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Review
PRESS

Non-psychotropic plant cannabinoids:

new therapeutic opportunities from an
ancient herb
Angelo A. Izzo1,4, Francesca Borrelli1,4, Raffaele Capasso1,4, Vincenzo Di Marzo2,4 and
Raphael Mechoulam3
1
Department of Experimental Pharmacology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
2
Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry, National Research Council, Pozzuoli (NA), Italy
3
Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Products, Hebrew University Medical Faculty, Jerusalem, Israel 4 Endocannabinoid Research
Group, Italy

D9-tetrahydrocannabinol binds cannabinoid (CB1 and CB2) system''. With its ability to modulate several physiological and
receptors, which are activated by endogenous compounds pathophysiological processes (e.g. neurotransmitter
(endocannabinoids) and are involved in a wide range of
physiopathological processes (e.g. modulation of
neurotransmitter release, regulation of pain perception, and of Glossary
cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and liver functions). The well- Transient receptor potential (TRP): Transient receptor potential (TRP) is a superfamily of non-
known psychotropic effects of D9- tetrahydrocannabinol, which selective, ligand-gated cation channels. They can be subdivided in six main subfamilies: the
TRPC (‘Canonical'), TRPV ('Vanilloid'), TRPM (‘Melastatin'), TRPP (‘Polycystin'), TRPML
are mediated by activation of brain CB1 receptors, have greatly (‘Mucolipin') and the TRPA (‘Ankyrin') group. At least six TRPs (TRPV1, TRPV2, TRPV3, TRPV4,
limited its clinical use. However, the plant Cannabis contains TRPM8 and TRPA1) have been shown to be expressed in primary afferent nociceptors, where
they act as transducers for thermal, chemical and mechanical stimuli. Many TRPs are activated
many cannabinoids with weak or no psychoactivity that, thera-
by natural compounds, such as capsaicin (TRPV1), cannabidiol (TRPV2), incensole acetate
peutically, might be more promising than D9- (TRPV3), menthol (TRPM8) and mustard oil isothiocyanates (TRPA1)
tetrahydrocannabinol. Here, we provide an overview of the Adenosine uptake: Uptake of adenosine is a primary mechanism of terminating adenosine
signalling. Adenosine is a multifunctional, ubiquitous molecule that activate four known
recent pharmacological advances, novel mechanisms of action, adenosine receptors (A1, A2A, A2B and A3). Adenosine A2A receptor is an important regulator of
and potential therapeutic applications of such non-psychotropic inflammation.
plant-derived cannabinoids. Special emphasis is given to GPR55: GPR55 is an orphan G-protein-coupled receptor originally identified in silico from the
expressed sequence tags database. GPR55 may be activated by plant and synthetic
cannabidiol, the possible applications of which have recently endocannabinoids as well as by anandamide-related acylethanolamides and may be
emerged in inflammation, diabetes, cancer, affective and antagonized by cannabidiol. Possible role in antinociception.
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs): Peroxisome prolifera- tors-activated
neurodegenerative diseases, and to D9-tetrahydrocannabivarin,
receptors (PPARs) belong to a family of nuclear receptors comprising three isoforms: a, b and g.
a novel CB1 antagonist which exerts potentially useful actions in Among these, PPARg is involved in the regulation of cellular glucose uptake, protection against
the treatment of epilepsy and obesity. atherosclerosis and control of immune reactions. Activation of PPARg attenuates
neurodegenerative and inflammatory processes.
Lipoxygenase (LOX): Lipoxygenases are non-heme iron-containing enzymes that catalyze the
Introduction dioxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid and linolenic acids. Three
major LOX isoforms have been discovered (i.e., 5-, 12-, and 15-LOX). 5-LOX is responsible for
The plant Cannabis sativa produces over 421 chemical compounds,
the production of leukotrienes-inflammatory lipid mediator. 15-LOX oxygenates not only free fatty
including about 80 terpeno-phenol compounds named acids but also complex substrates such as phospholipids, cholesterol ester, and the cholesterol
phytocannabinoids that have not been detected in ester in the low density lipoprotein particle, with a role in atherosclerosis and inflammation
Glycine receptors: Glycine receptors, which belong to the superfamily of transmitter-gated ion
any other plant [1-4]. For obvious reasons, most attention has been channels - are pentamers formed either from a subunits alone, or from both a and b subunits.
paid to D9-tetrahydrocannabinol (D9-THC), which is the most They are activated by glycine, one of the major inhibitory neurotransmitters in posterior areas of
psychotropic component and binds specific G- protein-coupled the vertebrate central nervous system. Glycine receptors are also involved in inflammation,
immune response and cytoprotection.
receptors named cannabinoid (CB1 and CB2) receptors [5,6]. The Abnormal-cannabidiol receptor : The abnormal-cannabidiol receptor is a putative receptor
discovery of a specific cell membrane receptor for D9-THC was expressed in the endothelium of rat mesenteric bed, which can be activated by abnormal-
followed by isolation and identification of endogenous (animal) cannabidiol (abn-cbd), a synthetic analogue of cannabidiol. This endothelial receptor, distinct
from the currently known cannabinoid receptors, has also been suggested to mediate
ligands termed endocannabinoids. The two main endocannabinoids anandamide- induced relaxation in the whole mesenteric bed of the rat.
are ana- ndamide (which is metabolized mostly by fatty acid amide 5-HT1A receptor: The 5-HT1A receptor is one of the best-characterized 5-HT receptors. This G
hydrolase (FAAH)) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (which is mostly protein-coupled receptor is involved a number of physiological or pathophysiological processes,
including anxiety, mood, depression, vasoreactive headache, food intake, immune regulation,
degraded by monoglyceride lipase (MAGL)) [5,6]. Cannabinoid and cardiovascular regulation.
receptors, endogenous ligands that activate them, and the
mechanisms for endocannabinoid biosynthesis and inactivation
constitute the ‘‘endocannabinoid

Corresponding author: Izzo, A.A. ([email protected]).

0165-6147/$ - see front matter © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2009.07.006 Available online xxxxxx
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release in the central and peripheral nervous system, pain In addition to pharmacological modulation of the endo-
perception, and cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and liver cannabinoid system, a different approach to minimize the well-
functions), the endocannabinoid system represents a potential target known psychotropic side effects of Cannabis is the use of
for pharmacotherapy [6]. Strategies to phytocannabinoids with very weak or no psychotropic effects.
improve the efficacy and/or the risk-benefit ratio of drugs that These include cannabidiol (CBD), cannabigerol (CBG),
manipulate the endocannabinoid system include the targeting of cannabichromene (CBC), D9-tetrahydrocannabi- varin (D9-THCV),
cannabinoid receptors located outside the blood-brain barrier with cannabidivarin (CBDV) as well as cannabinoid acids such as D9-
selective cannabinoid ligands or compounds that prevent tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (D9-THCA) and cannabidiolic acid
endocannabinoid degradation (e.g. inhibitors of FAAH or MAGL) (CBDA) (Box 1). These compounds exert multiple actions through
[5,6]. mechanisms

Box 1. Chemical structures and key (including historical) information of the main phytocannabinoids

Phytocannabinoid Key information*

Isolated in 1964 by Gaoni and Mechoulam at the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot, D9- THC
is the primary psychotropic ingredient of Cannabis. It is a partial agonist at CB 1 and CB2
receptors (Ki approx. 20-40 nM). D9- THC also activates PPAR-g (at nanomolar
concentrations) and TRPA1
(at micromolar concentrations) [2]. It is therapeutically used as an antiemetic and to boost
appetite in AIDS patients.
A Cannabis based-extract with approx 1:1 ratio of D 9-THC and CBD (Sativex1) is
marketed in Canada for the symptomatic relief of neuropathic pain in adults with multiple
sclerosis and as an adjunctive analgesic treatment for adult patients with advanced cancer
[76].

In general, D8-THC is regarded as an artefact because it results from the isomerization of D9-THC. D8-
THC concentration in Cannabis is usually minuscule, and it does not contribute significantly to the
activity of the plant extract. D8-THC is considered less expensive to prepare and more stable than D9-
THC. The pharmacology of D8-THC is similar to that of D9-THC, although it may be less active
[3].Itisas active as D9-THC in antiemetic studies, although it is not marketed (apparently for purely
commercial reasons).

Isolated in 1896 by Wood and colleagues in Cambridge, CBN represents the first natural cannabinoid
to be obtained in pure form.
Its correct structure was later determined by Adams and colleagues in 1940. It was initially—and
incorrectly—assumed to be the active psychotropic ingredient of Cannabis. It is a relatively minor
constituent in fresh Cannabis because it is a product of D9-THC oxidation. CBN content increases as
D9-THC degrades in storage. It is a weak CB1
and CB2 partial agonist, with approximately 10% of the activity of D9-THC [2]. It has
potential therapeutic application in diseases in which cannabinoid receptors are up-
regulated [2].

CBD, a major non-psycotropic cannabinoid, was first isolated in 1940 by Adams and coworkers, but its
structure and stereochemistry were determined in 1963 by Mechoulam and Shvo. CBD exerts a
plethora of pharmacological effects, mediated by multiple mechanisms
(Table 1, Figure 1). It has been clinically evaluated in anxiety, psychosis, and movement disorders,
and to relieve neuropathic pain in patients with multiple sclerosis (in combination with D9-THC as a 1:1
mixture, i.e. Sativex1) [76].

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Box 1 (Continued )

D9- THCVa was detected in 1970 by Edward Gil and colleagues from
a tincture of Cannabis BPC (then a licensed medicine in the UK).
It is particularly abundant in Pakistani hashish. D9-THCV at low doses (<3 mg/kg)
antagonises D9-THC effects, but it acts as a CB1 agonist at higher doses (10
mg/kg) in vivo in miceb [2,25]. D9-THCV shares the
ability of synthetic CB1 antagonists to reduce food intake in mice [62].

Non-psychotropic cannabinoid obtained in 1964 by Gaoni and

Mechoulam when they separated a hexane extract of hashish on Florisil.
It exerts anti-proliferative and antibacterial activity. It is a potent TRPM8
antagonist [14], a TRPV1, TRPA1 and
cannabinoid agonist, and an anandamide reuptake inhibitor in the low
micromolar range [11,14].

CBDVa was isolated from hashish by Vollner and coworkers in 1969.

Little information on its pharmacology has been reported and a mode of
action has not been proposed.

The discovery of CBC, a non-psychotropic cannabinoid, was

independently reported by Claussen and coworkers, and Gaoni
and Mechoulam in 1966. CBC, together with D9-THC, is the major
cannabinoid in freshly harvested dry-type material. CBC is nearly 2.5-times
more toxic than D9-THC and, like D9-THC, it may cause hypothermia,
sedation and hypoactivity in mice [3]. CBC exerts anti-inflammatory,
antimicrobial and modest analgesic activity
[3,32,39,75]. It is a potent TRPA1 agonist and weak anandamide reuptake
inhibitor [11,14].

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Box 1 (Continued )
D9-THC has two acidic analogs: D9-THCA A and D9-THCA Bc.
D9-THCA A, first extracted by Korte and coworkers (1965),
was isolated as a pure compound in 1967 by Nishioka's group.
In 1969, Mechoulam and coworkers reported the isolation of D9-THCA B. D9-THCA
(unknown as to whether it is D9-THCA A or D9-THCA B) is a potent TRPA1 agonist and
TRPM8 antagonist [14] and has been shown to exert anti-proliferative [11] and
anti-spasmodic [3] actions.

CBDA, the first cannabinoid acidc to be discovered, was isolated in 1955 by Krejci and
Santavy. Together with CBD, CBDA is the main component of glandular hairs (up to 15%).
In fresh plant material, 95% of CBD exists as its acid. It is a selective COX-2 inhibitor [22],
TRPA1 and TRPV1 agonist and TRPM8 antagonist in the low micromolar range [11,14].
It exerts anti-proliferative actions [11].

Abbreviations: CBD, cannabidiol; D9-THCV, D9-tetrahydrocannabivarin; CBC, cannabichromene; CBG, cannabigerol; D9-
THCA, D9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid;, CBDA, cannabidiolic acid; D9-THC, D9-tetrahydrocannabinol; CBN, cannabinol;
peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor g (PPARg), TRPV1, transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1; TRPV2,
transient receptor potential vanilloid type 2; TRPA1, transient receptor potential ankyrin type 1; TRPM8, transient receptor
potential melastatin type 8; COX- 2, cycloxygenase-2.
*
Chemical and historical data were extracted from refs. 3-4.
a
the suffix ‘‘varin'' indicates replacement of n-pentyl side chain with an n-propyl.
b
Because D9-THCV does not display detectable CB1 receptor efficacy in vitro, CB1 agonism is probably due to a D9-THCV metabolite. Thus, high doses of D9-THCV can
produce anti-nociception and cataleptic behavior in mice and induce THC-like effects in humans, although with a potency in mouse and humans 4 -5-times lower than that
of D9-THC [2].
c
It has been suggested that cannabinoid acids are the original cannabinoids formed in the plant, to be subsequently decarboxylated to yield the better known neutral cannabinoids, but this hypothesis
is controversial. None of the cannabinoid acids possess psychotropic activity [4].

which are only partially related to modulation of the a1b receptors, the adenosine membrane transporter phospholipase
endocannabinoid system [1,2]. The most promising of this class of A2, lipoxygenase (LOX) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzymes,
safe compounds is CBD. CBD exerts several positive and Ca2+ homeostasis (Table 1) [9-26]. For example, CBD, CBG
pharmacological effects that make it a highly attractive therapeutic and CBC, which have very low affinity for cannabinoid CB 1 and
entity in inflammation, diabetes, cancer and affective or CB2 receptors, might enhance endocannabinoid-mediated actions
neurodegenerative diseases [1,2,7,8]. More recently, D9-THCV has through their ability to inhibit anandamide inactivation [11]. D9-
been shown to express the pharmacological profile of a CB 1 THCV behaves as a potent CB2 partial agonist in vitro and as a CB1
antagonist [9], with potential use in obesity treatment [2]. antagonist in vivo and in vitro [2,9,25] . CBD and CBG activate
Here, we focus on recent developments in the preclinical TRPV1, whereas CBD, CBC, CGB, and CBDA activate TRPA1
pharmacology of non-psychotropic phytocannabinoids. We and, except for CBC, are TRPM8 antagonists [11,14].
highlight the novel biochemical/pharmacological advances, CBD might also exert its pharmacological effects via
mechanisms of action, and possible therapeutic uses of these plant- modulation of intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i). CBD
derived compounds. increases [Ca2+]i in hippocampal neurons [18] through modulation
of intracellular Ca2+ stores— specifically via mitochondrial Ca2+
Molecular basis of the pharmacological action of non- uptake and release—and L- type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels [19].
psychotropic cannabinoids Interestingly, under pathological conditions such as high neuronal-
Non-psychotropic phytocannabinoids exert multiple excitability conditions, CBD reduces [Ca2+]i [19]. Despite the fact
pharmacological effects via different mechanisms. The most that CBDhas potent antioxidant activity, the increase in [Ca 2+]i in
recently investigated mechanisms are modulation of the tumor cells causes generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and
endocannabinoid system, transient receptor potential (TRP) cell apoptosis [11,27] (see the section below on cancer). It has been
channels (see Glossary), the peroxisome prolif- erator-activated suggested that CBD hydroxyquinone, formed during hepatic
receptor g (PPARg) GPR55, the putative abnormal-CBD receptor microsomal metabolism of CBD, is capable of generating ROS and
5-hydroxytryptamine receptor subtype 1A (5-HT1A), glycine a1 and inducing cytotoxicity [28].

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Table 1. Proposed molecular mechanisms of the actions of non-psychotropic phytocannabinoids

Phytocannabinoid Mechanism Quantitative data Assay Pharmacological
[reference] Relevance [reference]
35
CBD Antagonist of CB1/CB2 agonists KB (nM); 79 (CB1) [ S]GTPgS binding to mouse CBD antagonises cannabinoid-
[10] and 138 (CB2) brain membranes (CB1) and to induced antispasmodic effect in the
hCB2-CHO cell membranes isolated vas deferens as well as the
in vivo responses to D9-THC in
animals and humans [2,8,10]
To be determined. Potential role in
CB2 inverse EC50: 503 nM [35S]GTPgS binding to CBD-induced anti-inflammatory
agonist [10] hCB2-CHO cell membranes effects
CBD reduces FAAH expression in
FAAH IC50: 28 mM Measurement of the inflamed intestine and, probably
inhibition [11] [14C]ethanolamine released via this mechanism, reduces
from [14C]anandamide by inflammation-induced intestinal
membranes prepared from hypermotility in mice [57,58]
N18TG2 cells To be determined

Anandamide IC50: 28 mM [14C]anandamide uptake by

reuptake basophilic leukaemia or
inhibitor [11] MDA-MB-231 cells
GPR55 Antagonism of CP55970-induced
IC50: 445 nM To be determined
antagonist [12] activation of [35S]GTPgS binding to
transfected HEK293S cells

positive allosteric EC50 (mM): 12.3 (a1) Measurement of the current To be determined. In the dorsal horn
modulator at a1 and and 18.1 (a1b) response to glycine in HEK 293 cells of the spinal cord, glycine acts as an
a1b glycine expressing a1ora1b receptors inhibitory postsynaptic
receptors. [13] neurotransmitter, with a role in chronic
pain after inflammation or nerve injury
To be determined. CBD could
potentially enhance the effects of
m opioid receptor IC50: 7 mM Inhibition of [3DNM] (m opioid opiates
ligand [see ref. 2] receptor ligand) binding to rat brain
The effect occurs at very high
synaptosomal membranes
concentrations and cannot be
Positive Allosteric pE50: 4.38 (m) and 4.10 (d) H3-DAMGO and H3-naltrindole expected to contribute to the in vivo
modulator at m (m and d opioid receptor ligand) action of CBD
and d opioid binding to rat cerebral cortical
receptors [see ref. 2] To be determined. Potential role in
membranes
CBD analgesic effects
To be determined. Potential role in
TRPA1 agonist [14] EC50: 96 nM Increase of [Ca2+]i in TRPA1- CBD analgesic effects. Potential role
HEK-293 cells in prostate carcinoma
TRPM8 antagonist [14] EC50: 80-140 nM Antagonism of icilin- or To be determined. TRPV1 is involved
menthol-induced increase in CBD antipsychotic and analgesic
in [Ca2+]i in effects [30,50]
TRPM8-HEK-293 cells The effect is shared by D9-THC and
Increase of [Ca2+]j in CBN [15].
TRPV1 agonist [14] EC50: 1-3 mM
TRPV1-HEK-293 cells TRPV2 activation by CBD may
mediate CGRP release from cultured
rat dorsal root ganglion neurons [15]
TRPV2 agonist [15] EC50: 3.7 mM Ca2+ mobilization in CBD decreases TNF-a in wild- type
TRPV2-HEK-293 cells but not in A2A receptor- deficient mice
[16]. Its antiinflammatory effects in the
retina are linked to the inhibition of
adenosine uptake [65]
CBD induces vasorelaxation and
adenosine uptake IC50: 120 nM [3H]adenosine uptake in murine stimulation of fibroblasts into
competitive inhibitora microglia and macrophages adipocytes via PPARg activation [17]
[16] 5-HT1A is involved in
CBD-induced antischemic and
anxiolytic properties
[34,35]
PPARg agonist [17] IC50 approx 5 mM Reporter gene assay,
competition-binding assay and
adipogenesis assay

5-HT1A agonist Approx 80% Displacement of [3H]8-OH-DPAT in

[see ref. 2] displacement at CHO cells transfected with 5-HT1A
16 mM receptors; [35S]GTPgS binding to
transfected CHO cells

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Table 1 (Continued )
Phytocannabinoid Mechanism Quantitative data Assay Pharmacological
[reference] Relevance [reference]
Antagonist of the Effect at 1 mM
Antagonism of the vasodilator response CBD attenuates the vasodilator
putative abnormal-CBD
of abnormal-CBD response to anandamide [2]
receptor [see ref. 2]
Effect at 1 mM Ca2+ imaging experiments in
Regulator of intracellular hippocampal cultures To be determined. Potential basis for
[Ca2+]b [18,19] the neuroprotective and antiepileptic
properties of CBD
T-type Ca2+ channel inhibitor IC50: approx 1 mM
[20] Electrophysiological recordings in
transfected HEK293 cells and sensory To be determined. Potential role in
neurons CBD-induced nociception and
antiepileptic effects
Suppressor of IC50: 1.2-2.4 mg/ml Measurements in human
tryptophan peripheral blood mononuclear cells
degradation [21] To be determined. Tryptophan is a
precursor of 5-HT. Potential role in pain,
inflammation and depression
5-Lipoxygenase inhibitor [22] IC50: 73.73 mM Enzymatic assay in a cell-free system
The effect is observed at very
high concentrations. However,
the 5-lipoxygenase pathway may be
involved in CBD-induced antimitotic
effect in glioma cells [69]. CBD
decreases
5-lipoxygenase in tumour
tissues in vivo [69]
15-Lipoxygenase inhibitor IC50: 2.56 mM Enzymatic assay in a cell-free system
To be determined.
[22]
15-Lipoxygenase is involved in
developing atherosclerosis
Phospholipase A2 modulatorc EC50: 6.4 mM (activation); Enzymatic assay in a cell-free system CBD exerts a biphasic
[23] IC50: 134 mM (inhibition) stimulation of PGE2 release
in human synovial cells [23].
CBD exerts anti-inflammatory effects in
rodents [1,7]
D9-THCV CB1 antagonist [9,24, see Ki: 46-75 nM Antagonism of cannabinoid
also ref. 2] (brain membranes); agonist-induced [35S]GTPgS
pA2 7.62 (cerebellum) - 7.44 binding to mouse whole brain,
(piriform cortex) cerebellar and piriform cortical
D9-THCV increases central
membranes inhibitory neurotransmission [31] - with
a therapeutic potential in epilepsy - and
decreases food intake through CB1
antagonism [62]. D9-THCV attenuates
D9-THC-induced hypothermia and
antinociception in vivo [2,25]
NR Inhibition of forskolin-induced D9-THCV stimulates
CB2 partial agonist [see ref.
stimulation of cAMP production by mesenchymal stem cells via CB2
2]
hCB2-CHO cells. receptors [67]
CBG CB1 and CB2 partial agonist Ki (nM): 439 (CB1), To be determined.
[see ref. 2] 337 (CB2)
Displacement of [3H]CP55,940 from
mouse brain membranes of hCB2-CHO
cell membranes. [35S]GTPgS binding to
mouse brain membranes
(CB1) and to hCB2-CHO cell
membranes
Anandamide reuptake IC50: 15 mM [14C]anandamide uptake by basophilic To be determined. Potential
inhibitor [11] leukaemia or MDA-MB-231 cells applications similar to those of
inhibitors of endocannabinoid
degradation
TRPA1 agonist [14] EC50: 3.4 m M To be determined. Potential role in
Increase of [Ca2+]i in
TRPA1-HEK-293 cells analgesia
EC50: 10 mM To be determined. Potential role in
TRPV1 agonist [11] Increase of [Ca2+]i in
TRPV1-HEK-293 cells analgesia
TRPM8 antagonist [14] EC50:140-160 nM To be determined. Potential
Antagonism of icilin- or role in analgesia and in the
treatment of prostate carcinoma.
menthol-induced increase
in [Ca2+]i in TRPM8-HEK-293 cells
Phospholipase A2 modulatorc EC50: 9.5 mM; IC50: CBG reduces PGE2 release in human
[23] 55 mM Enzymatic assay in cell-free system synovial cells [23].

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Table 1 (Continued )
Phytocannabinoid Mechanism Quantitative data Assay Pharmacological
[reference] Relevance [reference]
CBC TRPA1 agonist [14] Increase of [Ca2+]i in TRPA1-HEK- To be determined. Potential role in
EC50: 60 M
293 cells analgesia
Anandamide reuptake IC50: 13 mM [14C]anandamide uptake by To be determined. Potential
inhibitor [11] basophilic leukaemia or MDA-MB- applications similar to those of
231 cells inhibitors of
endocannabinoid
degradation
D9-THCA Increase of [Ca2+]I in TRPA1-HEK- To be determined. Potential role in
EC50: 240 nM
TRPA1 partial agonist [14] 293 cells analgesia
TRPM8 antagonist [14] EC50: 70-140 nM
Antagonism of icilin- or
To be determined. Potential role in
menthol-induced increase
in [Ca2+]i in TRPA1-HEK-293 analgesia and in the treatment
cells of prostate carcinoma.
CBDA Increase of [Ca2+]I in TRPA1-HEK- To be determined. Potential role in
EC50: 12 mM
TRPA1 partial agonist [14] 293 cells analgesia
Increase of [Ca2+]i in TRPV1-HEK- To be determined. Potential role in
TRPV1 agonist [11] EC50: 10 mM
293 cells analgesia
TRPM8 antagonist [14] EC50: 0.9-1.9 mM
Antagonism of icilin- or To be determined. Potential role in
menthol-induced increase in [Ca2+]i in analgesia and in the treatment of
TRPA1-HEK-293 cells prostate
carcinoma.
COX-2 inhibitor [26] IC50: 2.2 mM Enzymatic assay To be determined. The effect is not
shared by D9-THC or
CBD; D9-THCA weakly active at 100
mM [26]. Potential role in
inflammation
NR = not reported.
Abbreviations: CBD, cannabidiol; D9-THCV, D9-tetrahydrocannabivarin; CBC, cannabichromene; CBG, cannabigerol; D9-THCA, D9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid;, CBDA, cannabidiolic acid; D9-THC,
D9-tetrahydrocannabinol; CBN, cannabinol; TRPV1, transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1; TRPV2, transient receptor potential vanilloid type 2; TRPA1, transient receptor potential ankyrin type
1; TRPM8, transient receptor potential melastatin type 8; COX-2, cycloxygenase-2; 5-HT1A, 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor subtype 1A; FAAH, fatty acid amide hydrolase.
a
denotes that the effect occurs via the equilibrate nucleoside transporter.
b
denotes that the effect occurs via mitochondrial uptake and release or via L-type voltage gated [Ca2+] channel.
c
denotes activation at low concentrations, inhibition at higher concentrations.

As a consequence, CBD hydroxyquinone reduces colon cancer effects such as catelepsy. Three important points are worth noting.
growth in nude mice [29]. The multiple pharmacological targets of First, CBD, like clozapine and haloperidol, attenuated some
phytocannabinoids, most notably those of CBD, result in a wide dopaminergic effects associated with apomorphine (i.e. stereotypy,
range of pharmacological actions with potential therapeutic interest. prolactin secretion, and palpebral ptosis) and reduced
hyperlocomotion induced by amphetamine and ketamine in mice.
Pharmacological actions and potential therapeutic applications However, in these experiments, haloperidol (but not CBD or
Non-psychotropic phytocannabinoids exert multiple clozapine) caused catalepsy [7]. Second, CBD, like clozapine (but
pharmacological actions in the central nervous system and in the not like haloperidol) increased Fos protein expression in the nucleus
periphery. Among these compounds, CBD has been more accum- bens, but not in the striatum, indicating that CBD produces
thoroughly investigated. CBD effects (e.g. analgesic/anti- neuronal activation in mesolimbic but not in motor control areas [7].
inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective and pro-apoptotic) Third, CBD reversed, in a TRPV1 antagonist-sensitive manner and
might predict possible future use for the treatment of pain, similar to clozapine, the sensorimotor gating deficits induced by a
neurodegenerative disorders, ischemia and cancer. Many effects of NMDA receptor antagonist [30], which is relevant in the light of the
CBD (e.g. anxiolytic, antiinflammatory, neuroprotective, anti- observation that sensorimotor gating is deficient in patients with
ischemic) follow a bell-shaped dose-response curve [1,7,8], psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia.
suggesting that dose is a key factor in CBD pharmacology. In summary, CBD is the only phytocannabinoid to have been
evaluated for possible antipsychotic effects. Experimental results
Psychosis suggest that it exerts antipsychotic actions and is associated with
Preliminary reports have demonstrated the antipsychotic action of fewer adverse effects compared with ‘‘typical antipsychotics''.
CBD in human models of psychotic symptoms induced in Review
volunteers and in psychotic patients [1,7,8]. The pharmacological
profile of the antipsychotic action of CBD, investigated in animal
Epilepsy
models using behavioral and neurochemical techniques, was shown
The clinical efficacy of CBD with respect to epilepsy is uncertain
to be similar to that of atypical antipsychotics such as clozapine,
[7], but this compound has been shown to attenuate convulsions
and different from that of ‘‘typical'' antipsychotics such as
induced in animals by various procedures [1,7,8] and to reduce Ca2+
haloperidol, in that it was associated with fewer unwanted side
oscillations under high-excitability in cultured hippocampal

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neurons [19]. The molecular basis for the antiepileptic action of homeostasis [18].
CBD might involve a reduction of [Ca2+]i, via interaction with the CBD exerts a combination of neuroprotective, anti-oxidative and
mitochondrial Na2+/Ca2+-exchanger [19]. anti-apoptotic effects against the neuronal damage induced by the
Another phytocannabinoid that might exert antiepileptic actions b-amyloid peptide (Ab). It inhibits Ab-induced neurotoxicity in
is D9-THCV. This compound acts in a manner similar to ‘‘standard'' PC12 cells and this effect is mediated by the Wnt-b-catenin pathway
CB1 receptor antagonists to [40], an important finding in light of the observation that disruption
increase—in a GABAA antagonist-sensitive manner—miniature of the Wnt pathway by Ab represents a pivotal event in the neuronal
inhibitory postsynaptic currents at interneuron- Purkinje cell apoptosis occurring in AD. Moreover, in a mouse model of AD-
synapses, and to decrease Purkinje cell spike firing in the mouse related neuroinflammation induced by the intra-hippocampal
cerebellum in vitro [31]. Collectively, such results suggest that D9- inoculation of Ab in vivo, CBD attenuated the expression of several
THCV acts to limit excitation via increase in GABA release, an idea glial pro-inflammatory proteins, including glial fibrillary acidic
that is consistent with its efficacy in an experimental model of protein, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and interleukin 1b
epilepsy [2]. An early report showed that CBC produced minor (IL-1b) [41], which are major contributors to the propagation of
effects on the latency and duration of electroshock-induced seizures neuroinflammation and oxidative stress.
[32]. By using a rat model of PD generated by unilateral injection of
In summary, CBD (via reduction of [Ca2+]i) and D9-THCV (via 6-hydroxydopamine into the medial forebrain bundle, it was shown
CB1 antagonism) have been suggested to exert antiepileptic actions that CBD can attenuate dopamine depletion and tyrosine
in experimental studies. hydroxylase deficits, which are indicative of the degree of
neurodegeneration of nigros- triatal dopaminergic projections [1,7].
Anxiety and sleep The neuroprotective action of CBD in animal models of PD is in
Preliminary studies in healthy volunteers suggest that CBD has an accord with the strong positive correlation between the N-
anxiolytic action [1,7,8]. Experimentally, the anxiolytic-like acetylaspartate/ total creatine ratio (which is suggestive of increased
properties of CBD (which are benzodiazepine receptor- neurogenesis or synaptogenesis) and CBD levels measured in the
independent) have been demonstrated in different animal models putamen/globus pallidus of recreational users of Cannabis [42].
such as the conditioned emotional response, the Vogel conflict test, Further studies investigating the mode of action of CBD showed
and the elevated plus-maze [7,33]. CBD might exert anxiolytic-like that this plant compound counteracted the decrease in copper-zinc
effects by activating post-synaptic 5-HT1A receptors in the superoxide dismutase (a key enzyme in endogenous defences
periaqueductal gray matter [34]. Furthermore, CBD attenuated the against oxidative stress) induced by 6-hydroxydopamine in the rat
acute autonomic response (i.e. increased blood pressure and heart substantia nigra [43].
rate) associated with restraint stress in rats in a 5-HT1A antagonist- CBD has been shown to reduce rat striatal atrophy generated by
sensitive manner [35]. Preclinical studies also suggest the potential the administration of 3-nitropropionic acid (a mitochondrial toxin
use of CBD as an adjuvant in exposure-based psychotherapies for that replicates some of the biochemical alterations occurring in
anxiety disorders related to inappropriate retention of aversive HD). This ability seems to be based on the antioxidant properties of
memories. Bitencourt and colleagues recently found that CBD CBD, and is independent of the activation of cannabinoid, TRPV1
facilitated the extinction of contextual fear memory in rats, possibly and adenosine AA2 receptors [44]. Such neuroprotective effects
through indirect activation of the CB1 receptor [36]. might be relevant to HD, which is characterized by the preferential
CBD has been shown to exert alerting and sleep-inducing loss of striatal projection neurons due, at least in part, to the
actions. Its systemic administration prolonged pentobarbitone sleep generation of ROS species caused by mitochondrial failure and
in mice [37] and reduced ambulation and operant behavior in rats complex II deficiency typical of patients with HD.
[1,7,8]. However, when CBD was directly administered into In summary, CBD, possibly due to its extraordinary antioxidant
specific wake-related areas, such as the lateral hypothalamus or properties and to its modulation of Ca2+ homeostasis, exerts positive
dorsal raphe nuclei, an enhancement in rat alertness was observed effects on a wide range of pathophysiological processes implicated
[38]. Notably, the effect of CBD in humans is biphasic, exhibiting in neurodegenerative diseases. CBD is also effective in
alerting properties at low doses and sedative actions at high doses experimental models of AD, PD and HD.
[7]. Early studies showed that CBC, like D9- THC, prolonged
hexobarbital hypnosis in mice [3,39].
In summary, CBD has been shown to exert anxiolytic actions—
possibly via 5-HT1A receptor activation—and to facilitate the
extinction of contextual fear memory—per- haps via indirect
activation of CB1 receptors—in rodents.

Trends in Pharmacological Sciences Vol.xxx No.x

Sleep-inducing actions have been described for CBC and CBD,

although centrally administered CBD may also have alerting
properties.

Neuroprotection and neurodegenerative diseases

CBD is a well-known antioxidant, exerting neuroprotective actions
that might be relevant to the treatment of neurodegenerative
diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease
(PD) and Huntington's disease (HD). CBD may prove beneficial in
preventing apoptotic signalling in neurons via restoration of Ca2+

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Cerebral and myocardial ischemia Box 2. Evidence supporting the anti-inflammatory and
CBD can reverse brain damage caused by cerebral ischemia in mice immunosuppressive actions of cannabidiol (CBD)
and in gerbils [1,7]. The cerebroprotectant effect of CBD is different
from that of D9-THC in that it is: i) cannabinoid receptor- "CBD suppresses the collagen-type-II-specific proliferation of lymph-node cells
from arthritic mice [1].
independent, ii) long-lasting, iii) observed when the drug is
" CBD suppresses T-cell response and decreases TNF-a release from synovial
administered pre- and postischemia, and iv) not associated with the cells isolated from mouse arthritic knee joints [1]. This finding suggests that
development of tolerance [45-47]. Importantly, CBD reduced the therapeutic action of CBD in
cerebral hemodynamic impairment, improved brain metabolic arthritis includes the suppression of TNF-a.
activity post-insult, and reduced brain edema and seizures " CBD decreases TNF- a production in LPS-treated mice via A2A adenosine
receptor activation [16].
associated with temporary occlusion of carotid arteries and hypoxia
" CBD suppresses the production of IL-8 and of the chemokines MIP-1a and
in newborn gerbils [48]. These neuroprotective effects were MIP-1b in a human B cell line [1].
associated with extracerebral benefits such as cardiac, " CBD inhibits the release of ROS by zymosan-stimulated neutrophils and
hemodynamic and ventilatory improvements [48]. The mechanism blocks nitric oxide production by peritoneal macrophages [1].
of the cerebroprotectant effect of CBD might involve an increase in " CBD increases IL-12 and decreases IL-10 production—in a cannabinoid
antagonists-sensitive manner—in murine macrophages [1].
cerebral blood flow mediated by the 5-HT1A receptor [1,7] and/or
" CBD attenuates—in a cannabinoid antagonists-insensitive manner—phorbol
be secondary to its cannabinoid receptor-independent anti- ester/calcium ionophore-stimulated IL-2 production in mouse splenocytes
inflammatory action [46]. The anti-inflammatory action of CBD is [1].
associated with inhibition of monocyte/macrophages expressing " CBD inhibits neutrophil migration induced by fMLP by activating a target,
high-mobility group (a non-histone DNA-binding protein which is distinct from CB1 and CB2 receptors, which is antagonized by the
endogenous compound N-arachidonoyl-L- serine [51].
known to induce neurofinallation and microglial activation in the
CBD attenuates serum production of antigen-specific antibodies in
post-iscremic brain) in the infarct area (including the striatum), and ovalbumin-sensitized mice and suppresses T-cell proliferation and the
to a reduction in the number of Iba1-positive and glial fibrillary production of IL-2, IL-4 and IFN-g by splenocytes [52].
acidic protein-positive cells in the striatum [47]. CBD decreases IFN-g release in phytohemagglutinin-stimulated human
CBD is also promising for treatment of myocardial ischemia. It peripheral mononuclear cells [21] and in lymph-node cells [1].
CBD induces apoptosis in immature and immortalized T-cells, with ROS
caused a reduction in infarct size in an in-vivo rat model of ischemia generation having a pivotal role [53].
and reperfusion, and the effect was associated with a reduction of
myocardial inflammation and interleukin (IL)-6 levels [49]. CBD Abbreviations: fMLP, formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine; IFN-g, interferon- g, IL,
was ineffective in the isolated rat heart model 49, so it is possible interleukin; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; MIP-1, Macrophage Inflammatory Protein-1; ROS,
that its cardioprotective effects are mediated by systemic immu- reactive oxygen species; TNF-a, tumor necrosis factor a.

nomodulatory effects or by a CBD metabolite.

In summary, CBD is a promising agent for treatment of cerebral
that CBD-induced T-cell suppression might be linked to its ability
and myocardial ischemia. CBD increases cerebral flow via the 5-
to suppress the transcriptional activity of activator protein-1 and
HT1A receptor.
nuclear factor of activated T-cells, both of which are critical
regulators of IL-2 and interferon-g (IFN-g) [55].
Inflammation, pain and the immune response
Psoriasis is an inflammatory disease characterized by
Early reports suggested that CBC exerted anti-inflammatory effects
epidermal keratinocyte hyper-proliferation. The most significant
[39] and modest analgesic activity [32] in rodents. CBC was
mediators involved in this disorder are those associated with a
superior to the non-steroidal antiinflammatory drug phenylbutazone
dominant Th1 cytokine profile. D9-THC, CBN and CBD were
in carrageenan- induced rat paw edema and in the erythrocyte
shown to inhibit keratinocyte proliferation in the low micromolar
membrane stabilization method [39].
range and in a cannabinoid receptor-independent manner.
More recently, CBD was shown to be effective in well-
Although the mechanism is incompletely understood, these results
established experimental models of analgesia (neuropatic and
support a therapeutic potential of non-psychotropic cannabinoids
inflammatory pain) [50] as well as in acute (carrageenan-induced
for the treatment of psoriasis [56].
rat paw edema) and chronic (e.g. collagen- induced murine arthritis)
CBD was shown to normalize motility in an experimental
models of inflammation [1,7] in rodents. It is believed that the
model of intestinal inflammation [57]. This protective action
analgesic effect of CBD is mediated, at least in part, by TRPV1 [50]
might involve down-regulation of the endocannabinoid-degrading
and that its antiarthritic action is due to a combination of
enzyme FAAH in the inflamed gut [57,58].
immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory effects. This idea is
In summary, CBD exerts anti-arthritic actions through a
based on several lines of evidence (summarized in Box 2)
combination of immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory effects.
[1,2,7,8,51,52,53].
CBD may exert protective actions in other inflammatory conditions
The effect of CBD on T-cells was investigated in detail. It was
(e.g. psoriasis and gut inflammation). The anti-inflammatory effect
found that the cannabinoid exerted a generalized
of CBC requires further investigation.
immunosuppressive effect through a pro- apoptotic mechanism
involving oxidative stress-dependent activation of caspase-8
[52,54]. It was also proposed

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Emesis CB2- antagonist sensitive and MSCs are cannabinoid receptor-

CBD was effective in animal models of anticipatory nausea and negative cells, so it was believed that D9-THCV may stimulate the
vomiting (conditioned retching reaction in the musk shrew, a model recruitment of MSCs from the bone marrow indirectly via a
in which standard antiemetics such as 5- HT3 antagonists are mechanism mediated by a CB2-expressing accessory cell [67].
ineffective) [59], as well as in models of nausea and/or vomiting CBD also controls bone resorption during the progression of
(i.e. lithium-induced conditioned gaping in rats and vomiting in experimental periodontitis in rats. In this case, morphometrical
musk shrews, cisplatin- induced emesis in the musk shrew) [1,60]. analysis ofalveolar bone loss demonstrated that CBD-treated
Such results suggest a potential use of CBD in the treatment of che- animals had reduced alveolar bone loss and lower expression of the
motherapy-induced nausea and anticipatory nausea. In musk activator of the NF- kB ligand RANKL/RANK [68]. Moreover,
gingival tissues from the CBD-treated group showed reduced
shrews, CBD showed a biphasic effect, being antiemetic at low
neutrophil migration associated with lower production of IL-1b and
doses (1-5 mg/kg) and pro-emetic at higher doses (25-40 mg/kg)
tumor necrosis factor-a [68].
[1]. By contrast, CBD was ineffective in an experimental model of
Overall, the phytocannabinoids CBDV, D9-THCV and CBD
motion-induced emesis in the musk shrew [61], suggesting that this
may exert beneficial effects on bone formation and fracture healing.
compound (unlike D9-THC) does not act as a broad-spectrum
antiemetic. Food intake Cancer
D9-THCV, at doses as low as 3 mg/kg, shares the ability of synthetic D9-THC, CBD, CBG, CBC, D9-THCA and CBDA have been shown
CB1 antagonists to reduce food intake and body weightinmice [62]. to exert anti-proliferative/pro-apoptotic effects (IC50 in the range 5-
Atsimilardoses, D9-THCV attenuated D9-THC-induced 25 mM) in a panel oftumor cell lines: human breast carcinoma,
hypothermia and antinociception, confirming its efficacy as a CB1 human prostate carcinoma, human colorectal carcinoma, human
receptor antagonist [2,9,25]. Under similar conditions, CBD gastric adenocarcinoma, C6 rat glioma, rat basophilic leukemia and
induced a small non-significant reduction of food intake and weight transformed thyroid cells. CBD exhibited the highest potency with
gain [62]. IC50 values between 6 mM and 10.6 mM, and maximal efficacy at
25 mM, followed by CBG and CBC [11]. CBDA was the least
Type-1 diabetes and diabetic complications effective compound, being active against only breast, thyroid and
CBD prevents the initiation of diabetes in non-obese diabetic glioma cells. Furthermore, prostate carcinoma cells were found to
(NOD) mice [1,7] and, importantly, ameliorates the manifestations be quite resistant to the action of phytocannabinoids, with only
of the disease in NOD mice, which are either in a latent diabetes CBD and CBG exerting anti-proliferative effects [11]. More in-
stage or with initial symptoms of diabetes [63]. CBD treatment depth studies showed that CBD inhibited glioma, leukaemia and
induced qualitative modification of the pancreatic islets infiltrated breast cancer, as detailed below.
by mononuclear cells, and inhibited the specific destruction of the 1) CBD exerted cannabinoid-independent anti-metastatic and pro-
islets [63]. Levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-12 produced apoptotic effects on human glioma cells and tumor regression
by splenocytes were significantly reduced, whereas those of the in vivo [1,7,27]. CBD-induced apop-
anti-inflammatory IL-10, were elevated after CBD treatment [63]. tosisofhumangliomacellsinvolvesearlyproductionof ROS and
CBD also exerts significant therapeutic benefits against diabetic concomitant activation of initiator caspase-8 and caspase-9,
complications because it significantly reduces oxidative stress and converging into the activation of the downstream effector
prevents retinal cell death and vascular hyperpermeability in the caspase-3 [27]. In vivo, CBD induced glioma growth inhibition
diabetic retina in an experimental model of diabetic retinopathy through specific modulation of the pro-carcinogenic LOX
[1,7]; in addition, CBD exerts anti-inflammatory and pathway [69].
neuroprotective effects in retinal microglial cells [64]. It has been 2) CBD induced a CB2-mediated reduction in viability and
proposed that the protective effect of CBD against diabetes-induced apoptosis in leukemia cells, and reduced tumor burden and
retinal damage may be linked to inhibition of adenosine uptake [65]. increased the number ofapoptotic tumours in EL- 4-bearing
In human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAECs), CBD mice in vivo; the effect was associated with increased
attenuates high glucose-induced mitochondrial superoxide production of ROS, which was mediated through regulation of
generation, nuclear factor kB (NF- kB) activation, nitrotyrosine Nox4 and p22phox [70].
formation, up-regulation of iNOS and adhesion molecules ICAM-1 3) CBD inhibited the growth of xenograft tumours obtained by
and VCAM-1, transendothelial migration of monocytes and subcutaneous injection of human breast
monocyte-endothelial adhesion, while preserving HCAECs from
disruption of endothelial barrier functions [66].
In summary, CBD exerts beneficial actions against diabetes and
some of its complications (e.g. retinal damage). The anti-
inflammatory, antioxidant and neuroprotective actions of CBD
could contribute to these protective effects.
Bone formation
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have a central role in a series of
physiological and pathophysiological processes, including bone
formation and fracture healing. CBDV, CBG, CBN, CBD, D9-THC,
and D9-THCV stimulated the recruitment of quiescient MSCs
present in bone marrow [67]. The effect varied from a relatively
small stimulation of about 20% by CBG to as much as 100% after
treatment with CBDV or D9-THCV. The effect of D9-THCV was

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Figure 1. Pharmacological actions of non-psychotropic cannabinoids (with the indication of the proposed mechanisms of action).
Abbreviations: D9-THC, D9-tetrahydrocannabinol; D8-THC, D8-tetrahydrocannabinol; CBN, cannabinol; CBD, cannabidiol; D9-THCV, D9-tetrahydrocannabivarin; CBC, cannabichromene; CBG,
cannabigerol; D9-THCA, D9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid; CBDA, cannabidiolic acid; TRPV1, transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1; PPARg, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor g; ROS,
reactive oxygen species; 5-HT1A, 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor subtype 1A; FAAH, fatty acid amide hydrolase.
(+), direct or indirect activation; ", increase; #, decrease.

carcinoma cells into athymic mice [11]. Studies investigating carcinoma.

the mode of action showed that CBD down-regulated the Microbial growth
expression of Id-1 (a key regulator of the metastatic potential Preparations from Cannabis sativa were extensively investigated in
of breast and other carcinomas) in metastatic human breast the 1950s as highly active topical antiseptic agents for the oral
cancer cells, leading to reduction of tumour aggressiveness cavity and the skin, and as anti-tubercular agents. Cannabinoid
[71]. acids, which can be precursors of the neutral cannabinoids, were
shown to be antibiotic 4 and were used in veterinary medicine in
Phytocannabinoids have been shown to inhibit ATP- binding Czechoslovakia in the 1960s. An early report showed that CBC
cassette (ABC) transporters, which play a part in the multi-drug exerted antifungal and, to a lesser degree, antibacterial activity [39].
resistance of tumor cells. Specifically, P-glycoprotein (ABCB1) Recently, five major cannabinoids (D9-THC, CBN, CBD, CBC and
was inhibited by CBD, but not by D9-THCV, D9-THCA or CBN CBG) showed potent activity against various methicillin-resistant
[72]; multi-drug resistance- related protein 1 (ABCC1/MRP1) and Staphylococcus aureus strains of current clinical relevance. No
breast cancer resistance protein were inhibited by CBD, CBN and substantial difference in potency was observed, with a minimum
D9-THC (order of potency: CBD > CBN > D9-THC) [73]. inhibitory concentration in the range 0.5-2 mg/mL [75].
CBD was shown to attenuate oxidative/nitrosative stress,
inflammation, and cell death induced by the anticancer drug Conclusions
cisplatin in the mouse kidney [74]. Nephrotoxicity is a common Recent developments suggest that non-psychotropic phy-
complication of cisplatin chemotherapy, which limits its clinical tocannabinoids exert a wide range of pharmacological effects
use. (Figure 1), many of which are of potential therapeutic interest. The
In summary, the phytocannabinoids CBD, CBG and CBC have most studied among these compounds is CBD, the pharmacological
shown interesting pro-apoptotic properties in cancer cell lines. The effects of which might be explained, at least in part, by a
most studied phytocannabinoid is CBD. CBD induces increases in combination of mechanisms of action (Table 1, Figure 1). CBD has
[Ca2+]i, thereby stimulating ROS production and causing apoptosis. an extremely safe profile in humans, and it has been clinically
In vivo, CBD inhibits glioma growth and experimental breast evaluated (albeit in a preliminary fashion) for the treatment of

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