COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS

SCHOOL: ECONOMICS

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED STATISTICS& ECONOMICS

Academic year: 2017-2018

MODULE CODE AND TITLE: AST 1131 BASIC MATHEMATICS (15 CREDITS)

PREPARED BY Pascal Kayisire

COURSE OUTLINE Title: BASIC MATHEMATICS

1. Brief description of aims

 The course intends to emphasize on

Explain the general aspects of algebra including Set theory, functions, equations, sequences
and series and matrices.

 Explain the general aspects of differential and integral calculus

 Understand and solve business and economic problems using basic mathematical concepts.

2. Learning Outcomes

Knowledge and Understanding

Successful completion of this module enables the students to:

Understanding of basic mathematical Theories

Cognitive/Intellectual skills/application of knowledge

Apply mathematical skills to solve problems (equilibrium price, supply and demand related
problems, elasticity values)

Communication/Analytical techniques/Practical skills

Use basic differential and integral techniques for decision making

3. Indicative Content

This is the part1.

Unit 1: Algebra

Set theory: Definitions, Set elements, Subsets, Set operations and applications to probability; Set of
real numbers, exponentiation and irrational numbers in IR, factorization in IR and algebraic
fractions.

Functions: Definitions, domain of a function, graphs of functions, parity, periodicity, quadratic and
parabolic functions;

Equations: First and second-order equations; Exponential equations.

Unit 2: Matrix algebra

Definitions, and properties; Types of matrices, operations on matrices Determinant of a matrix,

matrix inversion, Application of matrices.

This is the part2

Unit 3: Differential and integral calculus

Differential calculus: Limits and continuity, Rules of differentiation, derivatives of explicit and
implicit functions (polynomial, logarithmic, exponential), higher order derivatives,

Sequences and series: Definitions and properties, Arithmetic and Geometric progressions.

Integral calculus: Definition, Rules of integration, Integral functions, Applications, Limits, continuity,
differentiation, integration, and transcendental functions.

Multivariable calculus: Partial differentiation, multiple integration, and infinite series, Sum
operations.

4. Learning and Teaching Strategies

Lectures: Important material from the text and outside sources will be covered in class. Students
should plan to take notes as not all material can be found in the texts or readings.

Structured Exercises: This forms the basis of the module teaching. Students will be given hands-on
training through lot of exercises. The objective is to keep the students in touch with the real world
and to enhance their professionalism.

Assignments: homework problems and readings will be assigned periodically to help support and
supplement material found in the text.

Continuous Assessment Tests (CATs): occasional scheduled or unscheduled quizzes/ tests will be
given to help ensure that students stay up with the assigned material.

5. Assessment Strategy

The assessment strategy is developed with the aim of testing the module's learning outcomes. In
particular, students will be assessed by means of both formative and summative assessment
through coursework and examination. Assessment comprises the submission of a coursework
portfolio and a seen examination.

6. Assessment Pattern

Component Weighting (%) Learning objectives covered

In-course assessment 50

Final Exam 50

Total 100

7. Strategy for feedback and student support during module

All lecture material will be delivered to students. When student does not understand material,
he/she should ask questions—either in class, by e-mail, or come by the lecturer’s office as soon as
the student realizes that he/ she is having difficulty with the course, contact the lecturer in charge
then.

8. Indicative Resources:

a. Core Text

Courant, R. and H. Robbins. 1996. What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary Approach to Ideas and
Methods, 2ndEd, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

b. Background Texts

Louise Swift. 1997. Mathematics and statistics for Business, Management and Finance, Macmillan
Business, London.

c. Journals

Journal of Mathematics. The students are supposed to visit UR library websites and read all relevant
journals.

d. Online Resources:

1. UR digital library – IEEE collections

2. www.microsoft.com

9. Teaching Team

Rizinde Theogene, Musabanganji Edouard, Pascal Kayisire, Muremyi Roger, Ndikubwimana Jean
Bosco and Hategekimana Nathanael

.
Unit 1: ALGEBRA
1. Set theory

 An unordered collection of objects forms a set.

 The objects in a set are called the elements, or members, of the set.
 We denote sets by uppercase letters such as A, B, C, … and members of set by
lowercase letters such as a, b, c, …
 Two sets are equal if they have the same elements.
 One can describe a set by
 listing all its members between braces, i.e., enumeration (e.g., {a, e, i, o, u}),
 use a set builder notation (e.g., { x  x is a vowel in the English alphabet}),
or
 graphically using Venn diagrams
 Note that when set notation is used, an element in a set is listed only once.
Example, the set of letters in word bookkeeper is b, o, k , e, p, r.
 To indicate that an element a is a member of set A , we write a  A , which is
read “ a is an element of A ” or “ a belongs to A ”. To indicate that the element
a is not a member of the set A , we write a  A , which is read “ a is not an
element of A ” or “ a does not belong to A ”.
 The cardinality of a finite set S is the number of distinct elements in S, and is
denoted by Sor n(S ) is read “the number of elements in set S.
 A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.
 A set that contains all the objects under consideration is called the universal set,
denoted by U.
 A set with no elements is an empty set or sometimes the null set, denoted by .
Note that the set   is not an empty set since it is a set which contain one
element  .
 The set S is a subset of T iff every element of S is also an element of T, denoted
by S  T.
 S is a proper subset of T, denoted by S  T, iff S  T and S  T. If S is not a
subset of set T, we write S  T .
 The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S, denoted by P(S). Example,
given a set S  a, b, c, thus, the power set of S is
P(s)   , a
, b
, c
, a, b
, a, c
, b, c
, a, b, c. Therefore, the number of elements
(subsets) in a power set are computed as 2 n( S ) , where n(S ) is the number of
elements in set S . Furthermore from above example it is clear that every set is a
subset of itself and an empty set  is a subset of every set.
 The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A  B, is defined as {(a,
b)  a  A  b  B}.
 Set operations:
o Union A  B = {x  x  A or x  B} i.e. the set of all elements that
belong to A or to B or to both.
o Intersection A  B = {x  x  A and x  B} i.e. the set of all elements
that belong to both A and B.
o Difference A  B = {x  x  A and x  B}
o Complement Ā = {x  x  A} i.e. the set of all elements in the universal set
that are not in A
o Distributive law C  (A  B)=(C  A)  (C  B)
o Distributive law C  (A  B)=(C  A)  (C  B)
o De Morgan’s laws 1. (A  B)’=A’  B’ 2. (A  B)’=A’  B’
 Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is an empty set ( A  B   ), i.e.
two sets with no elements in common.

Exercises

1. How many elements are there in each of the following sets? Are the sets all different?
i)  ii )  iii )  iv)  ,  v)  , 

2. Let A  x / x is an int eger between 1 and 15, inclusive.decide whether the following
statements are true or false.
a) 1  A b) 16  A c) 15  A d )15  A e) 15  A f ) 1,2,11  A
g) A  A h) A  A i) A  A j)   A k )    A l)   A
3. List all the subsets of the set w, x, y, z

4. Use Venn diagrams to illustrate the following sets:

a) A  B b)( A  B)  ( B  A) c) U  A where U is universal set

5. Let U={-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7};

A={2, 5};

B={x| x is an integer and x2 is less than 16};

C={3}; E={0,1,2,3,4};

F={-3,-2,0,2,7}

i. Answer the following as true or false. (a) 3  C ; (b)  5  A  B ; (c) 4 4 ; (d)   A
ii. Answer the following as true or false. (a) C  A ; (b) C  B ; (c) B  E ; (d) C  ( B  E )

iii. Compute ( A  B)  F

iv. Compute ( A  F )  B

v. Compute ( A'  C )  E

vi. Compute ( B '  F ' )  ( A  C )

1.1. Set of real numbers (Algebra)

Recall about set of numbers

The set of Natural numbers IN  1,2,3,4,

The set of Whole numbers W  0,1,2,3,4,5,  W  IN  0

 The set ODDS O  {2k  1 | k W }  1,3,5,7,9,11,

 The set of EVENS E  {2k | k W }  0,2,4,6,8,10,12,
 A FINITE set has cardinal number a whole number
 A INFINITE set is a set that is not finite

Set of Integer numbers Z  ,5,4,3,2,1,0,1,2,3,  Z  Z   0 Z 

Set of Rational numbers, may be limited (terminating) or periodic non-limited decimal numbers

a 
Q   | a; b  Z and b  0
b 

Q is the set of irrational numbers are real numbers that cannot be written as rational numbers. Irrational numbers
are non-terminating/ non-repeating decimals.

One big example of irrational numbers is roots of numbers that are not perfect roots - for
3
example 2 , 5 , 17 . 17 is not a perfect square.
The union of the set of rational and irrational numbers is the set of REAL NUMBERS.
IR  Q  Q

IR  x | x corresponds to po int on the number line   ,

 

Set of numbers can be expressed in terms of subsets of real numbers as follows

IN  W  Z  Q  IR  Q  Q

Operation of Real numbers

Addition Multiplication

1.closure property 1.

2. commutative

3.Associativitive property 3.

4.identity element

a+0=0+a=a a.1=1.a=a

5.inverse element 5.

a+(-a)=(-a)+a=0

Distributive property of multiplication over addition then

The preceding table is the summary of the properties of real numbers. Note that subtraction is the inverse of addition
and division is the inverse of multiplication.
 1.2. Definition

If a, b  IR , then there are three possible cases of order in IR : a  b , a  b , a  b

If a and b are real numbers, then a  b mea ns that b-a is positive,

a  b means that a  b or a=b.

1.2.1. Theorem

a) If a  b and b  c ,then a  c

b) If a  b ,then a  c  b  c

c) If a  b and c  d ,then a  c  b  d

d) If a  b ,then ac  bc when c is positive and ac  bc when c is negative

1 1
e) If a and b are both positive or both negative and a  b ,then a  b .

Remark: These five properties remain true if  and  are replaced by  and  , respectively.

1.3. Intervals

Recall of definition of real number as number line:

Zero is the origin on the number line;

Zero separates the negative real and positive real

a) Open interval

If a and b are two real number such that a b then the set consisting of all
real number between a and b (excluding a and b) is called an open interval and it is denoted by
(a, b) or .

b) Closed interval
The set consisting of all real number between a and b (including a and b) is
called interval and it is denoted by .

c) Semi-closed and semi-open interval

The interval is semi-open semi-closed interval.

The interval is semi-closed semi-open interval.

Interval Set notation Geometric picture Namely

notation

a, b x : a  x  b Closed
interval

a, b ]a, b[ x : a  x  b Open

interval

a, b x : a  x  b Half closed

a, b x : a  x  b Half open

 , b x : x  b Closed above

 , b x : x  b Half open

a, x : a  x Half closed

a, x : a  x
 , x : xisrea ln umber Open

Exercise:

Let U  , A  x   : x  0, B  x   : x  1 and C  x   : x  2 Find each of

the following set:

a) A  B b) A  C c) B  C d) A  B e) A  C f ) BC g) A h) B
i) C j) A \ B k) B \ C l) A  B m) B  C n) A  B o) B  C
 1.4. Indices (power) and Fraction indices (radical)
1.4.1. Indices:

Indices or power, provide a convenient notation when we need to multiply a number by itself
several times.

EX: 3x3x3x3= , a x a x a x a x……… x a =

In the expression, is the power of , when a is the base and is the exponent.

Rules of indices

Ex: x 3 x 5  x 35  x 8

x6
(m>n, a 0) Ex: 4  x 64  x 2
x

am 1 x4 1 1
n
 nm , (m  n, a  0) Ex: 7
 74  3
a a x x x

   x 
Ex: x 2
3 3 2
 x 3.2  x 6

Ex: xy 8  x 8 y 8

3
x x3
Ex:    3
 y y

, a0

1
Ex: x 5 
x5

1.4.2. Fractional indices

the nth root of a. Ex: 271/ 3  3 27  3

Ex: x 4 / 3  3 x 4
 27 3 27 3
Ex: 3  3 
8 8 2

Ex: 4b  4 b  2 b

Exercises

1. Simplify the given expression as much as possible. Assume a, b, c are positive real numbers.

a) (a 3 b 2 c 5 )(a 2 b 6 c 3 )


b) a 3 b 2 2
c2 
3

1  x 1
2. Write as simple fraction with positive exponent:
1  x 2
3. Rationalize each denominator:
6x
a)
2x
x4
b)
x 2
4. Express as a simple fraction reduced to lower terms
y x

x2 y2
y x

x y

1.5. Logarithms

Consider the following exponential expression:

is the base, and is the exponent of the exponential expression.

The logarithm of to the base is the exponent to which must be raised to obtain .

Example: Evaluate

i)
ii)
Answer:

i)
ii)

Laws of logarithmic operations

Multiplication law:

Example:

Quotient law:

Example:

Zero Power law:

Example:

EXERCISES 1.2

1. Evaluate the following

i) ii) iii)
2. Simplify
i) ii)

1.6. Absolute values of a real numbers (or modulus)

The absolute value (or modulus) of a real number x, denoted by x : is defined as

 x if x  0
x 
 x if x  0
thus we have x  0 also  x  x

a  b  a  b but a  b  a  b (does not necessarily imply a=b).

Theorem 1:

For every :

i) x = max (-x, x);

ii) x x

iii) – x = min (-x, x)

iv) – x x

v) x = =  x

Proof of theorem:

i) If x ;

Thus in either case x is larger of the two number

ii) Using i)
x

iii) – x x

Thus in either case – x x

iv) Using iii) – x

v) For x  x

For x  x

Thus in either case x x x x

Theorem 2:

If
i)
ii)

iii) (triangular inequality)

iv)

Proof of theorem

i) If 

But are both non-negative, therefore we take the positive sign, (we reject
negative sign).

Thus

ii) by rejecting negative sign we get

iii) Since

are
both positive, we reject negative sign;

Therefore

iv) (by using the previous property iii)

Theorem 3:

For real number show that

i) 
ii) 
Proof:

i) We have by assumption

Therefore

ii)

Example: If such that prove (show) that

Solution: if x, y  IR 

(1) By multiplying x to both side of x  y , we get x 2  xy

(2) By multiplying y to both side of x  y , we get xy  y 2
Therefore by combining (1) and (2) we get x 2  xy  y 2  x 2  y 2

Note that for each real number x  y there exist a real number a  0 such that y  x  a .

2. FUNCTION

2.1. FUNCTION AND GRAPHS

Def1: A function is a rule that receives an input and produces an output.

EX: If 6 is the input, then 6+2=8 will be the output.

Input output
Function

Def2:
f is a function if each element of A has one or zero image in B

Domf  x  A / f ( x)  B The range (co-domain, Image)

Domain=pre-image

The set of elements of A for which the output exist in B , is called Domain (pre-image) of f ,
denote Domf

The set of the output is called Range (co-domain, image) denoted Im f  codom f  B

2.2. Function as mapping

Before define a function as mapping first we define a relation.

Definition: A relation, R , from a set A to a set B is well defined subject of the Cartesian product
A B . For all elements x  A and y  B , the relation from A to B is denoted A B .

A  B  {( x, y) | x  A and y  B}

Definition: A mapping function of a function from set A to a set B is a relation from A to B in

which each element of A is paired with one, and only one, element of B

Arrow diagram illustrated the mapping of the domain to the range.

 A B

1. .a

2. .b

A is a mapping of the domain to range since A  dom f (all element in A is a pre-image or

mapped in B )

A mapping function can be:

 injective function
 surjective function
 bijective function

i. Injective function

An injective (or one-to-one) function is a function which maps distinct input values to distinct
output value.

A function f : A  B is injective if for every y in range has at most one x in the domain with
f ( x)  y

i.e. x1  x2  A  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  B or

f is injective  x1 , x2  A, whenever f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  x1  x2 (by contrapositive)

N.B: An injective does not necessarily cover all possible output

Example: 1.
A f B

. .

. . .

. . .

.
 f is injective because to each input in A corresponds one and only one output in B

2.
g:RR
Show whether g is injective or not
x  g ( x)  2 x  3
Proof: Suppose x, y  R / g ( x)  2 x  3

We want to show that if g ( x1 )  g ( x2 )  x1  x2

g ( x1 )  2 x1  3 and g ( x2 )  2 x2  3
g ( x1 )  g ( x2 )  2 x1  3  2 x2  3
 2 x1  2 x2
 x1  x2
Therefore g is injective

Exercise: show that

h: z  z
is not an injective function
x  h( x )  x 2

ii. Surjective function (Onto)

A function is said to be surjective (or onto) if its values span its whole co-domain (range).

It means for every y in the range (codomain) there is at least one x in the domain such that
f ( x)  y .

Mathematically it can be define as: f : A  B is surjective if y  B, x  A / f ( x)  y

If y  B, x  A such that f ( x)  y . i.e. f [ A]  B

Examples: 1. Show that the function f is surjective

f :RR
x  f ( x)  2 x  1
Proof: Let y  R / y  2 x  1 . We want to show that y  R, x  R / f ( x)  y

y 1
y  2x  1  2x  y  1  x   R . Therefore f is surjective
2

3. show that

f :N N
is not surjective.
x  f ( x)  x 2

Answer: f is not surjective because there are natural numbers (in the arrival set) which are not
perfect square that have no input. Eg: 2,3,5,6,7,8,….

Exercise: show that the function

f :RR
is not surjective
x  f ( x)  x 2

iii. Bijective function

A given function f : A  B is bijective if it is both injective and surjective

A function f is bijective if and only if every element of codomain is mapped by exactly one
element of the domain

Example: 1. f : A  B where A is natural number less or equal to 10 and B is x  10 natural

number less or equal to 20.

i.e. A  {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

B  {11, ,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20} , therefore we can define f ( x)  x  10, x  10  N ,

Example 2: For any set x, the identity function ( f ( x)  x ) is bijective.

2.3. Numerical functions

f : A  B is numerical function if A, B are R

f :RR
is numerical function in one variable
x  f ( x)  ax  b

f ( x)  ax  b, a, b  R 

n
 algebraic functions
f ( x )   ar x , r  Q 
r

r 0 

2.3.1. Some standard real functions (Algebraic function) and their graph
2.3.1.1. Constant function
f :RR
x  f ( x)  c
A real function defined by f ( x)  c where c is a fixed real number ( c  R ) is called a
constant function. It has Domain: Dom f  R and range: Im f  {c}
Ex: f ( x)  3 is constant function

Graph of a constant function defined on f ( x)  c is a horizontal line which is parallel to x-axis

or independent axis.

Constant function has equation y  c

Graphic representation of constant function

(0,c) y=c

(0,0) X

2.3.1.2. Identity function:

f :RR
Identity function is a real function defined by f ( x)  x , it has
x  f ( x)  x
Dom f  R and Im f  R
The graph of identity function is a straight line. It has equation y  x
 X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Y -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

2 D yx

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-2

2.3.1.3. Linear function:

f :RR
x  f ( x)  ax  b, a, b  R and a  0
Where a is a slope of function and decreasing function when the slope is negative (i.e.
a  0 ) and is positive when the slope is positive ( a  0 ). A linear function has equation
D  y  ax  b

Coordinates of linear function (intercept points)

The coordinates of linear function are found by solving y  ax  b

b b 
If y  0  ax  b  o then x  , the coordinate of x and y are  ,0  respectively.
a  a 
If x  0 then y  b , the coordinates are (0, b)

1
Example: Given the linear function y  2 x  1 then the coordinates are ( ,0) and (0,1)
2

Note that two points or two couple of coordinate are enough to define the path of straight line
(path of linear function). Graph of linear function

Y a0 Y

b D  y  ax  b b a0

The slope is positive the slope is negative

b b
0 X 0 X
a a
Indeed, when two points say p( x0 , y0 ) and p( x1 , y1 ) are given, then the equation of the line can
y1  y0
be obtain as D  y  y0   ( x  x0 ) where   ,
x1  x0

Example: Find the equation of the line passing through the points (-2,3) and (1/3,4).

43 1 3
Answer: First, calculate the slope     ,
1/ 3  (2) 7 / 3 7

3 3 3x  27
y  3  ( x  2)  y  3  ( x  2)  y 
7 7 7

1
Exercise: Find an equation for the line that has slope and passes through (-4,3). Write the final answer
2
in the form of Ax+By=C

Parallel condition of two lines

Two lines (linear equations) D  y  ax  b and D'  y  a' x  b' are said parallel if their slope
are equal. i.e. slope a in D is equal to that a ' in D'

Mathematically D // D'  a  a'

Ex: D1  y   x  1 and D2  10  x are parallel since their slope are equal a  1  a'

Perpendicular condition

Two lines (linear equations) D  y  ax  b and D'  y  a' x  b' are said to be perpendicular if
the product of slope is equal to -1. i.e. D  D'  aa'  1

Ex: D1  3x  y  1 and D2  3 y  x  2

x 2
 D1  y  3x  1 and D2  y  x
3 3

 1
The product of slope is aa'  3   1 , therefore D1 and D2 are perpendicular.
 3 
 2.3.2. Equations and inequalities of first order

2.3.2.1.Equations

Definition

An equation is an expression with an equal sign. I n addition to this, in equations, unlike in

functions, none of the variables in the expression is designated as the dependent variable or the

independent variable, although the variables are explicitly related.

a) Formulation and examples

The linear equation has this standard for

Example: Write the following equations in standard form

a)
b)

Answers:

a)
b)

b) Solution of linear equations

To solve an equation involving a variable is to find the value or roots of the equation, and the set
of these values is referred to as the solution set.
Example1:

Solve the following

i)
ii)

Answer:

i)
ii)

Example2: The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is 32.What are the two odd numbers?

Answer:

Let us denote the first number as and the second one is

According to the given statement we have,

The first number is 15 and the second one is 17

Example3: A consumer P spends a monthly average of 23 shillings more on luxury goods than a
second consumer Q. Both P and Q spend 139 shillings on luxury goods. What is the average
monthly expenditure of each of the two consumers?

Answer: Let us consider the expenditures of the second consumer Q is

The expenditures of the second consumer P is

Both P and Q spend 139 shillings on luxury goods means that

The average monthly expenditure of second consumer Q is 58 shillings and the average monthly
expenditure of first consumer P is 81 shillings

Example4: The national income, Y, of a country is given by: Y=C+I+G

Where C, I and G are, respectively, the consumption, investment and government expenditure
components of the country’s national income. Consumption is the size of investment, but
50,000 shillings less than government expenditure. If the national income of the country is
1,050,000 shillings, find the levels of consumption, investment and government expenditure for
the country?

Answer: and

The levels of consumption is shillings, investment is 600,000 shillings, and government

expenditure for the country is shillings.

2.3.2.2. Inequalities

Inequalities of first degree with one unknown

The general form of inequation of 1st degree in one unknown (linear inequality) is:
ax  b  0; ax  b  0; ax  1  0; ax  b  0 where a  IR0 , b  IR

3 3 
Example: 1) 2 x  3  0  2 x  3  x  , S   ,
2  2 

2)  3x  6  0  3x  6  x  2 S   2,

3)  5  3x  0  3x  5  x  5 / 3 S   ,5 / 3

The sign of ax  b

By solving ax  b  0  x  b / a

x b/a

ax  b opposite sign of a 0 sign of a

Example: 1  2 x  0

Solution: first step is to solve the equation and then study the signs

 2 x  1  x  1 / 2

x 1/ 2 S   ,1/ 2

1 2 x + 0 -
Sign of product (quotient)

P( x)  (a1 x  b1 )(a2 x  b2 )

x1  b1 / a1 ; x2  b2 / a2

x - x  b1 / a1 x  b2 / a2 

a1 x  b1 opposite sign of a1 0 sign of a1 sign of a1

a2 x  b2 opposite sign of a2 0 sign of a2

(a1 x  b1 )(a2 x  b2 ) product of opp. sign of a1a2 0 prod of a1 opp. sign of a2 0 prod of a1a2
+

Example: Solve (2 x  6)(6  3x)  0

(2 x  6)(6  3x)  0  2 x  6  0 and 6  3x  0

 x  6 / 2  3 and x  6 /  3  2

 x  3 and x2

x 3 2

2x  6 - 0 + +

6  3x + + 0 -

(2 x  6)(6  3x) - 0 + 0 -

S   3,2

Exercises: 1) Solve and graph: i) 2(2 x  3)  6( x  2)  10 ; ii)  5  2x  3  7

 2x  6 4  3x (4  3x)(2 x  6)
2) Solve i)  0 ; ii)  0 ; iii) 0
6  3x (2 x  6)(6  3x) 6  3x

2.3.2.3. Equation and inequalities with absolute values

Solve in IR the equation x  3  x  5  12

Solution:

x  3 if x  3  0 x  3 if x  3
x 3   
 ( x  3) if x  3  0  x  3 if x  3

x  5 if x  5  0 x  5 if x  5
x5   
 ( x  5) if x  5  0  x  5 if x  5

So, there are three cases to deal with: (1) x  5 ; (2)  5  x  3 ; (3) x  3

Case 1: x  5  x  3  x  5  12

 x 3 x 5  2
 2 x  2  12
 2 x  14
14
x  7
2
S   7

Case 2:  5  x  3  x  3  x  5  0

 x  3  x  5  12
 0 x  4 (impossible equation )
S 

Case 3: x  0  x  3  x  5  12

x  3  x  5  12
 x5
S  5
The general solution of equation is S  s1  s2  s3   7,5

Exercise

Solve in IR the inequality x  3  x  2  11 (hint: three cases to analyse are: x  2 ,  2  x  3 ,

x  3 ) The Solution should be S  s1  s2  s3   5,2   2,3  3,6 ]  5,6[

2.3.3. Quadratic function

2.3.3.1. Factorizations
a. Using common factors ab  a b  ab(b  a)
2 2

b. Using the difference of squares: a  b  (a  b)(a  b)

2 2

c. Perfect squares and identities : (a  b)  a  2ab  b

2 2 2

(a  b)3  a 3  3a 2b  3ab 2  b3
a 3  b3  (a  b)(a 2  ab  b 2 )
a 3  b3  (a  b)(a 2  ab  b 2 )
d. Grouping terms: a 2  2ab  b 2  1

 a 2  2ab  b 2  1  (a  b) 2  1  (a  b  1)(a  b  1)
Ex:
x 2  4 x  5  ( x  2) 2  2 2  5
 ( x  2) 2  9
 ( x  1)( x  5)
e. Factorization of the quadratic function y  ax  bx  c a, b, c  R, a  0
2

b c
ax 2  bx  c  a[ x 2  x ]
a a
b b c
 a[( x  ) 2  ( ) 2  ]
2a 2a a
b 2 b2 4ac
 a[( x  )  2  2]
2a 4a 4a
b 2 b 2  4ac
 a[( x  )  ]
2a 4a 2
Let   b 2  4ac
b 2 
 a[( x  )  2]
2a 4a
 b 2 
ax 2  bx  c  0  a[( x 
)  2]0
2a 4a
b  b 
 x  x
2a 2a 2a
b  b 
x1  , x2 
2a 2a
If   0, ax  bx  c  a( x  x1 )( x  x2 )
2

  0, ax 2  bx  c  a( x  x1 ) 2 for x1  x2
  0, No real root, but complex

Sum and product of roots

 b    b    2b  b
S  x1  x2    
2a 2a 2a a

  b     b    b 2   b 2  b 2  4ac c
p  x1 x2    
 2a   4a 2  2

 2 a   4 a a

ax 2  bx  c  x 2  Sx  p

2.3.3.2. The graphical representation of quadratic function

b 
The point s(m, n) in the vertex of the graph of ax 2  bx  c where m  and n  . When a  0,
2a 4a 2
s is minim and the graph turn up while when a  0 , s maximum and the curve down.

Example: x 2  6 x  5  0 ,   36  20  16

64 64
x1   5, x2  1
2 2

s  x1  x2  5  1  6
p  x1 x2  5 *1  5

x 2  6 x  5  ( x  5)( x  1)
S  {1,5}

Sign of quadratic function

If   0 , ax  bx  c  a( x  x1 )( x  x2 ) it has two distinct roots

2
 x x1 x2

ax 2  bx  c sign of a 0 Opposite sign of a 0 sign of a

ax 2  bx  c has the sign of a except between the two roots when there exist.

Example: Solve in R ,

x 2  2 x  15  0 ,   4  60  64

28  28
x1   3 and x2   5
2 2

x -5 3

f (x) + 0 - 0 +

S ]  5,3[

2.3.4. Polynomial function:

f :RR
x  f ( x)  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2    an x n

Where n is a positive integer, called degree of polynomial and ai is constant for all value i .

A polynomial is a power function of the form f ( x)  kx p where k  R and p  Z

A polynomial function has domain R : Dom f  R

Example: f ( x)  x5  3x 4  7 x3  5x 2  2 x  10 is a polynomial of degree 5.

2.3.5. Rational function:

A rational function is quotient of two polynomial functions

P( x)
Thus a rational function can be defined as R( x)  where p(x) and Q(x) are polynomial
Q( x )
function (provide that Q( x)  0 ).

x2  2x  9
Ex: R( x) 
x3
x 3  3x  2
Ex: R( x) 
x2  2x  1
 2.3.6. Divisibility of polynomial

Let P(x) be the polynomial of degree n

Definition: P(x) is divisible by ( x   ) if the remainder is 0

Factorization the polynomial of high than two order

P( x)  a0  a1 x  a2 x 2    an x n

div a0  {1 ,  2 ,,  k }, i  1,2,3,, k where  i are divisors of a0

If P( i )  0, then P( x)  ( x   i )q( x)

If p( i )  0 , then ( x   i ) is not a factor of P(x)

Example: 2 x3  3x 2  32 x  15

Solution div 15  {1,3,5,15}

P(3)  54  27  96  15  0

P( x)  ( x  3)q( x)

Horner method

2 3 -32 15

X=3 6 27 -15

2 9 5 0

P( x)  ( x  3)q( x)  ( x  3)(2 x 2  9 x  5),

To factoring q(x) by Horner method we need to find divisors of -5 and then substitute it

q(5)  50  49  5  0

2 9 -5

x=-5 -10 5

2 -1 0

q( x)  ( x  5)(2 x  1) , therefore note that q(x) could be factoring using quadratic method.
Exercises: Given P( x)  bx 3  2 x 2  3x  5

i. Find b such that ( x  1) be a factor of P(x)

ii. Solve p( x)  0
iii. Solve p( x)  0

Factorization the following

1) P( x)  12 x 3  16 x 2  5 x  3
2) p( x)  2 x 3  11x 2  17 x  6
3) P( x)  5 x 3  31x 2  31x  5
4) p( x)  x 5  4 x 4  x 3  2 x 2  x  3
5) p( x)  46 x 5  41x 4  79 x 3  27 x 2  41x  6

Domain of definition of a numerical function

Let f : IR  IR

x  y  f (x)

Domf  x  IR | y exist 


x2 1
* deno min ator  0 Ex: f ( x)  , x  3 , thus Domf  IR \ 3
x 3

* f ( x) ; f ( x)  0 Ex: f ( x)  x ; x  0 , thus Domf  IR 

* ln u( x); u( x)  0

* a x ; a  IR0 \ 1

Operation in numerical function

1. Equality
Let f : IR  IR with Dom f  I
g : IR  IR with Dom g  J
f  g  I  J and x  I ; f ( x)  g ( x)
Function Definition Domain

f g  f  g ( x)  f ( x)  g ( x) I J

f .g  f .g ( x)  f ( x) g ( x) I J

1 1
( x) 
1 I *  x  I | f ( x)  0
f f f ( x)

f f f ( x) I  J*
( x) 
g g g ( x)
J *  x  J | g ( x)  0

f f ( x)  f ( x) I  x  IR | f ( x)  0

fn f n ( x)  [ f ( x)]n I  IR

Examples: Find the domain of the function

1
i) f ( x)  , solution: Dom f  IR  {1} ]  ,1[]  1,1[]1,[
x 1
2

1
ii) f ( x)  , solution: Dom f ]  , 2[] 2 ,[ (hint: use table of signs)
x 2
2

iii) f ( x)  ln( x  2) , solution: x  2  0  x  2 , Dom f ]2,[

3
Exercise: Given f ( x)  and g ( x)  7  2  3x Find
x 2
2

i) Dom f
ii) Dom g
iii) Dom f  g
f
iv) Dom
g

Square root function

Let f be a function defined by x → where t (x) is a polynomial, a rational function, Dom f

= {x Є : t(x) }.

Notice:
In general, when f: x→ , We have the following cases which need a discussion

n  IN \ {1}

n even n odd

t(x)is a polynomial Df  {x  IR : t ( x)  0} Df  IR
function.

t (x) is a rational function Df  {x  IR :h( x)  0 and g ( x)  0} Df  IR \ {x  IR : g ( x)  0}

h( x )  {x  IR : g ( x)  0}
t ( x) 
g ( x)

Exercises:

Find the domain of the following functions defined by.

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

h( x )
a) The function f : x  f ( x)  , n  IN \ {1}
n g ( x)
n odd n even

Df  {x  IR : g ( x)  0} Df  {x  IR : g ( x)  0}

Exercises

a)
 b)

b) Function
f : IR  IR
n
h( x )
x  f ( x)  , n  IN \ {1}
g ( x)
n odd n even

Df  {x  IR : g ( x)  0} Df  {x  IR : h( x)  0 and g ( x)  0}

Exercises

a)

b)

c) FUNCTION
f : IR  IR
p
h( x )
x  f ( x)  q
, ( p, q)  IN \ {1}
g ( x)
p,q evens P even, q odd p odd, q even p,q odd

Df  {x  IR : h( x)  0 and g ( x)  0} Df  {x  IR : h( x)  0 and g ( x)  0} Df  {x  IR : g ( x)  0} Df  {x  IR :
g ( x)  0}

Exercises

a) f(x) =

b) f(x)=

c) f(x)=
 d) compare the domain of the following function defined by and

2. Comparison of function

Let f and g with the same domain E

f  g if x  E , f ( x)  g ( x) ; f  g if x  E , f ( x)  g ( x)

f is a positive function  f  0 if x  Dom f ; f ( x)  0

f is negative function  f  0 if x  Dom f ; f ( x)  0

f  0 if x  Dom f , f ( x)  0

Composition of function

Let f : A  B

g :B C

g  f read g after f

g  f ( x)  g[ f ( x)]

Example

f : x  2x  1

1
g:x
x3

1 1
g  f ( x)  g (2 x  1)  
(2 x  1)  3 2 x  2

1  1  2  ( x  3) x  1
f  g ( x)  f ( )  2  1  
x 3  x  3 x3 x3

In general f  g  g  f , but the associative is possible h  ( g  f )  (h  g )  f

Inverse function

Let f : A  B
Then an inverse function of f is a function in the opposite direction from B to A , denoted by

f 1 : B  A .

That is, if an input x into the function f produces an output y , then y is an input into the inverse
1
function f

f 1 : f [ B]  A
f ( x)  f 1[ f ( x)]  x
i.e. f 1 ( y )  x  y  f ( x)

Example: Find the inverse of the function

f :RR
x6
x  f ( x) 
x7

Solution

x6
Let us solve the equation y 
x7

 ( x  7) y  x  6
 xy  7 y  x  6
 x( y  1)  6  7 y
6 7y
x
y 1

1 1 6  7x
The inverse function f is given by the formula f ( x) 
x 1

Exercises

Determine the inverse of each real function

 3x 2  1
6) f ( x ) 
1) f ( x)  3  2 x 2  x2
2) f ( x )  x 3 x 1
7) f ( x ) 
1 5
3) f ( x) 
x x2  1
8) f ( x) 
4) f ( x )  x 2x  3
5) f ( x)  (2 x  1) 2 x9
9) f ( x) 
x2

Party (Even and Odd function)

f : R  R with domain Dom f

f is even if x  Dom f ,  x  Dom f and f ( x)  f ( x)

f is odd if x  Dom f ,  x  Dom f and f ( x)   f ( x)

Example

3x 2  1
f :x is an even function
x 2 1

f : x  x 2 is an even function

g : x  2 x 3  5x is an odd function

g:xx is an odd function

Periodic function

Let f : IR  IR with domain Dom f and let T  IR0

f is periodic of period T , if x  Dom f  x  T  Dom f and f ( x  T )  f ( x)

Most of periodic function are trigonometric functions such as

sin x cos x 1 1
sin x, cos x, tan x  , cot x  , sec x  , cos ecx 
cos x sin x cos x sin x

Example: f ( x)  sin x, cos x are periodic with period of T  2 , while f ( x)  tan x is periodic with
period of T  

2
For instance y  sin t has period of T 

Increasing-Decreasing function

Let f : IR  IR with domain Dom f

Let x1 , x2  Dom f

f ( x2 )  f ( x1 )
Definition: if x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) then f is increasing function i.e. 0
x2  x1

f ( x2 )  f ( x1 )
if x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) then f is decreasing function i.e. 0
x2  x1

Transcendental function

A numerical function which is neither polynomial nor algebraic is transcendental.

Exponential function

f : IR  IR
x  f ( x)  a x , a  0,1

Logarithmic function

f : IR  IR
x  f ( x)  log a x, a0

ln x
If a  e, f ( x)  log e x   ln x (since ln e  1 ) and is called natural logarithm
ln e

If a  10, f ( x)  log x

Exercises

1. Solve for x in the equation .

2. Solve for x in the equation 10 x5  8  60

3. Solve for x in the equation

4. Solve for x in the equation

5. Solve for x in the equation

 .

6. Solve for x in the equation

7. Solve for x in the equation

8. Solve for x in the equation

9. Solve for x in the equation

Exercises

1. Solve for x in the equation

2. Solve for x in the equation

3. Solve for x in the equation

4. Solve for x in the equation

5. Solve for x in the equation

6. Solve for x in the equation

6. Solve for x in the equation

Trigonometric function
f : IR  IR
x  f ( x)  cos x, sin x, tan x, cot x, sec x, cos ec x

sin x cos x 1 1
tan x  , cot x  , sec x  , cos ec x 
cos x sin x cos x sin x

Properties of trigonometric function

1. cos 2 x  sin 2 x  1

2. cos( x  y)  cos x cos y  sin x sin y

3. sin( x  y)  cos x sin y  cos y sin x

1
4. 1  tan 2 x  2
 sec2 x
cos x

1
5. 1  cot 2 x  2
 cos ec 2 x
sin x

tan x  tan y
6. tan( x  y ) 
1  tan x tan y

7. sin( x)   sin x  Odd function

8. cos( x)  cos x  Even function

9. tan( x)   tan x  Odd function

10. cot( x)   cot x  Odd function

Inverse of trigonometric function

1
If x  sin y then the inverse is y  sin x

1
If x  cos y then the inverse is y  cos x

x  tan y  y  tan1 x , similarly to all trigonometric function

Hyperbolic function

e x  e x
1. sinh x 
2
 e x  e x
2. cosh x 
2

sinh x e x  e x
3. tanh x  
cosh x e x  e x

cosh x e x  e x
4. coth x  
sinh x e x  e x

Inverse of hyperbolic function

1. x  sinh y  y  sinh 1 x  ln( x  x2  1)

1
2. x  cosh y  y  cosh x  ln( x  x 2  1)

1 1 x
3. x  tanh y  y  tanh 1 x  ln , x 1
2 1 x

1 x 1
4. x  coth y  y  coth 1 x  ln , x 1
2 x 1

Example on how to get the inverse of the hyperbolic function

e x  e x 1 e2 x  1
y  sinh x   2 y  ex  x  2 y  x
 2 ye x  e2 x  1  e2 x  2 ye x  1  0
2 e e

Put e x  t ,

t 2  2 yt  1  0,   4 y 2  4  4( y 2  1)    2 y 2  1

2 y  2 y2  1
t  t1  y  y 2  1 , t2  y  y 2  1  0 is rejected
2

t  y  y 2  1 , but t  e x  e x  y  y 2  1

 x ln e  ln( y  y 2  1)
x  ln( y  y 2  1)

sinh 1 x  ln( x  x 2  1)
ARITHMETIC & GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

SEQUENCES (PROGRESSION)

a) Definitions

Let S ϲ , we call sequence of real numbers any application from S in .

We denote the range of a natural number n by .

Then we get the terms of the sequence which are: and we denote them briefly by
bracket notation as or .

The number is the first term of the sequence and is the general term of the
sequence

Example: In the sequence 1 , ½ , 1/3 ,1/4 , …,1/n ,…..the first term is 1,the second term is ½ and
1/n is the general term.

In the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16,…, ,…the first term is 1;the second term is 4,the general
term is .

We say that a sequence is increasing ;

and strictly increasing .

We say that a sequence is decreasing ;

and strictly decreasing .

We say that a sequence is stationary (constant) ;

A sequence which is increasing (or decreasing) only is monotonous.

We say that the sequence is bounded if there exist two real numbers m and M such that
for any; we have m M. The real m is the lower bound of the sequence and M is the upper
bound.

Exercise1:We define a sequence by .Find the terms of the sequence and

show if it is monotonous or bounded.

Solution:

; ;. ; ;…….. =2+
 is strictly decreasing because = =
;then it is monotonous strictly. The lower bound is 2
and the upper bound is 3; then the sequence is bounded.

Example: Do the same exercise for (i) and

(ii) For ;and

b) Convergent and divergent sequences

We say that the sequence tends to or has a limit l if for all ε , there is an integer p
such that n>p .

We shall denote =l; and we say that converges to l.

Remark: If the sequence has a limit; this limit is unique.

A sequence which does not converge is divergent. If is divergent then

Theorem: Suppose that the sequences and converge to limits and , respectively,
and c is constant. Then:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e) (if )
Examples: Calculate the limit of the following sequences:

3  5  7    (2n  1)
(1) ; (2) un  ; (3) ;
2n 2  n  6
(4)

Solutions: (1) = =2

The numerator is the sum S of an arithmetic progression: the reason is 2 and the number p of
term is such that 4n+1=(p – 1 )2 +3,then p=2n. S=
 =

Example: The sequence which has the general term is divergent.

We say that the sequence is an alternate sequence if have

opposite signs

Example: A sequence which has the general term is an alternate sequence.

c) Geometric and arithmetic progressions

1. Arithmetic progressions

is an arithmetic progression if

The real number r is called the reason of the progression.

If r>0 then the progression is strictly increasing.

If r<0 then the progression is strictly decreasing.

If r=0 then the progression is constant.

Property: Let an arithmetic progression with reason r and with the first term

If is the term; and the sum of n first terms (partial sum); then

(1) =

(2) = =

Example: Given an arithmetic progression { } = (8, 6, 4, 2,………).Find

Solution: The reason is -2 and the first term is = 8; then = 8 + 19. (- 2 )= - 30

and .

2. Geometric progressions

is an Geometric progression if

The real number q is called the reason of the progression.

If q>0 then the term of the progression have the sign of

If q<0 then the progression is an alternate sequence.

If q=1 then the progression is constant.

Property: Let a geometric progression with reason q and with the first term

If is the term; and the sum of n first terms (partial sum); then

(1) =

(2) = =

Example: Given the geometric progression { } =(2,10,50,250,………).Find

Solution: The reason is 5 and the first term is = 2; then = 2. = 6250

and .
 Exercises 2.1

1. Express the following sequences in bracket notation:

a) b) c) d) e)

2. Show that the sequence is strictly monotone:

a) b) c) d)

3. Show that the sequence is monotone and determine whether it converges:

a) b) c) d) e) f)

4. Consider as an arithmetic progression such that and .

Calculate the common difference, write as un function of ?

5. Three numbers are in arithmetic progression. Find the numbers if their sum is 30 and the of
their squares is 332?

6. If , and 54 are three consecutive terms of a geometric sequence, find the possible
values of a, and the numerical value of the next term for each value of a found?

7. Calculate the following limits:

(a) (c)

8. If , and 54 are three consecutive terms of a geometric sequence, find the possible
values of a, and the numerical value of the next term for each value of a found?
9. Calculate

SOME BUSINESS APPLICATIONS

a) SOME TERMS USED IN BUSINESS CALCULATIONS

(i) Principal amount (P). This is the amount of money that is initially being considered. It might
be an amount about to be invested or loaned or it may refer to the initial value or cost of plant or
machinery. Thus if a company was considering a bank loan of say $ 20000, this would be
referred to as the principal amount to be borrowed.

(ii) Accrued amount (A). This term is applied generally to a principal amount after some time
has elapsed for which interest has been calculated and added. It is quite common to qualify A
precisely according to time elapsed. Thus A1, A2, etc would mean the amount accrued at the end
of the first and second years so on. The company referred to in (i) above might owe, say, an
accrued amount of $ 22000 at the end of the first year and $ 24200 at the end of the second
year (if no repayments had been made prior to this time).

(iii) Rate of interest (i). Interest is the name given to a proportionate amount of money which is
added to some principal amount (invested or borrowed). It is normally denoted by symbol i and
expressed as a percentage rate per annum. For example if $ 100 is invested at interest rate 5%
per annum (pa), it will accrue to $ 100+( 5% of $ 100) = $ 100+ $ 5 = $ 105 at the end of one
year. Note however, that for calculation purposes, a percentage rate is best written as a
proportion. Thus, an interest rate of 10% would be written as i =0.1 and 12.5% as i =0.125 and
so on.

(iv) Number of time periods (n). The number of time periods over which amounts of money are
being invested or borrowed is normally denoted by the symbol n. Although n is usually a number
of years, it could represent other time periods, such as a number of quarters or months.

b) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SIMPLE AND COMPOUND INTEREST

When an amount of money is invested over a number of years, the interest earned can be dealt
with in two ways.
i) Simple interest: This is where any interest earned is NOT added back to the principal amount
invested.

For example, suppose that RWF 20,000 is invested at 10% simple interest per annum. The
following table shows the state of the investment, year by year:

Year Amount on which interest Interest earned Cumulative amount

Is calculated accrued

1 RWF 20,000 10% of RWF 20,000= RWF 2,000 RWF 22,000

2 RWF 20,000 10% of RWF 20,000= RWF 2,000 RWF 24,000

3 RWF 20,000 10% of RWF 20,000= RWF 2,000 RWF 26,000

...etc

ii) Compound interest: This is where any interest earned is added back to the previous amount
accrued.

For example, suppose that RWF 20,000 is invested at 10% compound interest per annum. The
following table shows the state of the investment, year by year:

Year Amount on which interest Interest earned Cumulative amount

Is calculated accrued

1 RWF 20,000 10% of RWF 20,000= RWF 2,000 RWF 22,000

2 RWF 22,000 10% of RWF 22,000= RWF 2,200 RWF 24,200

3 RWF 24,200 10% of RWF 24,200= RWF 2,420 RWF 26,620

The difference between the methods can easily be seen by comparing the above two tables.
Notice that the amount on which simple interest is calculated is always the same, namely, the
original principal.

c) FORMULA FOR AMOUNT ACCRUED (SIMPLE INTEREST)

Where

Generally, simple interest is of no great practical value in modern business and commercial
situations, since in practice interest is always compounded.

Example: If RWF 3000 is invested at a simple interest rate of 9.5%, then determine the accrued
amount of investment over a period of 5 years?

Answer: The principal is , and

The interest earned in any year is

Over a period of 5 years the accrued amount of investment would be given by:

d) FORMULA FOR AMOUNT ACCRUED (COMPOUND INTEREST)

Where
e) NOTES ON PREVIOUS FORMULA

i) The above formula can be transposed to make the subject as follows:

So that, given an interest rate and a time period, a principal can be found if the accrued amount is
known.

Example: A principal amount accrues to RWF 85,000 if it is compounded at 14.5% over 6 years.
What amount needs to be invested?

Answer:

That is, RWF 37,721.2 needs to be invested (at 14.5% over 6 years) in order to accrue to RWF
85,000

ii) Determining , given and

Example: Find the interest rate necessary for RWF 20,000 to accrue to RWF 50,000 in 12 years?

Answer: Here

Now, ,

f) Nominal and effective interest rates

i) It is normal practice in business and commerce to express rates of interest as per annum
figures, even though the interest may be compounded over time periods of less than a year. In
this type of case, the given annual rate is called a nominal rate.

ii) Compounding may be six-monthly, quarterly, monthly or daily. The actual annual rate of
interest, called the effective rate or actual percentage rate (APR), will always be greater than the
nominal rate.

For example, suppose the nominal rate of interest is 10%, but interest is being compounded six-
monthly. This means that interest is being 5% per six months. Thus, if RWF 1000 was to be
invested, it would be worth RWF 1000(1.05) = RWF 1050 after the first six-months. Then this
RWF 1050 would be invested for a further six months at 5% and would be worth RWF
1050(1.05) = RWF 1102.5 at the end of year.

In other words, RWF 1000 has grown to RWF 1102.5 after one year, giving an effective interest
rate, or APR, of 10.25% (not 10%).

iii) The standard method of determining the APR is to make the effective time period equal to the
compounding period and actually compound over a period of a year.

Formula for calculating APR

Where given nominal rate (as a proportion)

Number of equal compounding periods in one year

Thus, for example:

1. 10% nominal, compounded quarterly, has APR=

2. 24% nominal, compounded monthly, has APR=

3. A company will have to spend RWF 300,000 on new plant in two years from now. Currently
investment rates are at a nominal 10%.

a) What single sum should now be invested, if compounding is six-monthly?

b) What is the APR?

Answer:

a) Since compounding is six- monthly, the investment (P, say) must accrue to a value of RWF
300,000 after four six-monthly periods. Note also that the interest rate for each six-month period
is (10/2)% = 5%.

Using the compounding (accrue amount) formula, 300,000 = P (1+0.05)4

That is, the amount to be invested is RWF 246810.75

b) Using the previous APR formula: APR =

g) DEPRECIATION

Depreciation is an allowance made in estimates, valuations or balance sheets, normally for ‘wear
and tear’.

Reducing balance depreciated value formula

If book value B is subject to reducing balance depreciation at rate 100i% over n time periods, the
depreciated value at the end of the n-th time period is given by:

Where: = depreciated value at the end of the n-th time period

= Original book value

= depreciation rate (as proportion)

 = number of time periods (normally years).

Example: If the depreciated value (D) of an asset was RWF 5378.91 after three year’
depreciation at 25%, then determine the original book value?

Answer:

h) PRESENT VALUE AND INVESTMENT APPRAISAL

10) Introduction

In this section we describe the technique of present value and how it can be applied to future
cash flows in order to find their worth in today’s money values. This in turn enables discounted
cash flows to be calculated for investments, leading to descriptions of the main methods of
investment appraisal.

20) Formula for present value

The present value of amount RWF A, payable in n year’s time, subject to discount rate of 100i%
is given:

Where

30) Present value of an interest – bearing debt

When an amount of money is borrowed it will attract interest at an appropriate borrowing rate. If
no intermediate payments are made, at the end of a period the debt, plus interest, must be repaid
as a lump sum. The present values of amounts such as these are often required.
Where: = proportional borrowing rate

= proportional discount rate

= original amount borrowed

= number of time periods (normally years)

Example: Find the PV of a debt of $ 2500 taken out over 4 years (with no intermediate
repayments) where the borrowing rate is 12% and the worth of money (discount rate) is 9.5%?

Answer:

The maturity value of the debt is $ 2500 (1.12)4 = $ 3933.80

In other words, the original debt of $ 2500 will cost $ 2736.25 (in today’s money terms) to repay.

Thus, it can be considered that the real cost of the debt is $ 2736.25- $ 2500 = $ 236.25 (in
today’s money terms).

i) ANNUITIES

10) Annuities and their uses

An annuity is a sequence of fixed equal payments (or receipts) made over uniform time
intervals. Some common examples of annuities are: weekly wages or monthly salaries; insurance
premiums; house-purchase mortgage payments.

Annuities are used in all areas of business and commerce. Loans are normally repaid with an
annuity.

20) Definition and types of annuity

An annuity is a sequence of fixed equal payments (or receipts) made over uniform time
intervals.

i) Annuities may be paid:

 At the end of payment intervals (an ordinary annuity), or

 At the beginning of payment intervals (a due annuity)
ii) The term of an annuity may:

 Begin and end on fixed dates (a certain annuity), or

 Depend on some event that cannot be fixed (a contingent annuity )
iii) A perpetual annuity is one that carries on indefinitely.

30) Net present value of an annuity

The Net present value (NPV) of a regular annuity A, paid or received over n years and subject to
discount rate of 100i%, is given by:

If the annuity is in perpetuity, the above formula is adjusted to:

Example: The NPV of $ 125, payable at the end of each of five years and subject to a discount
rate of 8, is:

40) Amortization annuity

If an amount of money is borrowed over a period of time, one way of repaying the debt is paying
an amortization annuity. This consists of a regular annuity (ordinary and certain) in which each
payment accounts for both repayment of capital and interest. The debt is said to be amortized if
this method is used. Many of the loans issued by banks and building societies for house purchase
are of this type, where it is known as a repayment mortgage.

The annual payment, A, necessary to amortize a debt, P, in exactly n years is given by:

Example: A company negotiates a loan of £200,000 over 15 years at 10.5% per annum.
Calculate the annual payment necessary to amortize the debt?

Answer: Here we use the formula.

So,

Thus the annual payment necessary to amortize the debt is £ 27,050.

50) Amortization schedule

An amortization schedule is a specification, period by period (normally year by year) of the state
of the debt. It is usual to show for each year:

 Amount of debt outstanding at beginning of year,

 Interest paid,
 Annual payment, and, optionally,
 Amount of principal repaid.
Example: A debt of RWF 5,000 with interest at 5% compounded 6- monthly is amortized by
equal semi-annual payments over the next three years.

a) Find the value of each payment? b) Construct an amortization schedule?

Answer: a) Making the standard time period 6 months, the interest rate is 2.5% with n=6 time
periods. NPV =5000; n= 6 and i=0.025, 1+i= 1.025.We need to put the amount of the debt equal
to the NPV of repayment annuity, A
b) Note that:

 Principal repaid= Payment made- Interest paid

 Outstanding debt ( current year) = Outstanding debt(previous year)- Principal repaid
(previous year)
 For example in first repayment the interest paid is
The amortization schedule:

6-month outstanding debt Interest paid Payment made principal repaid

Period

1 5000.00 125 907.75 782.75

2 4217.25 105.43 907.75 802.32

3 3414.93 85.37 907.75 822.38

4 2592.55 64.81 907.75 842.94

5 1749.61 43.74 907.75 864.01

6 885.60 22.14 907.75 885.61

Balance (0.01)
 Unit 2: Matrix algebra

I.MATRICES AND LINEAR EQUATIONS

I.1 DEFINITION

A matrix is a rectangular array of m  n numbers arranged in m horizontal rows and n vertical columns

Written as

 a11 a12 a13  a1n 

 
 a21 a22 a23  a2 n 
A   a31 a32 a33  a3n 
 
      
a  amn 
 m1 am 2 am 3

th
The element aij of matrix A is written at intersection of the i th row and j column of A . The first index

i shows the numbering of row while the second index j indicates the numbering of column.

[A short- hand notation which is often used is A  (aij ) ]

DIMENSION A matrix A which has m rows and n columns is said to have dimension m  n and is

denoted by as Am n

The dimension of a matrix is sometimes called its shape or its size.

A square matrix is a matrix which has number of rows is equal to the number of columns (i.e. m  n )

2 3
For example the matrix A  is a 2×2 matrix or a square matrix of order 2,
 1 0

 b11 b12 b13 

 
B   b21 b22 b23  is a 3 3 matrix or a square matrix of order 3 (sometime denoted by B33 )
b 
 31 b32 b33 
A square matrix D is known as a diagonal matrix if its elements are zero except those of the
 a11 0 0  0 
 
 0 a22 0  0 
diagonal D   0 0 a33  0 
 
      
 0  ann 
 0 0

A unit matrix (identity matrix) is the diagonal matrix with unit in the main diagonal. That is
1 if i  j
 ij  
0 if i  j

1 0 0  0
 
0 1 0  0
I n n  0 0 1  0
 
    
0  1 
 0 0

 a11 0 0  0 
 
 a21 a22 0  0 
-The square matrices whose form are L   a31 a32 a33  0  and
 
      
a  amm 
 m1 am 2 am 3
 a11 a12 a13  a1n 
 
 0 a22 a23  a2 n 
U  0 0 a33  a3n  are respectively called the Lower and Upper triangular
 
      
 0  ann 
 0 0
matrices.

A matrix of dimension m1 is called a column vector, or simply a vector

 a11 
 
 a21 
a   a31 
 
  
a 
 m1 
A matrix of dimension 1 n is called a row vector a  a11 a12 a13  a1n 

We sometimes denote a column vector by a and a row vector a T

I.2. OPERATION ON MATRICES

a) EQUALITY

Two matrices A and B are equal iff (if and only if) they have the same dimension and aij  bij for all i

and j

Example 1: consider the matrices

3 5  3 2 1 
3 2 1      3 2 1 
A , B   2 0 ,C  5 0  4, D   
5 0  4 1  4  0 0 0  5 0  4
   

A and B are not equal since they don’t have the same dimension

A and C are not equal since C has an extra row

A and D are equal

 x  4 23 9   3 y  x  14 23 9 
Example 2: The matrices A    and B    are
 5 y  8  12   5 4 y  2 x  12 
equal if x – 4 =3y + x+14 and if y+8=4y+2x.It means when y = -6, and x=13.

b) ADDITION

If two matrices are of the same dimension we can define their sum, C  A  B , as that matrix with the
same dimension as A and B , and such that cij  aij  bij . Thus each entry in C equal to the sum of

the corresponding entries in A and B

Example consider the matrices

 2 1  1 2 
    3 2 1 
A   4 0  , B   1 2  , C   
 2 3   2  4  5 1 2 
   
  2 1 1  2   3 1 
   
Then A  B   4  (1) 0  2    3 2 
 2  2 3  (4)   0  1
   

However A  C and B  C do not exist since C does not have the same dimension as A and B

The Zero Matrix

The zero matrix has all its entries equal zero. We denote the zero matrix of dimension m  n by 0m n , or

more simply by 0 . The zero matrix of dimension 2×2 is

 0 0
O22   
 0 0

If A has dimension m  n and 0 is the zero matrix of the same dimension, then A  0  0  A  A .
Thus O is the additive identity matrix

c) MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR

If A  (aij ) and k is a scalar, kA  (kaij ) . The entries of kA are found by multiplying each of the

entries of A by k

 2  1 1
Example Given A    , find 2A, -A and A
4 6  2

 1
 4  2  2 1  1  1  
2A   ,A   , A   2
 8 12   4  6  2 
2 3 

d) TRANSPOSE

The transpose of the m  n matrix A  (aij ) is defined to be n  m matrix AT  (a ji ) . Thus AT is the

matrix whose rows are the same as the columns of A and whose columns are the same as the rows of
A
 3 4
 3 1 4   
Example: 1. If A    then A   1
T
6 .
4 6 5  4 5 


a b c a d g
   
2. If B   d e f  then B   b
T
e h  thus for a square matrix the main diagonal
g h i  c i 
  f

doesn’t change when we transpose the matrix.

Exercises

2 1   3 1
1. If A    , and B    , find
3  2  2  3

(a) A+B, (b) 2A-B, (c) (A+B)T, (d) AT+BT

 5 1 
2 1 3  4 2 5   
2. If A   , B    , C   2 4  , find if possible
 2 4 0  0  2 0   3  2 
 
(a) A+B; (b) A+CT; (c) 3A-2B ; (d) 3B-C; (e) B-2CT

3. Verify the associative law of addition for 2×2 matrices

4. Where possible, find the unknown matrix X in each of the following

1  2   4  2 
(a) X  3   
 4 5  14 16 

3 4  6 1
(b) 2    3X  
 1 2   1 5 

T
1 0 
  1 4  2 
(c) 2 X  3  2  2    
 4  1   4 0  1
 

1  1 2   4 2 8
  3X  
T
(d)  
 4 3  2  2 9 1 
 e) MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

Let A be m  n matrix and B be n  p matrix. Then the product C  AB is a matrix of dimension

n
m  p such that cij   aik bkj  ai1b1 j  ai 2b2 j  ai 3b3 j   ainbnj for
k 1

i=1, 2, 3,…, m and j= 1, 2, 3, …, p

th
Thus the element in the i th row and j column of the product AB is found by multiplying the
th
corresponding entries in the i th row of A and the j column of B and then adding the n products.

Matrix multiplication is not always possible. Matrices are said to be conformable for multiplication if the
number of columns of the first matrix is equal to the number of rows of the second matrix. The product
matrix has the same number of rows as the first matrix and the same number of columns as the second
matrix.

In the product AB , we say that A pre-multiplies B or B post-multiplies A

As the next example shows, matrix multiplication is not commutative, i.e., AB  BA in general.

Example 1

3 1 
 2 3  1  
If A    and B  1 2  , find AB and BA
 4 0 2  0 4
 

A is 2×3 and B is 3×2. Therefore AB exists and has dimension 2×2. Buts BA has dimension 3×3.

10 9  1
9 4   
AB    , and BA  10 3 3 
12 12  16 0 8 
 

Example 2

2 4 1  3 5
If A    and B    , find AB if possible
3 0 2 1 4 
(a) AB (b) ATB; (c) BA

Example 3

The school shop sells two sorts of cold drinks, milk and orange juice. Milk costs $1.20 per carton and
orange juice is $1.50 per carton. On a given week 100 cartons of milk and 75 cartons of juice were sold.
In the succeeding week 120 cartons of milk and 70 cartons of orange juice were sold. In the third week
110 cartons of milk and 80 cartons of orange juice were sold. Find, using matrices, the total number of
cartons of each sort of drink sold in the three weeks and the total cost.

Solution

 1
100 120 110   
Let X  1.2 1.5 , Y    and Z  1
 75 70 80   1
 

 1
100 120 110     330 
Now YZ     1    and
 75 70 80     225 
 1

 330 
X (YZ )  1.2 1.5    733.5
 225 

Therefore 330 cartons of milk and 225 cartons of orange juice were sold at a total cost of $733.50

Note Positive integer powers of a matrix have a similar meaning to positive integer powers of a real
number

For example, A  A  A, A  A  A  A  A  A  A  A , etc.

2 3 2 2

Exercises

1. Given matrices A, B, C and D such that D=A(B-C) where A, B have dimensions m  n and n  p

respectively, find the dimensions of C and D

2. Find the following products:
  2 4 1 2 3  1 2 
(a)    (b)  5  2   
 1 2  2  3  4   4 3

1 2 3  6 2  5  2 7 8 
 2 4 3     
(c)    2  3  4  (d)  3 1 2  2 0 2 
 1 2 5    5 4  6  6 2  1
0 7 5    

3. Show that AB  AC does not imply that B  C using the following matrices

 2  4  4 2 2 1 
A , B   ,C   
1  2  2 1   3 2 

1 2   2  3 1 4 
4. Consider the matrices A   , B    and C   
3 4   1 5  5 1 

Evaluate both  A  B  and A2  2 AB  B2 .Explain why they are not equal. Can you suggest the
2

correct expansion for  A  B  show that your suggestion is correct for these matrices.
2

5. Find real numbers a and b for which

6 5  a   14 
(a)      
 2  3  b   10 

 a 0 1 3    2  6 
(b)    
 b  2  2 4   4  8 

 a b  1 0
( c ) If A    and I    , show that A  (a  d ) A  (ad  bc) I  0
2

c d  0 1 

6. A company manufactures three different TV sets- Types A, Band C. Each set requires one or more of
each of three components- X, Y and Z.

Type A requires 5 of X, 3 of Y and 1 of Z

Type B requires 4 of X, 4 of Y and 2 of Z

 Type C requires 6 of X, 2 of Y and 3 of Z

Each component X costs $2.50, each component Y costs $4.20 and each component Z costs $3.00, and
in a given week the company manufactures 10 sets of type A, 8 of type B and 12 of type C

5 4 6  10 
   
7. Let L, M, N be the matrices L   2.5 4.2 3.0  , M   3 4 2  , N   8 
1 2 3   12 
   

(a) Find the matrix MN and interpret the result

(b) Find the matrix LMN and interpret the result

 a 1
8. Let A    where a and b are scalars. Find a and b if
 1 b 
 1 0
(a) A2  0 , (b) A   (c) A2  A
2
,
0 1 

I.3 THE DETERMINANT OF (SQUARE) MATRIX

The determinant of a 2×2 matrix

 a b
Definition 1 The determinant of a 2×2 matrix A    is denoted and defined by
c d 

a b
det A   ad  bc The determinant is a scalar ( number)
c d

3 5 
Example 1 Find the determinant of the matrix A   
 2 4 

det A  3  4  (2)  5  12  10  22

Definition 2 A matrix A for which det A  0 is called a singular matrix

 3 a 8 
Example 2: For what values of a is the matrix A    singular?
1  4 a
 det A  (3  a)(4  a)  8  a 2  a  20  (a  4)(a  5)

Thus A is singular when a=4 a  4 or a  5

I.2 THE DETERMINANT of a 3×3 Matrix

 a11 a12 a13 

 
Consider the matrix A   a21 a22 a23 
a 
 31 a32 a33 

Before we look at the general method, it’s helpful to define what is meant by the minor of an element of
a matrix

Definition 3: The minor of the element aij of a matrix A, denoted by mij , is the determinant of the
th
matrix left when the i th row and j column of A are deleted.

a22 a23 a21 a23

Thus m11  , m12  , etc.
a32 a33 a31 a33

The determinant of A can be evaluated in 6 different ways ( a graphic display calculator may also be
used).

3
det A   (1)i  k aik mik for i  1, 2 or 3  by rows 
k 1

Or

3
det A   (1)k  j akj mkj for j  1, 2 or 3 by columns 
k 1

A positive sign is used.

Thus det A  a11m11  a12 m12  a13m13 evaluating by the first row, or

det A  a21m21  a22 m22  a23m23 evaluating by the second row, or

 det A  a31m31  a32 m32  a33m33 evaluating by the third row, or

det A  a13m13  a23m23  a33m33 evaluating the third column, etc

Note: If the sum of the row and column number of the element and its minor is odd, a negative sign is
attached to the product of the matrix element and its minor. If the sum is even, a positive sign is used.

1 3  2 
 
Example 3 Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A   2 1 4
3 4 2 


1 4 2 4 2 1
det A  3  (2)
4 2 3 2 3 4
 (2  16)  3(4  12)  2(8  3)
 14  24  10
0

The work required to evaluate a 3× 3 determinant can be used considerably if a row or column contains
one more zeros among its entries.

2 5 0
Example 4: Find the value of the determinant 3 2 3
4 1 0

Since the third column has two zero entries, we evaluate the determinant by the third column. This gives

2 5 0
3 2 2 5 2 5
3 2 3  0 3 0
4 1 4 1 3 2
4 1 0
2 5
 3
4 1
 54

Theorem: If A and B are any two square matrices of order n, then det(AB)=(det A)(det B)
Proof: (n=2 only)

 a b e f
Let A    and B   
c d  g h 

 ae  bg af  bh 
Then det A  ad  bc, det B  eh  fg and AB   
 ce  dg cf  dh 

det( AB)  (ae  bg )(cf  dh)  (af  bh)(ce  dg )

 acef  adeh  bcfg  bdgh  acef  adfg  bceh  bdgh
 adeh  adfg  bceh  bcfg
 ad (eh  fg )  bc(eh  fg )
 (ad  bc)(eh  fg )
 (det A)(det B)

Theorem: If A is any square matrix of order n, then det( A )  det A

T

Proof

 a b  a c
If n=2, let A    then A    and det( A )  ad  bc  det A
T T

 c d   b d 

 a11 a12 a13   a11 a21 a31 

   
If n=3, let A   a21 a22 a23  then A   a12 a22 a32 
T

a  a 
 31 a32 a33   13 a23 a33 

Then

a22 a32 a12 a32 a12 a22

det AT  a11  a21  a31
a23 a33 a13 a33 a13 a23
a22 a23 a12 a13 a12 a13
 a11  a21  a31
a32 a33 a32 a33 a22 a23
 det A

n n
Note: det A   (1)
k 1
ik
aik mik   (1)k i aTki mkiT  det AT , n 
k 1

The expression for det A is evaluated by the i th row and the expression for det AT is evaluated by the

j th column

EXERCICES

1. Evaluate the determinant of each of the following matrices

 3 2 1   1 2 1   2  2 1 
     
(a)  2 0 4 (b)  3 1  1 ( c ) 2 1  2
3  4 1 1 4 1  3 1 3 
     

1 2 k
2. Find the values of k for which 2 1 2 0
k 4 1

3. Find in terms of  , the determinant of the matrix

 2 1 3 
 
A 1 1  1 
 1  1  2   


 k 1  2 1 
 
4. For what real value of k is the matrix A    2 k  1  1  singular?
 1 6 k  2 


2 x 1 1
5. Solve the equation 1 1  x 2  0 for
8 2 1  x

3 2 
6. If A  
2
 , find det( A ) and det(2 A)
 1 1

7. If A is a square matrix of order n such as det A=x, what is the value of

2 m
(a) det( A ) (b) det( A )
I.3 MATRIX ALGEBRA

Addition

Consider the set S of all square matrices of order n.

(a1) S is closed under addition. Thus the sum of any two n×n matrices is an n×n Matrix

(a2) S is commutative under addition. That is if A and B are any two n×n matrices, then A+B=B+A

(a3) S is associative under addition. That is if A, B and C are any n×n matrices, then

A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C

(a4) There exists an additive identity, 0  S , such that for any n×n matrix A,

A+0=0+A=A

(a5) Each n×n matrix has an additive inverse n×n matrix (-A) such that

A + (-A) = (-A) + A = 0

MULTIPLICATION

Consider the set S of all square matrices of order n.

(m1) S is closed under multiplication. That is the product of any two n×n matrices is an n×n matrix

(m2) S is associative under multiplication. That is if A, B and C are any n×n matrices, then
A(BC)=(AB)C

(m3) There exists an multiplicative identity, I  S , such that for any n×n matrix A,

AI=IA=A

(m4) Matrix multiplication distributes over addition. That is if A, B and C are any

n×n matrices, then A(B+C)=AB+AC

 Note: I from (m3) is called the identity matrix and has all elements on its” leading diagonal” equal to

 1 0
one and all other elements equal to zero. The 2×2 identity matrix is I 22    and the 3×3
0 1 
 1 0 0
 
identity matrix is I 33  0 1 0 
0 0 1 
 

The following ‘field axioms’ are not generally satisfied by matrices in S:

(a) Commutative of multiplication. It is not generally true that if A and B are any two n  n matrices
then AB=BC
(b) Inverse under multiplication
Not all n  n matrices A have multiplicative inverses and so it may not be possible to find an

n  n matrix A1 such that AA1  A1 A  I

 2 1  3 2
Example For matrices A    and B    , show that AB  BA
1 2   2 1

 2 1 3 2  4 5
AB     
1 2  2 1  1 4
Cleary AB  BA
 3 2  2 1  8 7
BA     
 2 11 2   3 0

2 3  2 1
Example Show that the matrix A    does not have an inverse but the matrix B   
 4 6  5 3
does. Find the matrix B 1 .

1 a b
Let the inverse of A be A    , if it exists. Then
c d 
  2 3  a b  1 0 
AA1  I or    
 4 6  c d   0 1
 2a  3c 2b  3d  1 0 
  
 4a  6c 4b  6d   0 1
2a  3c  1 2b  3d  0
 and 
4a  6c  0 4b  6d  1
2b  3d  0
2a  3c  1 
 and  1
2a  3c  0 2b  3d  2

Since 2a+3c cannot be both 1 and 0, and 2b+3d cannot be both 0 and ½, no values of a, b, c and d can be
found. Thus A does not have an inverse.

1 e f 
Let the inverse of B be B    , if it exists. Then
 g h

 2 1  e f  1 0 
BB 1  I or    
 5 3  g h   0 1
 2e  g 2 f  h  1 0 
  
 5e  3 g 5 f  3h   0 1
2e  g  1 2 f  h  0
 and 
5e  3g  0 5 f  3h  1

Solving these simultaneous equations gives e  3, f  1, g  5, h  2

1  3 1 
Therefore B has an inverse matrix B   
 5 2 

2 3 3 6 
Example: For matrices A    and B    , find AB
 4 6  2  4 

 2 3  3 6  0 0
AB     
 4 6  2  4   0 0 
From this example we see that if AB=0, we cannot say that A=0 or B=0. However, the following
‘cancellation’ theorem should be known.

Theorem If AB=0 and the inverse of A exists, then B=0.

Proof AB=0

 A1 ( AB)  ( A1 )0 Since A1 exists and S is closed under

Multiplication

 ( A1 A) B  0 Since matrix multiplication is associative

 IB  0

B0

The existence of a (multiplicative) inverse of a 2×2 Matrix

a b 1 e f 
Consider the 2×2 matrix A    and its inverse, if it exists, A   
c d   g h

1  a b  e f   ae  bg af  bh  1 0 
Then AA      
 c d  g h   ce  dg cf  dh   0 1

ae  bg  1............(i ) af  bh  0...........(iii )
Thus
ce  dg  0............(ii ) cf  dh  1...........(iv )

Multiply (i) by c: ace  bcg  c............(v)

Multiply (ii) by a: ace  adg  0............(vi)

c
Subtract (v) from (vi): (ad  bc) g  c so g  , provided ad  bc  0
ad  bc

Multiply (i) by d: ade  bdg  d ............(vii)

Multiply (ii) by b: bce  bdg  0............(viii)

 d
Subtract (viii) from (vii): (ad  bc)e  d so e  , provided ad  bc  0
ad  bc

Since equations (iii) and (iv) are essentially the same as equations (i) and (ii) with a replaced by c, b
replaced by d, e replaced by f and g replaced by h, the solutions for h and f are:
b b
f  
cb  ad ad  bc
, provided ad  bc  0
a a
h 
cb  ad ad  bc

 d b 
1
 ad  bc ad  bc  1 d b
Thus A      , provided ad  bc  0
 c a  ad  bc  c a 
 
 ad  bc ad  bc 

1 1 d b
But ad  bc  det A so A    provided det A  0
det A  c a 

Thus the inverse of A exists provided A is not singular

8 3 
Example Find the inverse of the matrix A   
6 2

 1
1  2  3   1 1 
1
det A  16  18  2  A    2
2  6 8   
3  4

The inverse of a 3×3 Matrix

 a11 a12 a13 

 
Consider the matrix A   a21 a22 a23 
a 
 31 a32 a33 
Definition 1 The cofactor of the element aij is defined by Aij  (1)i  j mij where mij is the

Minor defined before. Thus cofactors are simply ‘signed minors’.

Definition 2 The adjoint of matrix of A is the transpose of the matrix of the cofactors.

Thus adj A  ( Aij )T

1 1
Definition 3 The inverse of matrix A is A  adj A provided det A  0
det A

 1 2 3
 
Example 1 Find the inverse of matrix A   2 0 1
 1  3  4 
 

2 3 1 2
det A  2   2  1  1
3  4 1  3
0 1 2 1 2 0
A11  3 A12   7 A13   6
3  4 1  4 1  3
2 3 1 3 1 2
A21    1 A22   1 A23   1
3  4 1  4 1  3
2 3 1 3 1 2
A31  2 A32   5 A33   4
0 1 2 1 2 0

 3  1 2   3 1  2 

1   
Therefore A    7  1 5    7 1  5 
 6 1  4   6  1 4 
   

Theorem If AB=I then B  A1

Proof AB  I  det( AB)  det I  (det A)(det B)  1  det A  0

Therefore A1 exists

1 1
Hence A ( AB)  A I
 ( A1 A) B  A1

IB  A1

B  A1

Theorem ( AB)1  B1 A1

Proof ( AB)( B1 A1 )  A( BB 1 ) A1  AIA1  AA1  I

1 1 1
Thus from the previous theorem ( AB)  B A

Example 2 Find the matrix A such that

3 5   2 1  7 2  11 
(a)  A  (b)  A 
4 7  2  5 9  4  47 

3 5  1  7  5  2 1 
Solutions (a) Let B    then B    and BA   
4 7  4 3   2  5

 7  5  2  1   4 18 
B 1 ( BA)     
 4 3  2  5   2  11
Therefore
4 18 
 ( B 1 B) A  IA  A   
 2  11

7 2  1 1  4  2  11 
(b) Let B    then B     and BA   
9  4 46  9 7   47 

1  4  2 11   3 
B 1 ( BA)        
46  9 7  47   5 
Therefore
3 
 ( B 1 B) A  IA  A   
 5 

 2  2 3 2 
Given matrices A    and B    , find det ( AB) 
1
Example 3
 1 4   5 4 
 det  AB    det 1AB   (det A)(det
1 1

1

1
B) (10)(2) 20

EXERCICES

1. find the inverse of the following matrices

 1  m2 2m 
5 2  cos   sin    
 1  m2 1  m2 
(a)   (b)   ( c )
 7 3  sin  cos    2m 1  m2 
  
 1  m2 1  m2 

7 2   4 5 
2. If A    and B    , find
10 3   4  6

1 1
(a) A1 (b) B 1 ( c ) A1B 1 (d) B 1 A1 (e) ( AB) (f) ( BA)

 0 1 2 
 
3. Given A   0 1 2  ,
 1 0  2 
 

(a) Show that A3  4 A  7 I  0 and deduce A1

2 
 
(b) Find the matrix X such that AX  1 
 7 
 

4. Find the inverse of the following matrices

1  1 1  3  2  4
   
(a) A   3 1 2  (b) B   2 0 1 
1 2  6   4 1 4 
   

 2 1 2  16 
   
5. Solve the equation AX=b where A  1  1 1  and b   9 
3 2 4   21
   
 2 3  4
 
6. If A   3 2  4  , evaluate A2 and find the inverse of A.
3 3  5
 

I.4 Systems of linear equations

Consider the following system of linear equations

a11 x1  a12 x2  a13 x3  ...  a1n xn  b1

a21 x1  a22 x2  a23 x3  ...  a2 n xn  b2
a31 x1  a32 x2  a33 x3  ...  a3n xn  b3
......................................................
am1 x1  am 2 x2  am3 x3  ...  amn xn  bm

There are m equations in n unknowns ( x1 , x2 , x3 ,.., xn ) the aij are called the Coefficients and the

bi are called the Constants.

A solution of the system is any set of values for x1 , x2 , x3 ,.., xn which satisfies each of the equations

In solving such a system, any one of three possibilities may be encountered.

1. A unique solution exists. That is there is one set, and only one set, of values for

x1 , x2 , x3 ,.., xn which satisfies all m equations.

2. An infinite number of solutions exist. That is there is an infinite number of sets of values for

x1 , x2 , x3 ,.., xn which satisfy all M equations.

3. No solution exists. That is no set of values for x1 , x2 , x3 ,.., xn satisfies all m equations.

DEFINITION A system of linear equations in which all the constants are zero is said to be
homogeneous.

In the case of a homogeneous system of equation possibility 3 cannot occur since

x1  x2  x3  ...  xn  0 is a trivial solution.

Note that the given equations can be presented in matrix form:

  a11 a12 a13 ... a1n  x1   b1 
    
 a21 a22 a23 ... a2 n  x2   b2 
 a31 a32 a33 ... a3n  x3    b3 
    
 .............................  ...   ... 
a    
 m1 am 2 am3 ... amn   xn   bm 

Which is in the form AX = B or AX=

b where A is called the matrix of the system

Methods of solutions

Method 1 Resolution of the system by Cramer’s method

The method is used to solve a system of n equations with n unknowns if the matrix of the system
is regular. Let the system of n equations with n variables bellow:
a11x1  a12 x2  a13 x3    a1n xn  b1
a x  a x  a x    a x  b
 21 1 22 2 23 3 2n n 2

a31x1  a32 x2  a33 x3    a3n xn  b3 Where A  (aij ) is the matrix of the system .
       

an1 x1  an 2 x2  an 3 x3    ann xn  bn

a11 a12 a13  a1n

a21 a22 a23  a2 n
Suppose that det A  a31 a32 a33  a3n  0 . We deduce the value of with
    
an1 an 2 an 3  ann
the
 b1 a12 a13  a1n a11 b1 a13  a1n
b2 a22 a23  a2 n a21 b2 a23  a2 n
b3 a32 a33  a3n a31 b3 a33  a3n
         
bn1 an 2 an 3  ann a bn an 3  ann
formulas: x1  ; x2  n1 ;
det A det A
a11 a12 b1  a1n a11 a12 a13  b1
a21 a22 b2  a2 n a21 a22 a23  b2
a31 a32 b3  a3n a31 a32 a33  b3
         
an1 an 2 bn  ann a an 2 an 3  bn
x3  ; ; xn  n1
det A det A

(In the formulas above when we calculate ;jϵ{1,2,…..,n} we replace the column j by the
column B=(

Example: Solve the following system of equations:

Solution: The system is written matricially as ;then the determinant

of the system is .The roots are X= Z=

. After calculation we find X= ;Y = ;Z= ; and S={(1 ,3)} .

Method 2 Gaussian Elimination (Row operations)

Given a system of linear equations, S, we obtain systems which are equivalent to S

( i.e they have the same set of solutions as S), but which are progressively simpler, until we reach a
system from which all solutions ( if any ) may be read off. To do this, we can use any of the following
basic row operations.

(i) Interchange any two rows

(ii) Multiply any row by a non-zero constant
(iii) Add to any row any multiple
Example1. Solve the following system of equations;

R1 : x  2 y  5z  4
R2 : 3x  5 y  9 z  7
R3 : 2 x  y  3z  0

Procedure (i) Replace R2 by R2-3R1 and R3 by R3-2R1

This is gives the equivalent system

R1 : x  2 y  5z  4
R2 :  y  6 z  5
R3 :  5 y  3z  8

(ii) Replace R3 by R3-5R2, this is gives the equivalent system

R1 : x  2 y  5z  4
R2 :  y  6 z  5
R3 : 17 z  17

The solution can now be read off by the method of back substitution

From R3 , z = 1. Then substituting this in R2 gives y= -1. Finally,

Substituting these values for y and z in R1 gives x = 1.

Therefore the solution is x = 1, y = -1, z = 1.

R1 : x  2 y  5z  4
Example 2 Solve the system R2 : 3x  2 y  z  4
R3 : 2 x  5 y  12 z  9

Replace R2 by R2-3R1 and R3 by R3-2R1

This is gives the equivalent system

 R1 : x  2 y  5z  4
R2 :  8 y  16 z  8
R3 : y  2z  1

1
Replace R2 by  R2 , this is gives
8

R1 : x  2 y  5z  4
R2 : y  2z  1
R3 : y  2z  1

Replace R3 by R3- R2, this is gives

R1 : x  2 y  5z  4
R2 : y  2z  1
R3 : 00

Putting z = t, we obtain y = 1- 2t from R2 and then x=2-t from R1. Therefore the solution is x = 2 – t, y = 1
– 2t, z = t for all real t. The system has infinite solutions

Since the process of reduction depends only on the coefficients on the left hand side and not on the
names of the variables or on the right hand side, we may set the calculation out in detached coefficient
form

Example 3 solve the system

R1 : x  2y  z  9
R2 : 2 x  3 y  2 z  19
R3 : 3x  2 y  z  7

The system is
 1 2 1 9
2 3 2 19
3 2 1 7
1 2 1 9
R2  R2  2 R1 : 0 1 4 1
R3  R3  3R1 : 0 8 4  20
1 2 1 9
0 1 4 1
R3  R3  8R2 : 0 0  28  28

The third equation reads – 28 z = - 28 and so z = 1

The second equation reads – y + 4 z = 1 and so y = 3 since z = 1

The first equation reads x + 2 y – z = 9 and so x = 4 since y = 3 and z = 1.

Example 4. Solve the system

x  3y  z  4
2x  5 y  2z  9
3x  8 y  z  14

The system is

1 3 1 4
2 5 2 9
3 8 1 14
1 2 1 9
R2  R2  2 R1 : 0 1 4 1
R3  R3  3R1 : 0 1 4 2
1 2 1 9
0 1 4 1
R3  R3  R2 : 0 0 0 1

The last equation reads 0 x + 0 y + 0 z = 1. Which is impossible and so no solution exists

Method 3 Inverse Matrix Method

Consider the system AX  B , where A is the matrix of the system.

If A is not singular, that is mean its inverse A1 exists.

1 1 1 1 1
Now, since AX  B  A ( AX )  A B  ( A A) X  A B  IX  A B

1
The solution of the system is given by X  A1B or X  ( Adj A) B
det A

Note: If det A = 0 ( A1 does not exists0, there is no unique solution to the given system

and this method cannot be used.

Example1. Use this method to solve the system

5 x  7 y  37
9 x  4 y  50

The solution is

1
 x   5  7   37  1  4 7  37   6 
          
 y   9 4   50  83  9 5  50   1
This is x  6 and y  1

Example 2. Solve the system

x  2 y  4z  0
2 x  y  3z  5
4 x  3 y  5 z  11

1 2 4
2  1 3  5  9  2(10  12)  4(6  4)  0 and so the inverse of the matrix of the system does
4 3 5

not exist and the solution by matrix method cannot be found. Gaussian elimination can be used
The system is

1 2 4 0
2 1 3 5
4 3 5 11
1 2 4 0
R2  R2  2 R1 : 0 5 5 5
R3  R3  4 R1 : 0  11  11 11
1 2 4 0
0 5 5 5
11
R3  R3  R2 : 0 0 0 0
5

The third equation read 0 x + 0 y + 0 z = 0

Put z = t and from the second equation we get y = - t – 1. Then from the first equation we get x = 2 – 2 t

Therefore the solution is x = 2 – 2 t, y = - 1 – t and z = t for all real values of t.

Exercises

 2  2 1
 
1. Given the following matrix A  1 1  2  , find A3 and hence solve the equations
 3 1  3
 

2 x  2 y  z  18
x  y  2 z  2
3x  y  3z  10

2. Solve each of the following systems of linear equations by each of two methods described

x  y  3z  3 x  y  3z  1
x  2 y  13
(a) (b) 2 x  3 y  2 z  1 (c ) x  2 y  6 z  7
3x  y  14
4x  5 y  7z  6 2x  y  9z  8
 kx  2 y  1
3. Find the value of k for which the system does not have a unique solution. If k does
3x  (k  1) y  1
not have these values, find the unique solution. For each value of k for which no unique solution exists,
determine whether or not any solution of the system exists

3 1  2   2 2 3
   
4. Show that the inverse of the matrix A   2  2 1  is A1   5 4 7  and hence solve the
1 2  2   6 5 8 
  
following systems of equations

3x  y  2 z  7 2 x  2 y  3z  2
(a) 2 x  2 y  z  7 (b) 5 x  4 y  7 z  1
x  2 y  2z  1 6 x  5 y  8 z  10

1 2 2   7  2 6 
   
5. For the matrices A   2  1  4  and B  10 3  8  find AB. Use this result to solve the
2 2 1   6  2 5 
  
7 x  2 y  6z  3
system 10 x  3 y  8 z  2
6 x  2 y  5z  k