shapes and forms.
Another, negative effect may be - for example,
An example will serve to illustrate this process. in the case of a chessboard pattern - that
ln the drawing on the left most people gestalt and background cannot be clearly
spontaneously see a white vase against a grey identified. The result
background. On closer examination two grey is continuously shifting focus selection.
heads facing each other against a white lt is therefore necessary to con si der
background become apparent. Once the hidden to the laws of gestalt when developing
faces have been discovered, there is no lighting design concepts.
difficulty in perceiving the vase or the faces, but
it
is impossible to see bath at the sa me time.
1n bath cases we perce ive a figure - either the

vase or the two faces against a background of a
contrasting colour. The separation of gestalt
(form) and environ ment, of motif and
background, is so complete that if you imagine
that the form is moved, the background does
not move in unison. ln our example the
Depending on how you background
view this drawing, you is therefore an area behind the form and fills the
will see a vase or two
heads facing each other.
entire drawing. Apart from its colour and its
function as an environment no other properties
are attributed to the background area. lt is not
an abject in its own right and is not affected by
changes inherent to the form. This impression is
not influenced by the knowledge that the
"background" in our example, is in fact, another
form, or gestalt - the perceptual
33
2.1 Perception
Law of gestalt relating to An initial and essential principle of the

proximity. Luminaires are 0 0 perception of gestalt, is the tendency to
grouped in pairs.
interpret c/osed forms as a figure.
Closed forms need not possess a continuous

contour. Elements arranged close
together are grouped according to another law
of gestalt, the /aw of proximity, and forma figure.
The example on the
left demonstrates that we first see a circle and
then an arrangement of luminaires. The circles
are arranged in such a strict order that the
imaginary linking lines between them is not
0 straight, but forms
0
= a circle; the resulting shape is nota polygon but
a perfect circle.
0 0
Apart from the effect produced by proximity,

there is another mechanism
via which shapes that are not competely
closed can be perceived as a gestalt.
A closed shape is always seen as being on the
inside of the lin king line - the formative effect
therefore only works in one direction. This inner
0
Law of gestalt relating to side is usually identical to the concave,
0 0
= proximity. Four points
are grouped to form a
surrounding side of
the line that encloses the figure. This in tu rn
0 0
= square, from eight points
upwards a circle is leads to a formative effect even
0 0
0 formed. in the case of open curves or angles, rendering
a figure visible inside the line, that
is to say in the partly enclosed area. If this leads
to a plausible interpretation of the initial pattern,
the effect of the inner side can be significant.
Patterns frequently possess no shapes that can

be arranged according to the principles of
closure or proximity, or the inner line. But in su
ch cases there are
laws of gestalt that allow certain arrangements
to appear as a shape. The perception of a form
as a pure sha pe is based on simple, logical
structure, whereas more complex structures
belonging to the same pattern disappear into an
apparently continuous background. One
example of
the this logical structuring ofspecificshapes is
symmetry.
The downlights are ar-
ranged in two lines Shapes of equa/ width have a similar effect.
0 0 0 0 0 0
in accordance with the
law of pure form. Wh en
This is not strictly a case of symmetry. A
two modular luminaires 0 0 0 0 principle of order and organisation is, however,
are added the arrange- evident, and this allows us to perceive a
ment is reorganised shape.
according to the law of
symmetry to form two
groups of five. If a pattern contains no symmetry or similar
widths, uniform style can still be enough to
render a shape a gestalt.
Apart from providing the ability to distinguish

shapes from their surroundings, i.e. figures from
0 0 0 0 their background, perception also clarifies the
0 0 CJ
D D relation of figures
0 0 0 0 to each other; be it the grouping together of
individual shapes to form one large shape or the
inter-relationship of a number ofshapes to forma
group. The basic principle that lies behind our
ability to distinguish between shapes and
background is once again evident here: our
unconscious search for order in our visu al field.
34
2.1 Perception
Perception
2.1.2
2.1.3 Physiology
Perceptual psychology
of the eye
Sectional view of the eye, rep A basic law of gestalt is to prefer to perceive lin The final law of gestalt for the arrangement of
resentation showing the parts es as steady continuous curves groups is a special case, as it involves the
of the eye which are sig-
nificant in the physiology of or straight lines, and to avoid bends and element of movement. ln the case of the law of
vision: deviations. The preferance to perceive "common destiny" it is
continuous lin es is so great that it can influence not the similarity of structure, but rather a mu
the overall interpretation of an image. tuai change, predominantly of the spatial
position, which assembles the figures into
groups. This becomes apparent when some of
When it cornes to two-dimensional shapes the the forms that were originally attributed to a
law of the continuous line conforms with the /aw previously wellorganised group, move in unison,
of pure form. ln this case, too, shapes are because in contrast to the remaining figures,
organised to create figures that are as simple it is as if they are drawn on a transparent
and clearly arranged as possible. overlay, which is placed on the original pattern.
The common movement of
the group in contrast to the immovability of the
When a given number of individual shapes are other figures tenders their belonging together in
put together to form groups, similar laws of any purposeful sense so probable that the
gestalt corne into play as with the focal original image is spontaneously reinterpreted.
Law of gestalt relating to selection of figure and background. The
continuous lines. The proximity of shapes is an equally essential
arrangement is
interpreted as two lines
principle in this regard.
crossing. At first glance these laws of gestalt appear to
A further criterion for the formulation of groups be very abstract and of little significance for
is symmetry. Especially in the case of axial the lighting designer. But these laws of gestalt
symmetry (arrangements around a vertical axis) do play
the mirrored shapes are always grouped in an important raie in the development of
pairs. This effect can be so strong that the luminaire arrangements. The actual lighting
grouping of adjacent shapes according to the effect produced by a planned arrangement of
law of proximity becomes irrelevant. luminaires may deviate totally from the original
design,
if the concept it is based on ignores the
Besides spatial layout, the structure of the mechanisms inherent to perception.
shapes themselves is also responsible for the
formation into groups. The shapes in the
adjacent drawing are not organised according to
proximity or axial symmetry, but in groups of
identical shapes. This principle of identity also
applies when the shapes in a group are not
absolutely identical but only similar.
Law of gestalt relating to

pure form. The arran-
gement is interpreted as
two superimposed rec-
tangles.
0 0 0 0 0
= =
Law of gestalt relating to

similarity. Luminaires of
the sa me type
are grouped together.
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
3
5
1,0 1 2.1 Perception
V\ 2.1.3 Physiology of the eye
0,8 1\ \
I -\
0,6
I 1
I
2.1.3 Physiology of the eye of vision are more visible - can be explained by
0,4 V
I v· the praperties of the rad system.
- 1 \
The information presented in this chapter is
\ \ that it is inadequate
.sz on the consideration
based
.f4i \
to portray the eye as\an optical system when
' <, The process of
The other type of receptors, the con es, rnake
up a system with very different praperties. This
describing
1400 human
[soo perception.
IGOO 1700 lsoo À (nm) is a system which we require to see things
perception is nota matter under greater lu minous intensities, i.e. under
of how an image of our enviranment daylight or electric light.
is transferred to the retina, but how the image is The cane system has a lower level of light-
interpreted, how we differentiate between sensitivity and is concentrated in
abjects with constant praperties the central area around the fovea. lt allows us to
in a changing enviranment. Although see colours and sharper contours
this means that priority will be given here to the of abjects on which we focus, i.e. whose image
process by which the image is created bath falls in the fovea area.
physiologically and psychologically, the eye and ln contrast to rad vision, we do not
its fundamental praperties should not be perceive the entire field of vision uniformly; the
ignored. main area of perception is in the central area.
The peripheral field of vision is also significant, Cornea
The eye is first and foremost an optical however; if interesting phenomena are
system creating images on the retina. perceived in that area then our attention is Cavity
Fove have
We a described this system by comparing automatically drawn to these points, which are
the eye with a camera, but more interesting by then received
far is the surface on which the image occurs - as an image in the fovea to be examined more
the retina. lt is in this layer closely. Apart from noticing sudden movement, Lens
that the pattern of luminances is translated into striking colours and patterns, the main reason
nervous impulses. The retina has, therefore, to for us to change Vitreous body
possess light sensitive receptors that are our direction ofview is the presence of high
numerausly sufficient to allow a high resolution luminances - our eyes and attention are Iris with pupil as the visual
of the visual image. attracted by bright light. aperture
One of the most remarkable praperties Ciliary muscle for

On close examination it is evident that these of the eye is its ability to a da pt to different adaptation of lens to
different viewing distances
receptors are not arranged in a uniform pattern; lighting conditions. We can perceive (accommodation)
the retina is a very complicated structure: firstly the world around us by moonlight or sunlight,
there are two different types of receptor, the although there is a difference
rads and the con es, which are not distributed of a factor of 105 in the illuminance. The extent
evenly over Optical nerve of tasks the eye is capable
the retina. At one point, the so-called "blind of performing is extremely wide - a faintly
spot", there are no receptors at ail, as this is the glowing star in the night's sky can Number N of rods and con
junction between the optic nerves and the be perceived, although it only praduces an es on the retina in relation
to the angle of sig ht.
retina. On the other illuminance of 10-12 lux on the eye.
hand there is an area called the fovea, which is
at the focal point of the lens. This accomodation is only influenced to a very NI [tempera: na sa 1
Here there is the greatest concentration of con small extent by the pupil, which regulates
es, whereas the density of the con es reduces incident light in a 1: 16 ratio. Adaptation is
rapidly towards the peripheral area. This is performed to a large extent by the retina. The
where we find the greatest concentration of rad and cane system handles different levels of
rads, which are not evident at ail in the fovea. light intensity. The rad system
Retina,cornes
location into
of theeffect
light-
sensitive receptors
in relation to night vision (scotopic vision). the Rods
-· Cones Blind
con es allow us to see du ringChoroidthemembrane
daytimefor blood spot
The reason for this arrangement of different (photopic vision) and bath supply to thesystems
receptor eye are
receptor types lies in the fact that activated in the transition times
Sciera of dawn and
our eyes consist of two visu al systems. The dusk (mesopic vision).
aider of these two systems, from an Although vision is therefore possible over
evolutionary point of view, is the one involving an extremely wide area of luminances there are
the rads. The special features of this system are clearly strict limits with regard
a high level of light-sensitivity and a large to contrast perception in each individual lighting
capacity for perceiving movement over the situation. The reason for this
entire field of vision. On the other hand, rads do lies in the fact that the eye cannot caver the
not allow entire range of possible luminances
us to perceive colour; contours are not sharp, at one and the same time, but adapts to caver
and it is not possible to concentrate one narrow range in which differentiated
on abjects, i.e. to study items clearly perception is possible. Objects that possess too
when they are in the centre of our field of vision. high a luminance for a particular level of
The rad system is extremely sensitive and adaptation cause glare, that is to say, they
it is activated when the illumance level is appear to be extremely bright. Objects of low
below 1 lux. The main features luminance, on the other hand, appear to be too
of night vision - mainly the fact that colour is not dark.
evident, contours are blurred The eye is able to adjust to new luminance
and poorly lit items in our peripheral field conditions, but as it does soit
36
1
45'
1,70 m
1
30'
2
1,20 m
Visu al field (1). preferred

visual field (2) and
optimum field of vision (3)
of a person standing
(above) and sitting
(centre, below) for
vertical visual tasks.
Frequency H of angle of
sight ex for horizontal
visual tasks. Preferred
field of vision between
15° and 40°, preferred
direction of view 25°.
Relative spectral luminous

efficiency of rods V' and
cones V.
38 37
E (lux) 2.1 Perception
Sunlight 100000 2.1.4 Objects of perception
Overcast sky 10000
Task liqhtinq 1000
Circulation zone lighting 100
Typical
Street illuminances
liqhtinq E 10 simply selects a different but restricted range.
and luminances under This process of adaptation does take time.
Moonliqht
daylight and electric light 1
Adapting from dark to light situations occurs
L (cd/m2)
relatively rapidly, whereas adapting from light to
Sunliqht 1000000000
darkness requires
Incandescent lamp (matt finish) 100000
a considerably longer time. A good example of
FI u ores ce nt la m p 10000
this is how bright we find it outside having corne
Sunlit Clouds 10000
out of a dark cinerna auditorium du ring the
Blue sky 5000
daytime, or the transitory period of night
Luminous ceilinq 500
blindness we experience when entering a very
Louvred luminaires 100
dark room. Bath
Preferred values in interior snaces 50-500
the fact that contrast in luminance can only be
White paper at 500 lx 100
processed by the eye within a certain range,
Monitor (neqative) 10-50
plus the tact that it takes time
White naner at 5 lx 1 to adapt to a new level of lighting,
1 or brightness, have an impact on lighting
design: the purposeful planning of different
~2 luminance grades within a space, for example,
or when adjusting lighting levels in adjacent
3 spaces.
do 2.1.4 Objects of perception Although this

6 7 L (cd/m2) chapter has described the psychological
10-s 110-6 110-4 110-2 1100 1102 1104 1106 11os
mechanisms involved
in the perception process together with the
physiological prerequisites, a third area has
only been touched upon - the subject of
perception. To this point the things
that were seen were either "abjects"
or "figures" in general or examples chosen to
illustrate a certain mechanism. We do not
perceive any abject that cornes within our field
of vision, however. The way the fovea prefers to
focus on small, changing scenes shows that the
perception process purposefully selects spécifie
areas.
This selection is inevitable, as the brain is not
capable of processing ail the visu al information
in the field of vision, and it also makes sense
because not ail the information that exists in our
environ mentis necessarily relevant for
perception.
Any attempt to describe visual perception

effectively must therefore also take into account
the critéria by which the selection of the
perceived information is effected.
ln the first instance the value of any particular
information relates to the current activity of the
observer. This activity may be work or
movement-related or any other activity for
which visual information is required.
The specific information received depends
on the type of activity. A car driver has to
concentra te on different visual tasks than a
pedestrian. A precision mechanic processes
different information than a worker in a
warehouse. A visu al task can be defined by
size or location;
it is of importance whether a visu al task is
movement-related or not, whether small details
or slight contrasts have to be registered,
whether colours or surface structures are
essential properties. Lighting conditions under
Preferred field of vision which the visual task can be perceived to an
for horizonta 1 visu a 1 optimum
tasks. Preferred direction
of view 25°. degree can be determined from the above-
mentioned spécifie features. lt is possible
2.1 Perception
2.1.4 Objects of perception
to define ways of lighting which will optimise the The glare phenomenon illustrates this
performace of specific activities. Investigations particularly well. If the exterior lighting
have been carried out especially in office and is especially strong, an opal glass window will
traffic situations to study the respective visu al produce glare, a fact that can
tasks and be explained physiologically by the great
a wide range of activities and to determ ine the contrast between the luminance of the window
conditions required for optimum perception. and the considerably lower luminance level of
Standards and recommendations for the lighting the surrounding wall surface. ln the case of a
of workplaces and traffic systems are based on window that provides an interesting view
the findings of this research. outside,
There is, however, another basic need for the contrast is greater, but the feeling that we
visual information that goes beyond the are being subjected to disturbing glare does
specific information required for not arise. Glare can, therefore,
a particular activity. This requirement for not only be explained from a physiological
information is not related to any particular standpoint, as it occurs when a bright surface
situation, it is the result of man's biological need with no information content attracts our
to understand the world around him. Whereas attention. Even high luminance contrasts are
you can enable felt to be glare-free, if
a persan to work more effectively by creating the area perceived offers interesting infor-
optimum perceptual conditions mation. lt is therefore clear that it is
for certain activities, man's feeling of wellbeing not practical to stipulate photometric quantities
in his visu al environ ment depends - e.g. luminance or illuminance limits - out of
on satisfying his biological need for information. context, since the actual perception of these
Much of the information required results photometric quantities is influenced by the
from man's need to feel safe. To be able to processing of the information provided.
evaluate a danger you have
to be able to comprehend the structure of
your environ ment. This applies bath
to orientation - knowing where you are, which
route you are on, and what the potential
destinations may be - and knowledge about the
qualities and peculiarities of the environ ment
you find yourself in. This knowledge, or lack of
information, determines the way we feel and our
behaviour. lt can lead to a feeling of tension and
unrest in unknown or potentially dangerous
situations, or relaxation and tranquility
in a familiar and safe environment. Other
information about the world around us
is required to allow us to adapt our behaviour to
the specific situation. This may include
knowledge of weather conditions and the time
of day as well as information relating to other
activities occurring in the given environment.
Should this information not be available, e.g. in
large, windowless buildings, the situation is
often interpreted as being unnatural and
oppressive.
A third area arises from man's social needs.
The need for contact with other people and the
demand for a priva te sphere are somewhat
contradictory and have
to be carefully balanced. The focus on which
visual information is to be taken in
is, therefore, determined by the activities being
Luminance range Lof rod
vision (1). mesopic vision
performed in a given environment and man's
(2) and cone vision (3). basic biological needs. Areas that promise
Luminances (4) and significant information -
preferred luminances (5) be it in their own right, or through accentuation
in interior spaces.
Absolute threshold of
with the aid of light - are perceived first. They
vision (6) and threshold of attract our attention. The information content of
absolute glare (7). a given abject is responsible for its being
selected as
an abject of perception. Moreover, the infor-
mation content also has an influence
on the way in which an abject is perceived and
evaluated.
39
2.2 2.2 Terms and units
Terms and units ln lighting technology a number of technical

terms and units are used to describe the
properties of light sources and the effects that
are produced.
2.2.1 Luminous flux
[(j)] = Lumen (lm) Lu minous flux describes the total a mou nt of

light emitted by a light source. This radiation
could basically be measured
or expressed in watt. This does not, however,
describe the optical effect of a light source
adequately, since the varying spectral sensitivity
The a mou nt of light of the eye is not taken into account.
emitted by a light source
isthe luminous flux CD. To include the spectral sensitivity of the eye
the lu minous flux is measured in lumen.
Radiant flux of 1 W emitted at the peak of the
spectral sensitivity (in the photopic range at
555nm) produces
a lu minous flux of 683 lm. Due to the shape of
the V (À) curve the sa me radiant flux will
produce correspondingly less lu minous flux at
different frequency points.
2.2.2 Luminous efficacy
Lu minous efficacy describes the luminous flux

of a lamp in relation toits power consumption
and is therefore expressed in lumen per watt
(lm/W). The maximum value theoretically
attainable when
n= ~ the total radiant power is transformed into
visible light is 683 lm/W. Luminous efficacy
varies from light source to light source, but
lm
[nl=w always remains well below this optimum value.
2.2.3 Ouantity of light
The quantity of light, or lu minous energy (US).

is a product of the lu minous
flux emitted multiplied by time; luminous energy
is generally expressed in klm · h.
2.2.4 Luminous intensity

Q = (j). t
[Q] =lm· h An ideal point-source lamp radiates luminous
flux uniformly into the space in
ail directions; its luminous intensity is the same
in ail directions. ln practice, however, lu minous
Lu minous intensity 1 is flux is not distributed uniformly. This results
the luminous partly from the design of the light source, and
flux CD radiating in
a given direction per partly on
solid angle O. the way the light is intentionally directed. lt
makes sense, therefore, to have a way of
presenting the spatial distribution
of lu minous flux, i.e. the lu minous intensity
Cr
distribution of the light source.
The unit for measuring luminous intensity
lm. =Candela (cd) is candela (cd). The candela is
sr the primary basic unit in lighting technology
from which ail others are derived.
1 The candela was originally defined by the lu
minous intensity of a standardised candie.
Later thorium powder at the temperature of the
solidification of platinum was de-
40
2.2 Terms and units
fined as the standard; sin ce 1979 the candela

has been defined by a source of radiation that
radiates 1/683 W per steradian at a frequency of
540 · 1012 Hz.
The distribution of the luminous intensity
of a light source throughout
a space produces a three-dimensional graph. A
section through this graph results
in a lu minous intensity distribution curve,
which describes the lu minous intensity on one
plane. The lumious intensity is usually indicated
in a polar coordinate system as the function of
Luminous intensity the beam angle. To allow comparison between
distribution of a 1 ig ht different light sources to be made, the light
source having rotational
distribution curves are based on an output of
symmetry. A section
through the C plane 1000 lm. ln the case ofsymmetrical
produces the lu minous i luminairesone light distribution curve is sufficient
ntensity distribution to describe one luminaire, axially symmetrical
curve.
luminaires require two curves, which are usually
depicted in one diagram. The
polar coordinate diagram is not sufficiently
accurate for narrow-beam luminaires,
e.g. stage projectors. ln this case it is usual to
provide a Cartesian coordinate system.
Luminous intensity
distribution body and
diagram (for planes C
0/180° and C 90/270°) of
an axially symmetrical
luminaire.
Luminous intensity
di st ri but ion c u rve
standardised to 1000 lm,
represented in polar
coordinates and
Cartesian coordinates.
The angle within which
the maximum luminous
intensity I' is reduced to
l'/2, identifies the beam
spread B. The eutoff
angle ex is the limiting
angle of the luminous
intensity distribution
curve.
1 = I' ·<Il
[I] =cd
[I'] = cd/klm
[(j)] = klm
Conversion of 1000 lm-

related luminous intensity
I' to effective lu minous
intensity 1.
41
2.3 104 2.2 Terms and units
:1
IR radiation
UV radiation
1001 X rays
Light and light

llluminance
Ranges E indicates
of electromag-
the a mou nt of lu minous
flux from
netic a lightThe
radiation. source
110-2 Gamma rays 2.2.5 llluminance
sources
falling on of visible ra-
spectrum
surface A the
a givencomprises
diation
110-41 Cosmic radiation
llluminance is the means of evaluating the density
of luminous flux. lt indicates
narrow band between the amount of lu minous flux from a light source
380 and 780 nm. 110-6 falling on a given area. llluminance need not
_1Q necessarily be related to a real surface. lt can be
Fr: measured at any point within a space. llluminance

1
_llil_ Sc l,, 1
can be determined from the lu minous intensity of
l 1
the light source. llluminance decreases with
_QJ3 1 l 1 the square of the distance from the light source
J_ - (inverse square law).
1
_Q,± ~
Horizontal illuminance1
Ehand vertical illumin-
_fil
nance Evin interior 1
spaces. 1
1 À (nm) 2.2.6 Exposure
150 11000 11500 12000 12500
0
Exposure is described as the product of the
illuminance and the exposure time. Exposure is
an important issue, for example, regarding the
calculating of light exposure on exhibits in
museums.
Average illuminance Em
is ca leu lated from the
Em = 2.2.7 Luminance
luminous flux CD falling
JI)
on the given surface A
_ Whereas illuminance indicates the a mou nt of
A luminous flux falling on a given surface,
luminance describes the brightness of an
illuminated or luminoussurface. Luminance is
defined as the ratio of lu minous intensity of a
surface (cd) to the projected area of this surface
(m2).
A ln the case of illumination the light can be
reflected by the surface or transmitted through
the surface. ln the case of diffuse reflecting (matt)
and diffuse transmitting (opaque) materials
The illuminance at Ep = .i, luminance can be calculated from the illuminance
a point Epis calculated a2
from the luminous and the reflectance or transmittance.
intensity 1 and the dis- [Ep] =lx Luminance is the basis for describing
tance a between a
perceived brightness; the actual brightness is,
the light source and [I] =cd however, still influenced by the state of
the given point.
adaptation of the eye, the surrounding contrast
[a]= m ratios and the information content of the
perceived surface.
The luminance of a lu-

minous surface is
L = 1 Ap
the ratio of lu minous [L] = _ffi_
intensity 1 and the pro-
jected surface area Ap.
m2
The luminance of an L1 = Eh· Q1

illuminated surface with TI
diffuse reflecta nce is
proportional to L2 = Ev · Q2
the illuminance and the
reflectance of the
surface. [L] = _ffi_
m2
[E] =lx
42
2.3
2.3 Light lightsources
and light
Light and sources
Technical lamps
Light, the basis for ail vision, is an element of The first artificial light source was the fla me of
our lives that we take for granted. fire, in which glowing particles of carbon
We are so familiar with brightness, darkness produce light that, like sunlight, has a
and the spectrum of visible Discharge
colours that another
lamps continuous spectrum. For a long time the
form of perception in a different frequency range production of light was based on this principle,
Thermal radiators and with different colour sensitivity is difficult for which exploited flaming torches and kindling,
us to imagine. Visible light is in factjust a small then the candie and the
part of an essentially broader spectrum of oil lamp and gas light to an increasingly
electromagnetic waves, which range from effective degree.
cosmic rays to radio waves. With the development of the incandescent
lt is not just by chance that the 380 to 780 mantle for gas lighting in the second halfof the
nm range forms the basis for our vision, i.e.
Law-pressure lamps 19th century the principle of the
High-pressure self luminous
lamps
"visible light''. lt is this very range that we have flame became outdated; in its place we find a
atour disposai as solar radiation on earth in material that can be made to glow by heating -
relatively uniform amounts and can therefore the fla me was now only needed to produce
serve as areliable basis for our perception. the required temperature. Incandescent gas
The human eye therefore utilises the part light was accompanied practically
of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves simultaneously by the development of electric
available to gather information about the world arc and incandescent lamps, which were
a round us. lt perceives theFluorescent
Halogen lamps am ou nt and lamps joined at the end of the lamps
Mercury 19th century by
Incandescent lamps distribution of the light that is radiated or discharge lamps.
reflected from abjects
~
to gain information about their existence or their
~
@() quality; it also perce ives the colour of this light

1
to acquire additional information about these
abjects.
ln the 1930s gas light had practically been
completely replaced by a whole range
of electric light sources,whose operation
provides the bases for ail modern light sources.
Law-voltage Compact Electric light sources can be
Metal halide divided into two
lamps
halogen lamps fluorescent lamps main groups, which differ according to the
The human eye is adjusted to the only light processes applied to con vert electrical energy
source that has been available for into light. One group comprises the thermal
~ millions of
years-the sun. The eye is therefore radiators, they include incandescent lamps and
~ most sensitive in the area in which we ~ group comprises
at its
experience maximum solar radiation. Our
perception of colour is therefore
·s
halogen lamps. The second
the discharge lamps; they include a wide range
of light sources, e.g. ail forms of fluorescent
also attuned to the continuous spectrum of lamps, mercury or sodium discharge lamps and
sunlight. metal halide lamps.
Low-pressu re High-pressure
sodium lamps sodium lamps

l:':i
F? ~
Relative spectral dis- Audio

tribution Se (À) of solar .J.Q2'.'.I À (nm) 850J À (nm)
frequencies
radiation (sunlight
and sky light) with 101 800
IR radiation
a pronounced emission 4
maximum in the visible Long wave Medium
range. 101 750
wave Short wave Ultra
2
short wave Decimetre
10 700
10 waves Centimetre
10 8 waves 650
M icrowaves
Radar
106 600
550
3501 UV radiation
300
43
(j) fü/~
1
2.3 Light and light sources
.lQQ. 2800 K
2.3.1 Incandescent lamps
80
60 ,
114=
Z-708·K-
2.3.1 Incandescent lamps /

11
40 2600 K
The incandescent lamp is a thermal '6.soo.'

radiator.
20 ,, 240A K
The filament wire begins
21JO K to _,l/230
glow 1 K
when it is heated2GOO_L,-I
to a sufficiently
2 OO K high .J/U (O/o)
temperature 120by an electric
140 current.
60 Aslaothe 1100
temperature increases the spectrum
of the radiated light shifts towards
the shorter wavelength range - the red heat of
the filament shifts to the warm white light of the
incandescent lamp. Depending on lamp type
and wattage the temperature of the filament can
reach up to 3000 K, in the case of halogen Incandescent lamps with
lamps over 3000 K. Maximum radiation at these tungsten filaments in an
evacuated or gasfilled
temperatures still lies in the infrared range, with glass bulb. General
the result that in comparison to the visible service lamp (left) and
spectrum there is a high degree of thermal pressed-glass lamp with
radiation and very little UV radiation. l.ack of a integrated parabolic
suitable material for the filament means that it is reflector
(rig ht).
not possible to increase the temperature further,
which would increase the lu minous efficacy and
produce a cool white luminous colour.
As is the case with ail heated solid bodies - or
the highly compressed gas produced by the
sun - the incandescent lamp
radia tes a continuous spectrum. The spectral
distrbution curve is therefore continuous and
does not consist of a set of individual lines. The
heating of the filament wire results from its high
electrical resistance - electrical energy is
converted into radiant energy, of which one
partis visible light. Although this is basically a
simple principle, there are a substantial number
of practical problems involved in the
construction
of an incandescent lamp. There are only a few
conducting materials, for example, that have a
sufficiently high melting point and at the sa me
time a sufficiently low evaporation rate below
melting point that render them suitable for use
as filament wires.
Nowadays practically only tungsten is used for

the manufacture of filament wires, because it
only melts at a temperature of 3653 K and has
a low evaporation rate. The tungsten is made Spectral distribution Se
into fine wiresand (il) of a thermal radiator
at different filament
is wound to make single or double coiled temperatures. As the
filaments. temperature increases
ln the case of the incandescent lamp the the maximum radiation
filament is located inside a soft glass bulb, shifts into the visible
range.
which is relatively
Representation of the large in order
low-pressure lamps.
to keepkinds
different light ofloss, due to deposits
electric of evaporated
Current developments
light sources
tungsten according
(blackening). to ashow a marked
minimum. Totrend
to the means of their towards the development
prevent the filament
light production. ln the from oxidising
of compact lightouter
the sources
envelope is evacuated
case of technical lamps for su ch as lowvoltage
low wattages
the main and filled withhalogen
distinction nitrogen or compact
lamps,
ais nitrogen-based
between thermal inert gas fluorescent
mixture forlamps and
higher Dimming characteristics of
radiators and discharge metal halide lamps.
wattages. The
lamps. Discharge lampsthermal insulation properties of incandescent lamps.
the gas used to fill into
the bulb increases the Relative lu minous flux (j)
are further subdivided
and colour temperature as
temperature
high-pressure and of the wire filament, but at the a function of the relative
same time reduces the evaporation rate of the voltage U/Uo. A reduction
tungsten, which in turn leads to increased in voltage results in a
luminous efficacy and a longer lamp life. The disproportionate decrease
in luminous flux.
inert gases predominantly used are argon
and krypton. The krypton permits a higher
operating temperature - and greater lu-
44
45
100 P f0/ol 2.3
2.3 Light
Lightand
andlight
lightsources
sources
/ 2.3.1
2.3. Incandescent
Incandescentlamps
lamps
so /
1
/
60 /
/ breakthrough
minous efficacy.
General service Due
lamp: theto theThe
/V
factreal
that it is so Relative power P of
40
principle of producing light that made the incan- incandescent lamps as a
expensive, krypton is only used in special
by means ,/' descent the most corn- function of voltage.
applications.
of an electrically heated// mon light source can be
20
wire filament has/ ascribed to Thomas Alva
been
A known since1802.
characteristic Edison, who developed
feature of incandescent lamps
.J/Un (O/o)
The
is their -----1
first low
functional
colour
120
the incandescent
temperature
140 160- the light
ISO
lampas
they 1100
incandescent lamps were we know it today in 1879.
produce
madeO/o is warm in
in 1854 by Heinrich comparison to daylight. The
continuous
Goebel.
1SO
colour spectrum
t of the incandescent
/CD
lamp pravides excellent colour rendition. /
1
140 As a point source 1 with a high/ lumi- ,,.,,-n
nance, sparkling effects \ can be 1/ - -- p
praduced
100 on shiny surfaces \ ,,h~ and the light easily
contralled using optical
L.--::;: p;:?' equipment.
\ Effect of overvoltage and lnsulated contact for
60 V can therefore undervoltage on relative lu connection to the phase
-
---v--lamps
Incandescent \
\ minous flux CD, luminous
be applied ,,.,,.1-
for bath narraw-beam accent efficacy n, electrica 1
20
-,
lighting and for wide-beam general lighting. power Pa nd lamp life t.
Incandescent lamps can be 1"-- easily dim- .J/Un (O/o)
Screw cap to secure lamp
ISO 190 110 1110 1120 mechanically, also serves
med. No additional contrai gear
0
is required for
100 N (0io) 1 as a contact
their operation and the lamps can be operated
to the neutral conductor
r-; \
in any burning position.
lnsospite of these advantages, there are
a 60
number of disadvantages: \ low luminous
efficacy, for example, and 1 a relatively short lamp
life,
40 while the lamp life relates significantly to the
operating voltage. Special1 incandescent lamps Luminous flux L = (!L_p.a
are20 available with a dichroic <lln Un
\ coating inside the Connection wires with
bulb that reflects the infrared \ component back integrated fuse
to the wire filament, which increases the ~ (h) Luminous efficacy ..!]_ = ( !L )2-3
1'----. lln Un
luminous1200 efficacy1600by up to 40 O/o.11400 hsoo
11000 Glass stem, with insulated
100 CD (0/o)
1 1 1 1 11
Power E._ = (!L_)l.5 filament supports
General~~
bulbs are clear, matt or opal.

60
available
JJ
service lamps (A larnps) are available
insoa variety of shapes and sizes. The glass
-·--- r--- Special forms are
for critical applications (e.g.I~
roorns t~
Lamp life
Pn
tn
Un
_t - = (!L)-14
Un
r-c,
subject
The
40
insidetoofthe
the danger
lamp is Colour temperature l!.._ = (!L_)0.4
of explosion,
either evacuatedor lamps exposed to mechanical Tfn Un
or filled with
lcads), inert gas
as well as a wide range
20 Exponential correlation
of special models available for decorative between the relative Filament, usually a
purposes. voltage U/Un and electrical double coil of tungsten
.~ (h)
and photometric qua wire
A second
1200 basic 1600 model is the 11400
11000 reflectorhsoo
ntities.
lamp
100 CDA (R lamp).
(~iol The bulbs ofthese lamps
are also blown from soft glass, although, in
• '&i
contrast
so with the A lamps, which radiate light in
ail directions, the R lamps contrai the light via
their
60 form and Clea r, matt or col ou red
a partly silvered area inside the lamp. Another glass bulb. Parts of the
range
40 of incandescents are the PAR (parabolic glass bulb can be provi-
reflector) lamps. The PAR ded with a silver coating
20 is made of pressed glass to pravide to form a reflector
lamp
a higher resistance to changes in temperature
and a more exact form; the parabolic reflector
1200 1600 11000 11400 1SOO
praduces a well-defined beam spread.
ln the case of cool-beam lamps,
a subgraup of the PAR lamps, a dichroic, i.e.
selectively reflective coating, is applied.
Dichraic reflectors reflect visible light, but allow
a large part of the IR radiation to pass the
reflector. The thermal load on illuminated
abjects can therefore be reduced by half.
Proportion of operating
lamps N, lamp lumens CD
and luminous flux
of total installation CDA
(as the product of both
values) as a function
of the operating time t.
46
47
100 N (0/o) 1 1 2.3
2.3 Light
Light and
andlight
lightsources
sources
lamps
-
80
60
2.3.1.1 Halogen lamps
40
•
lt 20
is not so much the melting point of the
tungsten (which, at 3653 K, is still a relatively
long way from the approx. 2800 K of the
operating temperature 11000 of incandescents)
12000 that
13000
hindersD/o the construction of more efficient - Halogen lamp for mains
-.
•
incandescent lamps,' but voltage with screw cap
180 t - rather the increasing CD and outer envelope (left).
rate of evaporation of the filament that
accompanies \ - in temperature. This
the increase
The outer envelope
140 \ "îl means that the lamp can
initially leads to lower\- performance due top the be operated without a
blackening
100 of the surrounding glass bulb until protective glass covering.
~ 1 1 Low-voltage halogen lamp
finally the filament burns~ through.
"" 1
with pin base and axial

The60 priceL-:::::~1
to be paid for an increase in
luminous ____,v-
20
life.
~"
efficiency is therefore a shorter lamp
1
l"I~
filament in a quartz glass
bulb (rig ht).
One technical way of preventing I~ IU/ (O/o)

lao
the blackening
190 1100 1110
of the glass is the adding of
1120
halogens to the gas mixture inside the lamp.

The evaporated tungsten combines with the
halogen to form a metal halide, which takes on
the form of a gas at
the temperature in the outer section of the lamp
and can therefore leave no deposits on the
glass bulb. The metal halide is split into
tungsten and halogen once again
at the considerably hotter filament
Top row (from and left
theto right):
tungsten is then returned todecorative
the coil.lamp, general
The temperature of theservice outerlamp, glassreflector
lamp with soft glass bulb Halogen cycle: combi-
envelope has to be over 250° C to allow the
and ellipsoidal or nation of evaporated PAR lamp with dichroic
development of the halogen cycle to tungsten and halogen to cool-beam reflector.
parabolic reflector,
take place. ln order to achieve this amedium
compact produce tungsten halide Visible light is reflected,
producing beam
in the peripheral area. infrared radiation
bulb of quartz glass is fittedcharacteristics.
tightly over Bottom the transmitted, thereby
row (from left to right): Splitting of the tungsten
filament. This compact form halogens back to the reducing the thermal load
reflector lamp with
not only means an increasepressed in temperature,
glass but filament. on the illuminated objects.
also an increase in gas pressure, bulb and whichefficientinpara-
turn
reduces the evaporation rate bolicofreflector
the tungsten.
(PAR larnp],
available for narrowbeam
(spot) and widebea m
(flood), a lso suitable for
exterior application due
toits high resistance
Compared with the convention al incandescent
to changes in tempera-
the halogen lamp gives a whiter light - a result
ture; high-power pressed-
of its higher operating temperature of 3000
glass reflector lamp. to
3300 K; its lu minous colour is still in the warm
white range. The continuous spectrum
produces excellent colour rendering properties.
The compact form of the halogen lamp makes
it ideal as a point-source lamp; its light can be
handled easily and it can create attractive
sparkling effects. The lu minous efficacy of
halogen lamps is well above that of
conventional incandescents - especially in the
low-voltage range. Halogen lamps may have a
dichroic, heatreflecting coating inside the bulbs,
which increases the lu minous efficacy of these
lamps considerably.
The lamp life of halogen lamps is longer
than that of conventional incandescents. Proportion of operating
lamps N as a function
Halogen lamps are dimmable. of the operating time t.
Like conventional incandescent lamps, they
require no additional contrai gear; lowvoltage Incandescent lamp
halogen lamps do have to be run on a with glass bulb coated
transformer, however. ln the case with dichroic material (hot
mirror). This allows visible
of double-ended lamps, projector lamps and light to be transmitted;
special purpose lamps for studios the burning infrared radiation is
position is frequently restricted. Sorne tungsten reflected back to the
halogen lamps have to be operated with a filament. The increase in
the temperature of the
protective glass caver.
Influence of overvoltage filament results
and undervoltage on in increased luminous
relative luminous flux CD, efficacy.
luminous efficacy n,
electrical power P and
lamp life t.
4
8
2.3 Light and light sources
Like almost ail conventional incandescent

lamps, halogen lamps can be run on mains
voltage. They usually have spécial caps, but
some are equipped with an E 27 screw cap and
an additional glass envelope and can be used in
the same way as conventional incandescents.
As well as mains voltage halogen lamps,
low-voltage halogen lamps are also gaining in
importance. The advantages
of this latter light source - high lu minous
efficiency in a small-dimensioned lamp -
resulted in wide application of low-voltage
halogen lamps in the field of architectural
lighting.
The larnp's small size allows compact
luminaire designs and concentrated spread
angles. Law-voltage halogen lamps are
available for different voltages (12/ 24 V) and in
different shapes. Here too a selection can be
made between clear lamps and various lamp
and reflector combinations, or cool-bearn
reflector versions.
The ha log en and low-

voltage halogen lamps
most commonly used in
interior lighting.
Above (from left to right): Below (from left to right):

low-voltage halogen bi- halogen lamp for mains
pin lamp and aluminium voltage with an E 27 cap
reflector, bi-pin and cool- and outer glass
beam glass reflector, envelope, with
with bayonet connection a bayonet cap, and the
and aluminium reflector, double-ended version.
with an aluminium Low-voltage halogen
reflector for increased lamp with transverse
power. filament and axial
filament.
5 4
0 9

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What are halogen lamps and how do they work?

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What are the advantages of low-voltage halogen lamps?

HandbookERCO

Au th ors Rüdiger Ganslandt

Layout and otl aicher and

Drawings otl aicher Reinfriede

Reproduction Druckhaus Maack, Lüdenscheid

Druckhaus Maack, Lüdenscheid

© ERCO Leuchten GmbH, Lüdenscheid

The Vieweg publishing company is a Ber-

Ali rights reserved. No part of this publication

1.1 The history of architectural lighting 12

2.1.1Eye and camera 28

2.2 Terms and units 40

2.3 Light and light sources 43

2.4 Contrai gear and contrai equipment 65

2.4.1Contrai gear for discharge lamps 65

2.5 Light - qualities and features 74

2.5.1 Quantity of light 74

2.6 Contralling light 85

2.6.1 The principles of contralling light 85

2.7.1 Stationary luminaires 94

3.0 Lighting design

3.1 Lighting design concepts 110

3.1.1 Quantitative lighting design 110

4.0 Examples of lighting concepts

4.1 Foyers 173

llluminance recommendations 270

The history For the most part of the history of mankind,

1.1.1 Daylight architecture

ln the case of daylight this meant consistently

fluting on colurnns have a three-dimensional

lighting, but as a means to accentuate the

1.1.2 Artificial lighting

A similar process of perfection also took place

lln1u11•t· der Schli::b<:li:m1fl'Co.

Lamps and burners da- was transported to the fla

occasionallv tested, was doomed to fail due

1.1.4 Modern light sources

The Argand lamp marked the climax of

1.1.4.1 Gas lighting

The first competitor to theArgand lamp was gas

One possibility for producing highly efficient gas

heating. ln contrast to thermal radiation,

1.1.4.2 Electrical light sources

Hugo Bremer's arc lamp.

Siemens' arc lamp dating

About mid-century self-adjusting lamps were

lt was discovered at a fairly early stage, that

ail Heinrich Goebel, who in 1854 produced

conceives light as a building material and

ln order to develop more far-reaching aspects began to develop in the USA

1.1.6.2 Qualitative lighting design

A new lighting philosophy that no longer

Perception Most of the information we receive about the

Lighting design is, in tact, the planning of our

Comparing the eye with the camera in this way

The perception of the