Unit 4: Baroque Period

1600 – 1750 A.D.

“Baroque” means “misshapen pearl.” An apt, albeit disparaging term to describe architecture of
the period, it is a misnomer for the music of the period. Even though some found the music to be
bizarre, extravagant and unnatural, music of this period is really the basis for all consequent
classical music. The period witnessed the development of functional tonality, changes in
musical notation, new instruments and playing techniques, and new musical forms, terms and
concepts many of which are still used to the present day.

The power of music was explored during this period, with the goal to arouse the “affections.”
Affections aren’t to be confused with emotions. A contemporary critic, Lorenzo Giacomini, in
“Orationi e discorsi” published in 1597, defined affection as “a spiritual movement or operation
of the mind in which it is attracted or repelled by an object it has come to know.”

Even as early as 1580, the Baroque “spirit” manifested itself in the work of Giovanni Gabrielli
(c. 1554-1612), a late Italian Renaissance composer whose innovations in instrumentation and
dynamics in particular were foundational to the new Baroque style. Listen to “Sacra Symphonia
Sonata Pian’e Forte (1597) by Gabrielli to enjoy an introduction to the new style. Click this link
to access the video file: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rQeikHMQGOM

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 Section 1: Main Musical Forms/Stylistic Elements

As noted in the introductory notes, the Baroque period saw the development of many new
musical forms, terms, concepts, and playing techniques. The Baroque really was a complete
departure from the defining elements of the Renaissance period. Instruments emerged as having
a place of their own in both sacred and secular music, instead of serving as nominal fill-in
sounds. Idiomatic instrumental writing became the norm, capitalizing on the unique properties
of each instrument.

Renaissance imitative polyphony remained in use during the 17th century and beyond, being
recognized in many quarters at the most fitting manner for church music. Despite this lingering
effect of the Renaissance, with the introduction of opera, and its solo singing, sacred music
evolved and incorporated operatic elements, resulting in a sacred style that was more secular and
less “lofty” than the choral music of the Renaissance. Combined instrumental-vocal forms, such
as the oratorio and cantata also emerged. Emphasis in vocal writing was an intelligible text over
music that was not overpowered by its instrumental accompaniment.

Virtuoso techniques emerged in both instrumental and vocal performance, and scoring became
precise for instrumental parts in ensemble playing. Ornamentation also became the norm, with
performers encouraged to take great latitude in elaborating the written notes, in some ways
further demonstrating their virtuosity. The cadenza, an extended virtuosic section for a soloist
typically near the end of a concerto movement also became common, still further demonstrating
the performer’s technical and artistic ability.

The art of instrument making really came of its own in the

Antonio Stradivari Baroque period, most notably in the work of Antonio Stradivari.
Renowned for his artistry and craftsmanship, Stradivari’s highly
valued violins remain in use to this day.

Stradivari at work

String chamber orchestras emerged as an important instrument ensemble, with the development
of corresponding genres specifically for these groups. New performance techniques, such as
tremolo and pizzicato also emerged during this period.

The combined effect of performers’ technical ability and artistry coupled with a new music
notation system (including figured bass and basso continuo) and increasing emphasis on
emotional intensity and affections resulted in a wealth of new and/or evolved musical forms.

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Definitions of Key Musical Styles/Forms
Anthem: A choral or vocal composition written for performance in church, at this point, usually
with instrumental accompaniment.
Balletto: Not to be confused with opera, a balletto is a form of relatively light vocal composition
that originated in Italy that has a dance like quality to its music and was a major vocal form of
the early part of the period. It evolved in Germany to a more instrumental style, and is especially
found in instrumental works by Bach bearing this title.
Basso Continuo/Figured Bass: Basso continuo is a kind of continuous accompaniment notated
with figured bass, a new music notation system in the Baroque (usually for a sustaining bass
instrument and a keyboard instrument)
Cantata: A piece for one or two voices, sometimes three, which has several distinct sections in
diverse styles, and typically only accompanied by the basso continuo group. The most common
type uses an extended poem as text, with parts sung in recitative, while other parts are sung in
aria style, with flowing lines. Another type uses the instrumental ritornello to separate the
strophes of the poetry. (See also “ritornello aria.”)
Canzona: A song or ballad; also can mean in the style of a song. This term was used very little
in the 2nd half of the 17th century and was eventually dropped altogether.
Chorale Prelude: a short liturgical composition for organ that uses a chorale tune as its base.
This is mostly a German form that reached its greatest heights in the work of Bach. Its liturgical
function remains uncertain, but possibly it was used to introduce a hymn to the congregation
before singing it, and is most certainly primarily a Lutheran form in the Baroque.
Concertato Style: Contrast in sound between orchestra and solo instruments or small groups of
instruments.
Concerto grosso: Literally a “big concerto;” a form where the orchestra is divided, and the
musical material is passed between a small group of soloists (the “concertino”) and the full
orchestra (the “ripieno”). All of the music is played by the concertino, with the orchestra joining
in only for the “tutti” (everyone) sections.
Fantasia: A free instrumental composition structured according to the composer’s “fancy” where
the composer’s imagination takes precedence over conventional styles and forms; sometimes
called a “fantasy” piece. A fantasia can also be a medley of familiar tunes with variations and
interludes.
Fugue: The defining Baroque form. A fugue is a contrapuntal piece that has two or more parts
that are built on a main theme (the subject) that is first introduced as a solo line, then responded
to by one or more voices, and then the parts become intertwined into a complex series of layers
or sound, with the subject recurring throughout the piece.
Homophony: Music with one melodic voice and rhythmically similar accompaniment (as
contrasted to the Renaissance “polyphony”)
Mass: By the Baroque, this included public celebration of the Eucharist not only in the Catholic
Church, but also some Protestant (Lutheran) churches. The parody techniques and the cantus
firmus from the Renaissance did survive into the Baroque period, however, a new style evolved
that had solo voices and independent instrumental parts. The so-called “cantata mass” is
probably heard in its greatest form in Bach’s B minor Mass.
Monody: Music for one melodic voice with accompaniment (especially characteristic of the
early 17th century)

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Opera: A dramatic musical form (“drama per musica”); a musical play, usually sung throughout,
that uses costumes, staging, props, sets and dramatic elements. Variant forms include “opera
seria” (also known as “drama per musica” or “melodrama serio,” an Italian term that refers to the
“serious” style of Italian opera that dominated Europe from around 1710 to 1770), “opera
comique” (also known as “opera buffa” and a French form of opera that includes spoken
dialogue; it emerged out of the popular vaudeville. Can also refer to a Parisian theater form
where the opera was neither comic or light, but rather a tragedy, with “Carmen” being the most
famous example of this form.), and “opera-ballet” (also known as ballets de cour, a name given
to a fully operatic form that included ballet as the prominent feature of the work).
Oratorio: An operatic work without staging, nor sets, nor elaborate costumes. The setting is
usually more relaxed than a formal opera, and typically has a religious theme.
Partita: In the early years of the period, referred to a single instrumental piece or variation; by
Bach’s time, it was used as a synonym for the suite.
Passacaglia: Typically a form that consisted of continuous variations over a ground bass; can
also refer to a dance of the period. Typically in triple meter and most works seem to be in the
minor mode.
Passion (Passion Music): Music that reflects the suffering of Jesus leading up to the Crucifixion.
Despite Luther’s contention that “The Passion of Christ should not be acted out in words and
pretense, but in real life,” sung Passion performances were common in Lutheran churches as well
as Catholic churches, with the best known musical settings of the Passion including two by Bach
(the St. John and the St. Matthew Passions). The Passion was especially popular in Protestant
Germany in the 18th century.
Prelude: During the Baroque, the prelude was mainly considered an introductory piece that led
into succeeding movements of the overall work (most of which were usually longer and more
complex, such as fugues and suites). Among the masters of the Baroque harpsichord prelude are
Bach and Elisabeth Jacquet de la Guerre. Stylistically, preludes sometimes combined strict
contrapuntal writing with freer, improvisatory-like passage work; sometimes they were mostly
improvisatory in structure, with little counterpoint. Some preludes (including many of Bach’s)
were written in a theme and variation form, using the same theme and varying it via imitation,
inversion, modulation, and retrograde.
Ricecare: Mostly a form found in the early Baroque; the term literally means to “search out.”
Originally, this meant quite literally searching out the strings to pluck on the lute, and evolved to
describe instead a prelude-like function, in this case, searching out the key or mode of the
consequent piece. Contrapuntal in nature, the term also referred to a kind of early fugue form,
with some being indistinguishable from fugues, except for featuring longer note values and a
more “serious” overall tone. Bach’s “Musical Offering” contains a good example of this form.
Recitative: This form imitates the patterns of speech (sort of a sung-speech) in order to advance
the story in operas and oratorios. Because it is more like speech, it allowed the plot line to
advance more quickly than the usual opera and oratorio musical selections.
Ritornello Aria: Repeated short instrumental interruptions of vocal passages
Sinfonia: In the early Baroque, this served as an alternative term for canzonas, fantasias, and
ricecares. In the later Baroque, the term was usually used in reference to a type of sonata, and
most especially a trio sonata, as well as sonatas for larger ensembles. In operas and oratorios, the
sinfonia typically served as an instrumental prelude.
Sonata/Trio Sonata: Sonata means “to sound,” and this refers to a piece that is played as
opposed to sung (like a cantata). During the early part of this period, the term was used pretty
loosely, and applied to most instrumental genres, and was considered, along with the fugue, as
one of the two main ways to organize, interpret and analyze concert music for large ensembles as

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well as solo instruments such as keyboard and violin. By Bach and Handel’s time, the scheme
was better defined, and usually had a slow introduction, a fugue-like allegro, a slow (cantabile)
movement, and ended with a lively finale that was loosely related to the dance tunes for the suite.
The trio sonata gained popularity starting in the 17th century and throughout the 18th century. It
is written for two solo melodic instruments (typically violins) and basso continuo, thus having
three parts, and the name. (In reality, the basso continuo always had at least two instruments,
and most trio sonatas were performed by at least four musicians!)
Strophic Variation: A process of varying the details of a melody while keeping its scheme and
harmonic accompaniment. This technique/form was very popular in the Baroque since it
permitted longer and more developed works, as well as variety.
Suite: Components of the suite can include: Overture, Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, Gigue,
Gavotte, Bourree, Minuet, Passepied, and Rigaudon. The Overture typically consists of a slow
section followed by a fast section,with a return to the slow section. The Allemande was a very
popular dance that started in the Renaissance and moved at a moderate tempo. The Courante is a
lively, French dance in triple meter; also known as the Corrente in Italian, this dance conveys a
feeling of “running.” The Sarabande is the slowest Baroque dance and also in triple meter, but
with emphasis on the 2nd beat, instead of the downbeat, creating its characteristic feeling of
“halting” or “lurching.” The Gigue is a lively dance in compound meter, and is often the final
movement of the suite. The four dances of Allemande, Courante, Sarabande and Gigue make up
most of the suites of the 17th century, with five other dances used in the later years of the
Baroque at the composer’s discretion. These dances include: Gavotte (in 4/4 time with strong
beats, and usually played at a moderate tempo); Bourree (similar to the Gavotte, but in 2/2 time,
with many composers indicating a fast as opposed to moderate tempo); Minuet (probably the
most recognizable Baroque dance form to modern ears; in triple meter and usually played at a
moderate tempo; some suites included a Minuet I & II.); Passepied (a fast dance in triple meter
and in two parts; Bach and Handel especially used this form in their suites); Rigaudon (lively
French dance in duple meter; similar to the bourree).
Toccata: Became a distinctively keyboard piece with a characteristic idiom being scale-type
Passages, turns, trills, and short figures that pass from hand to hand, while the hand not busy
with these elements has sustained chords that often trace a descending or ascending diatonic line
in the key of the piece. “Touch” is a defining trait – literally began as the touching of the
fingerboard of a lute or similar instrument, and evolved to the keyboard form, distinguished by
the characteristics previously noted.

In closing, it is interesting to note the etymology of some of the names. Words like toccata,
prelude, ricercare, and fantasia are as much as a reference to some of the free, improvisatory
gestures of the Baroque as they are to a form, or performance style.

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 Section 2: Church Influences
In the Renaissance, religious institutions both intentionally and unintentionally influenced how
music developed. As you’ll recall, the Catholic Church, in an effort to counteract the emerging
“reformers” (Lutherans & Calvinists), began a Counter Reformation or “Catholic Restoration” in
an effort to breath life back into the Church as well as oppose the reformers. Among the
reformers, the Lutherans didn’t actually plan to start a revolution, but rather, under Martin
Luther, believed their ideas would return the Church to its roots. The other group, the Calvinists,
wanted to go even farther than the Lutherans, with key concepts being imposition of a strict
moral code, as well as literal reading of Scripture, resulting in music that was distinctly rule-
driven (including monophonic works using Biblical texts, only, especially Psalms, plus no
liturgical music (as opposed to the Lutherans who loved congregational singing and liturgical
music, building on the Catholic Mass, for their own practices.

Pope Urban VIII

(1568-1644) Church influences continued to play a part in the Baroque. The
Catholic Church had actual Papal patronage of the arts under an
early Baroque Pope, Urban VIII. Previously known as Maffeo
Barberini, Urban VIII became Pope in 1623, and quickly
wielded influence over the arts in Rome. A member of one of
the most powerful families in the city, Pope Urban VIII and
other members of the Barberini family for more than 20 years
really set the stylistic tone for music (and other arts) through
their patronage.

The consequences of the Barberini family’s power are both political and cultural. The Pope and
his family members that he elevated to high church offices regularly “intervened” on behalf of
artists and especially musicians, in addition to political and even scientific matters (see the
discussion on Urban and Galileo’s feud in Section 4). For example, Pope Urban’s nephew,
Cardinal Francesco, “negotiated” a salary increase at the Cappella Guilia for the composer
Girolamo Frescobaldi (c. 1583 – 1643). As such, the papacy, politics of the city as a whole, and
science and the arts as a result of the papal patronage were wholly intertwined and thus clearly
showing the Barberini influence. Furthermore, the canon from the Council of Trent (1545-63)
that mandated art that should speak to the illiterate rather than to the well-informed, certainly
served as an inspiration for the Baroque, both in art and music, albeit nearly a full generation
after the issuance of the canon.

Regardless, the music of Rome of the period provides some wonderful early Baroque examples.
While Frescobaldi is remembered primarily for his keyboard works, he also produced some
excellent instrumental ensemble pieces. In the following example, “Toccata per Spinettina e
Violino” (“Toccata for Spinet and Violin”) by Frescobaldi, we are treated to a performance by
Boris Nedialkov, a remarkable 13 year old cellist, accompanied by Ventseslava Todorova on
piano. This arrangement/transcription for cello and piano was done by Gaspar Cassado (1897-
1966), and the work is sometimes erroneously credited to him as the composer.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_-pRUBhYuJk

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Meanwhile, the Calvinists continued their practices formed during the Renaissance, with their
strict rules for texts and music remaining in force, and thus their production was limited to
settings of Psalms in monophony.

The Lutherans were continuing to develop their liturgies and hymnodies, as evidenced most
particularly in the work of Johann Sebastian Bach. (See also his composer profile in Section 6.)
Among Bach’s great works for the church were his chorale preludes, exquisite organ works
based upon Lutheran chorales (hymns).

The following example is one of these chorale preludes, played on an organ built in 1738 by
Christian Muller, located at St. Bavo Grote Kirk in Haarlem, The Netherlands. According to the
church’s website: “The Christian Muller Organ is the focal point of St. Bavo. It’s 30 meters
high and has 5,068 pipes. Constructed by Amsterdam organ builder Christian Muller between
1735 and 1738, Handel and Mozart both have played it, Mozart when he was 10. The organ
features 25 larger-than-life woodwork figures carved by Jan van Logteren.” (You can see more
pictures at this website: http://goeurope.about.com/od/haarlem/ss/st_bavo_haarlem.htm)

The organist is Neal Biggers. As you watch and listen, listen first for the improvisational
quality of Bach’s writing, characteristic of the virtuosic and ornamental nature of music in the
period. Also, appreciate the architecture of the organ itself, a wonderful representation of the art
of the period. Finally, take note that it takes two people to negotiate it: one to do the actual
playing and another to manage the stops!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OqfuNlsq4ac

Manuscript of a Bach chorale prelude

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Another religious movement from the period, Pietism, had an impact on music as well. Pietism
is a reform movement, with its credited originator being Philipp Jakob Spener, in his “Pia
desideria” (“Earnest Desires for a Reform of the True Evangelical Church), from 1675.
Beginning in the state Lutheran and Reformed churches of Germany, the Pietists saw their role
as a revival of practical and devout Christianity. Spener, in particular, stressed the need for a
new birth and separation of Christians from the world, and some contemporary theological
scholars describe Pietism as a “retrograde” or backward movement of Christian life toward
Catholicism (as opposed to one popular Pietist view that saw it as a reformed variation of
Catholicism). Regardless of the view, the movement stressed practice over doctrine, and clearly
didn’t care much for theological scholars! Extreme practitioners of Pietism cast off all of the
common “worldly amusements” such as dancing, public games, and theater.

One branch of the movement, the Moravians, is particularly interesting to understand further, as
they are credited with future influence on John Wesley and the Methodist movement in 18th
century England, as well as later American Methodists.

A small underground group of the “Bohemian Brethren,” refugees living in Moravia, made up
the roots of the Moravians. In 1722, they arrived at a Pietist nobleman’s estate, and were
allowed to settle there. The nobleman, Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf, soon became a group
leader and the area became the center for Christian renewal and mission in the 18th century.
Emphasis during this period was a lifestyle of prayer and worship and simplicity of lifestyle and
communal living. Unlike other parts of society at this time, the Moravians largely eliminated
distinctions between social groups and also the extremes of great wealth and abject poverty.
There was also an emphasis on missionary work, using “lay” people, resulting in the formation
of hundreds of small renewal groups throughout the world, including with slave populations, and
often within existing churches, called “diaspora societies,” and encouraging prayer and worship,
Bible study, confession of sins, and mutual accountability. Thus, the Moravians were the first
large scale Protestant missionary group.

This video tells the story of two Moravian missionaries and provides a short, but good
description of what they encountered and the price they paid for their efforts. The video is
accompanied by historic drawings which provide additional insight into this group.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OeIk5bkr_-w

The Pietists as a whole added richly to enduring Lutheran hymnody, as well. An example of a
reformed hymnist’s work is “Lobe den Herren” (“Praise to the Lord, the Almighty”), written by
the German reformed hymnist Joachim Neander (1650-1680). Click the link for a spirited
performance of this classic hymn by the Maranatha Singers.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CPQKQhbruzY

Perhaps the greatest German hymnist (and poet) coming from this tradition was Paul Gerhardt
(1607-1676). A staunch defender of Lutheran orthodoxy, he wrote 123 hymns that are marked
by a personal and subjective treatment which was very appealing to Pietists. Many of his hymns
are still found in the Lutheran hymnal, with perhaps the most familiar being the Lenten hymn,
“O Haupt voll Blut unden Wunden” (“O sacred Head, now wounded”) and typically Lutheran,
with a lot of verses! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jv5cWfcMmFw

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“O sacred Head, now wounded” quickly became a popular hymn and was even later incorporated
by Bach into his St. Matthew Passion music.

Meanwhile, in England, Isaac Watts was producing more than 600 hymns, many of which
remain a part of contemporary hymnals. Among his familiar works are “Joy to the World,”
“When I Survey the Wondrous Cross,” and “Our God, Our Help in Ages Past.” Watts (1674-
1748) was an English pastor, poet and hymn writer. He is considered the founder of English
hymnody and also one of the earliest who wrote hymns specifically for children.

This video clip provides a mini-biography of Watts. It is from a sermon entitled “The Rebel’s
Guide to Joy in Anxiety,” and gives an insight into Watts’ faith and why he wrote hymns (to
edify other believers, as well as to uphold his own faith).

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QkX9g8T-98o

One of Watts’ still known hymns, “Our God, Our Help in Ages Past,” is also considered “The
Church’s National Anthem” and is sung regularly at English public occasions, including the
funeral of King Edward VII, and the unveiling of the Queen Victoria Memorial at Buckingham
Palace. The text paraphrases Psalm 90 and originally had nine stanzas when Watts published it
in 1719! Common contemporary practice, however, is to limit it to a maximum of five stanzas
(usually numbers 1, 2, 3, 5 & 9). More recognizable in contemporary times as “O God, Our
Help in Ages Past,” the title change came in 1738, when John Wesley published the work in his
hymnal, “Psalms and Hymns.” The tune, “St. Anne,” was written by William Croft (1708), but
didn’t gain recognition until Watts’ setting in 1719. The tune is also found in works of Handel
and J.S. Bach.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQmF1ssvW5Q

“When I Survey the Wondrous Cross” was published in 1707. Written as a communion hymn, it
is one of the first English-language hymns to use the word “I” and to also focus on personal
religious experience, earning its place in history. In addition, Watts used a freer verse writing
style that lent itself to the new musical settings of the period.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uCQJcX_N08E

Meanwhile in America…
The Baroque Period marks the beginning of America’s musical roots. While the first truly
“native” American composers don’t appear until around 1750, the settlers of the United States
were intent on creating their own collections of hymns and psalms. While many came to the
“new world” to create a new life, their religious practices retained elements of the “old world”
and certainly the music at this point.

Among the American collections dating from this period are The Ainsworth Psalter, The Bay
Psalm Book (issued first in 1640 and again 1698) and The New Version. Each contained
collections of Psalms, some of which came from the Calvinist Genevan Psalter, others from
Dutch and English traditions, as well as several hymn tunes that endure to this day. Among
these enduring hymn tunes is one written by the English composer William Croft (1678-1727),

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published in the supplement to The New Version in 1708. Croft was the organist of St. Anne’s
in Soho, London. This hymn tune, known as “St. Anne,” first used the text “As pants the Hart
for cooling Streams.” It received a rewrite by the renowned English hymnist, Isaac Watts,
around 1719 “Our God Our Help in Ages Past” (see the discussion of Isaac Watts preceding this
section.) The hymn tune was so popular that John Wesley also used it with a slight text rewrite
again in 1738. The tune was also used by Handel in his anthem “O Praise the Lord,” and Bach
used it as the basis of his Fugue in E-flat major (which bears the nickname of “St. Anne”). No
matter the text, the hymn was widely used in early America as well as England, and remains a
mainstay to this day.

The organist in this recording is Virgil Fox (1912-1980), the renowned 20th century American
organist. This recording, made shortly before his death, shows this American master was still a
powerful performer. Fox was so popular he actually performed on television in the 1960s and
1970s, including such programs as “The Mike Douglas Show,” and “The Ed Sullivan Show.” It
was rare then, just as it is still today, to see organ masterworks performed on television, again, a
tribute to his mastery of the instrument.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JSbNgX1_-SA&feature=related

Sample of a Croft manuscript

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 Section 3: Other Influences/Factors
Although churches continued to be the primary source of income for many musicians during the
Baroque period, the role of nobility became another important factor in how musicians gained
performances, as well as supported their profession.

One example of this is the Italian composer and violinist Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713).
Corelli’s playing ultimately became the basis for how the violin was played throughout the 18th
and 19th centuries, and his works for chamber groups enjoyed international fame and influence,
and were some of the earliest strictly instrumental works to gain this type of renown. Corelli
lived in Rome starting in 1675, where he enjoyed the patronage of Queen Christina of Sweden,
as well as Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni (the vice-chancellor of the church, as well as a librettist). As
a famed violin virtuoso, Corelli also taught many of the leading violinist-composers of the 18th
century. In addition, many composers, such as Handel, also spent time in Rome, and became
acquainted with Corelli and his works, further spreading his fame and influence.

This performance of the Concerto Grosso, Op. 6, No. 8, is a good example of Corelli’s chamber
music. The work is performed by Seraphina, and features two violins, a viola and cello. The
movements of this Concerto Grosso are:
I. Vivace-Grave
II. Allegro
III. Adagio-Allegro-Adagio
IV. Vivace
V. Allegro

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zwj_0n9hOe0

As evidenced by this work, the support of patrons gave composers greater freedom to
experiment, resulting in the explosion of secular musical forms, and especially works for just
instruments. Composers were also able to experiment more with harmony, rhythm and form
with this increased freedom. Thus, as noted in the introduction to this unit, the Baroque period
truly was the start of big changes in the musical landscape and ultimately served as the basis for
all consequent classical music development.

In Germany, on the other hand, the German love of order, as seen still in German life today, was
a major factor in music, as well. Therefore, as will be seen in the study of works by Bach,
German composers as a whole were especially interested in the forms that had clear patterns and
unity, such as the fugue, the canon and the passacaglia.

England saw the birth of the London Music Society during this period. However, it was a
German composer, Handel, who put England on the map musically during this period. (See the
extended discussion on Handel in Section 6.) The country was also experiencing a lot of
political upheaval during this time, moving from an autocratic to a parliamentary monarchy, the
execution of King Charles I, and Cromwell’s attempts to establish a republic and resulting chaos.

French music of the period reflected its royalty – highly ornamental and flamboyant! Like the
courts and architecture of France, music was likewise quite opulent, thanks in large part to the

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generous patronage of King Louis XIV. Yet, bubbling beneath all of the luxury was famine and
military defeat.

Spanish music reflected the Moorish presence in the country. Music of this period has a distinct
“flavor” of Arabic rhythms, microtonal scales, use of plucked instruments (especially the guitar),
with further “color” coming from Gypsies. Interestingly, as in England, the major figure of the
Spanish Baroque was not a native composer, but rather an Italian, Domenico Scarlatti (1685-
1757), whose sonatas in particular incorporated the “flavors” of Spain – especially melodically
and rhythmically.

This example is Scarlatti’s Sonata K391. Originally written for keyboard, this performance
features the guitarist Fábio Zanon. Note the characteristic Spanish rhythms in particular as you
enjoy this virtuosic performance.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p-eLTXgmo_8&feature=related

Domenico Scarlatti

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 Section 4: Social/Historical Context
Despite the luxurious courts and both royal and papal patronage, life in general during this time
was more about filthy, hard conditions. Remember that roads were still unpaved in smaller
towns, sewage and garbage disposal were poorly organized, if at all, and the existence of germs
had still not been discovered in the world of science. Thus, lots of people died, many at a young
age. For example, Johann Sebastian Bach lost both a sister and brother during his youth, and his
mother died when he was only nine years old. Worst still, his father died just nine months later.

In the midst of these hard times, though, not only were there magnificent musical works being
born, but also great thoughts. The brilliant minds of Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, Galileo
Galilei, Johannes Kepler, and Isaac Newton were all creating the foundations for modern science
and mathematics. Influenced by the insights from these scientists and mathematicians, Thomas
Hobbes and John Locke worked to apply similar rules of observation and reasoning to their
fields of philosophy and political science. Because of the work of these men and others, the
period is called the “Age of Reason.”

All of these great minds served to move Europe away from the status quo and backwards-
looking schools of the Medieval and Renaissance periods, and into the moving-forward approach
that led to our modern world.

The desire for discipline and order in the above-noted fields likely led to much of the order we
find in Baroque music. Think especially about the increasing complexity of counterpoint and the
greater ordering of harmony – all distinctive characteristics of the Baroque period, and also
clearly reflecting the ideals of the Age of Reason. However, musicians also were showing strong
interest in expressing “affections” or emotions through their music, and some forms, like the
toccata, display freedom of expression that is certainly not based on reason, but rather emotion –
a desire for freedom and expression of one’s feelings – be they joy or sadness or something else!
Ultimately, not only the order, but also the affections, became an important element in not only
secular, but also sacred music.

Think, too, of one of the most recognizable artists of the period: Rembrandt. His work exudes
both order and emotion, just as the musicians desired to do.

One work by Rembrandt, who lived from 1606-1669, readily depicts this thought. A work
entitled “Susanna und die beiden Alten“ (“Susanna and the Elders“) was painted in 1647, and is
the Biblical story of the rescue of Susanna by the prophet Daniel. Susanna was a popular story,
and the subject of many painting by many artists. In the story, she is spied upon by two old men
when taking a bath. When the modest Susanna rejects their advances, they attempt to cause
serious legal problems for her. Ultimately, Daniel comes to her rescue.

As you look at the picture, the young woman’s terror is readily apparent in her face and her body
language, as are the less than virtuous intentions of the old men.

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Quick Chronology
A quick outline of some key historical events during the first 50 years of the Baroque period
many also help to gain some insight into the social complexity and resulting influences of the
period.

1605: Guy Fawkes (England) arrested for trying to blow up Parliament in the Gunpowder Plot
1607: Jamestown founded – 1st permanent settlement in America
1609: Spanish Muslims exiled from Spain by the Spanish Inquisition
1610: Henry IV of France assassinated during continuing political and religious conflicts
between French Catholics and Protestants (Hugeuenots)
1611: First authorized version of the Bible (The King James Version)
1613: House of Romanov established in Russia by Czar Michael Romanov; will last until the
Russian Revolution in 1917
1618-
1648: 30 Years War (war of succession in Germany/Austria between the Spanish Habsburgs
and the Austrian Habsburgs, that ultimately became a Protestants versus Catholics
struggle)
1620: Pilgrims land at Plymouth Colony (Massachusetts) via the Mayflower
1634: Louis XIII establishes the Academie francaise
1649: Charles I beheaded

It is no wonder then the great thinkers and artists of the day sought discipline and order in their
work in the midst of so much chaos!

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 Section 5: Instruments
The Baroque period saw the continued development of existing and new instruments, with an
eye to virtuosity and technical ability. Some older instruments that could not stand up to the new
technical challenges fell off as the period progressed.

Strings
The main string instruments of the Baroque are the lute, harp, and the violin family
(violin/viola/viol/cello/bass).

As you’ll recall from the instrument overview of the Medieval period, the lute was a plucked
instrument that came from Arabic culture. It developed its classic form of a pear-shaped body by
1500. By 1600, as the Baroque era really took off, it acquired additional bass strings that were
tuned to specific pitches, rather than stopped with the fingers. A variety of styles evolved
resulting in larger lutes and longer bass strings. By 1700, the arrival of gut strings that were
overspun with metal resulted in lutes returning to their earlier, smaller size.

The violin family, bowed string instruments, continued to be used and develop, as well.

The violin, as you’ll recall, produces the highest pitch of its family. Played with a bow, the
player changes pitches by placing their fingers on the string and pressing against the fingerboard.
This sets the strings in motion and sound is produced when the player draws the bow across the
strings. Emphasis in violin construction during this period was singing tone for lyrical melodies,
as well as the ability to play rapid, virtuosic passages with clarity. In the Baroque period, the
violin emerged from the accompaniment ranks to become a solo instrument, and its stature grew
as the period continued, with the violins becoming the leading section of the orchestra, the most
important instrumental ensemble to also emerge from the Baroque period.

The viol, a fretted, six-string instrument that preceded the violin, continued to be used until the
early 1700s when its use fell off in favor of the violin. Perhaps its most prominent use came in
Bach’s “Brandenburg Concerto Number 6,” which features the bass viol.

The viola, as you’ll recall, has a mellower and deeper sound than the violin. It gained
prominence in early Baroque works, such as Monteverdi’s opera, “Orfeo,” but then was
relegated to a secondary role by the late 17th century, again, as the violin dominated the string
sound of the age.

The cello (or more properly, the violoncello) remains a supporting instrument in the early
Baroque, until Bach composed unaccompanied cello suites starting around 1720, with Vivaldi
also writing concertos for the instrument. A low-pitched instrument, played by being held
between the player’s knees, its range extends more than four octaves, which made it an ideal
instrument for solo compositions.

The bass (or double bass or contrabass) of the 16th and 17th centuries had anywhere from three to
six strings, but typically four. Sometimes a fifth low string was added; other times, one string
was extended and fitted with a mechanism that let the performed clamp off the extra string
length, but by releasing it, allowed that string to sound even lower notes.

15
The harp makes sound by plucking strings that run perpendicular to a sound box (as opposes to
parallel to the sound box, is with a guitar). As the Baroque composers demanded notes lying
outside the previously established range on the harp (as well as most other instruments), music
builders worked to devise ways to allow the harp to do so. The most striking innovation of the
Baroque came in 1720 with the first single-action harp, that allowed the player to raise the pitch
of selected strings by a half-step, expanding its range to many, although not all keys.

Keyboards
The keyboard music of the Baroque featured compositions for two instruments: the harpsichord
and the organ.

The harpsichord is a stringed keyboard instrument whose strings are plucked to produce sound.
The harpsichord was widely used starting in the latter part of the Renaissance until the early 19th
century, when the piano emerged as the preferred keyboard instrument. The harpsichord is really
the ideal instrument, though, for performing the keyboard music of the Baroque, especially
works such as Bach’s contrapuntal compositions (fugues and inventions in particular). By the
Baroque, any harpsichord was called a virginal as well. (Recall that the virginals was a main
keyboard instrument of the Renaissance.) The plucking motion to produce sound is made thus:
when the key is pressed down, the far end rises and the plectrum (a small piece of material set in
a thin slip of wood at the far end of the key) plucks the string. The instrument produced the ideal
“equal” sound that Bach’s counterpoint in particular required, since the volume and tone of the
sound of the harpsichord remains the same, no matter how hard the player pressed down on the
keys. Variation of sound was ultimately achieved by stops, alternate octave tunings of one set of
strings, and even two keyboards. (The desire for greater control of both volume and tone of the
sounds ultimately led to the development of the piano, and its replacing the harpsichord by the
early 19th century.)

The organ makes sound when compressed air vibrates within tuned pipes. An organ of this
period thus had an air supply, and keys and controls by which to manipulate the air flow
essentially. As air enters at the foot of a pipe, it moves like a sheet against a narrow slit or flue,
and begins to vibrate as it crosses a lip set in the pipe above the flue. The air in the pipe then
vibrates, producing the musical sound. The length of the pipe determines the pitch, with larger
pipes producing deeper sounds, and smaller pipes producing higher sounds. During the Baroque
period, national styles of organ building emerged, with each one distinguished by its unique-
sounding ranks (a rank is a set of pipes that all have the same tone quality). During the Baroque,
organ building reached its height, especially with the German organs of the 17th and 18th
centuries, for which Bach wrote. These organs were particularly magnificent both visually and
audibly.

See the next page for a picture of a German organ that dates back to 1668, as well as a link for a
representative work from this period. (Although the music video is a bit romanticized, it does
provide a fun look into how one accessed the organ loft back in the Baroque, as well as a
delightful performance of Bach’s “Toccata and Fugue in d minor” in the “Bach church,” on the
reconstructed instrument that Bach used while serving as organist in Arnstadt. There is also
wonderful, up-close footage of the organ’s pipes and keyboard.)

16
 Link for musical example: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fqvZWAWB3e8

Woodwinds
There were four primary woodwind instruments in the Baroque: bassoon, flute, oboe and
recorder.

The bassoon is a double reed instrument, with a range of more than 3-1/2 octaves. Made of
wood, it dates from around 1660 and gained prominence as a solo instrument during the 18th
century, especially in the 39 concerti Vivaldi composed for it. While often used for comic effect
by composers, it has a melancholy tone quality that many composers have featured in their
works.

The flute of the Baroque was actually an end-blown recorder, as opposed to the use of “flute” for
both end-blown and across the mouth-hole blown instruments in the Renaissance. The modern
day flute has a cylindrical bore, and is stopped (closed off) at one end; during the Baroque, the
flute was instead conical, and originally had one thumb-hole and four to eight finger holes for
changing the pitch. Two keys were added during the Baroque to assist the virtuoso players of the
day.

The oboe is also a double reed instrument and has a range of more than 2-1/2 octaves. Derived
from the shawn of the Renaissance, the oboe was a featured instrument in many concerti, as well

17
as a key instrument in orchestral and chamber music. Another member of this family, the oboe
d’amore, has a pear-shaped bell, a lower range, and has a distinctively mellow tone color. Bach
favored this instrument over the standard oboe, but the instrument completely fell out of use after
his time, until its revival in the 20th century, because of its unique tone color.

The recorder, an end-blown instrument, declined in popularity during the final years of the
Baroque period, in favor of the flute and oboe, as well as the newly emerging clarinet. Bach and
his contemporaries used the recorder mostly as a “color” instrument, to suggest birds or
shepherds, in particular, as the instrument was first used during the Renaissance.

Brass
Three main brass instruments were used during the Baroque period. These included the horn,
sackbut/trombone, and trumpet.

The horn, as was discussed in the Renaissance, derives from an animal horn or tusk, and has a
conical opening, producing sound by vibrating the player’ slips against a mouthpiece. The
orchestral horn, also known as the French horn, emerged around 1650 in France, and was a
larger, redesigned version of the previous coiled tubing horns. Instrument builders continued to
work on innovations for the instrument to make it easier to change pitch and tone. During the
early 1700s, the French hunting horn joined the orchestra, and could produce twelve pitches.
(Valves and hand-stopping don’t appear until the Classical period.)

The trombone, or sackbut as it was also known, was a preferred instrument for church and
chamber music until around 1700, when its use declined for these genres. The Italian term,
“trombone” became the preferred term for the instrument by the early 18th century. (The
trombone eventually re-emerged as an important part of the military band by the end of the
1700s and finally as a regular part of the orchestra by around 1850.) Sound was produced much
as with a horn, but through a cylindrical bore tube, with a cup-shaped mouthpiece and slide
mechanism for changing tones. (Vales were experimented with during the Classical period for
the trombone but didn’t catch on, as the tone quality was determined to be poor compared to that
of a slide trombone.)

The trumpet also produces sound by vibrating the player’s lips against a mouthpiece. Similar to
the horn, the instrument was derived from an animal horn, and used cylindrical tubing. As was
noted in the Renaissance period, the tubing was coiled up starting around 1500, and came to be
made of brass or silver. In this form, the trumpet was used for both ceremonial and orchestral
purposes through the Baroque, and up until around 1800.

A Baroque chamber ensemble

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 Section 6: Key Figures
The Baroque period, as noted in the introduction to this unit, was a time of development and
change in musical notation, new instruments and playing techniques, new forms, terms,
concepts, and tonalities. Coupled with a now thriving publishing capability, music and
biographical information is readily available from the period for many composers. Rather than
try to cover a wide selection in short order, instead, this section will focus on the work of four
composers whose work is considered by most historians to be the defining work of the period.

The composers to be studied in this section are: Claudio Monteverdi, Antonio Vivaldi, Johann
Sebastian Bach, and George Frederic Handel.

Monteverdi was an Italian composer and performer. His work

Claudio Monteverdi is considered to have ushered in the Baroque period, and was
(1567-1643) often regarded as revolutionary in its time. This early image
of Monteverdi, painted at around age 30, when he was at the
Gonzaga Court in Mantua, depicts his performing side.

A portrait from 1640 by

Bernardo Strozzi

Monteverdi’s first music for publication was a collection of motets and sacred madrigals from
1582 and 1583. By 1587, he produced his first book of secular madrigals. While at the court of
Gonzaga (1590-1611), he worked as court conductor, as well as a vocalist and viol player. After
leaving the court, he moved to Venice and served as the conductor of the choir and
instrumentalists at San Marco, and is credited with restoring the excellence for which the basilica
had been once been known.

Prior to age forty, Monteverdi mostly composed madrigals, and created a total of nine books of
madrigals in his lifetime. The books are not only filled with wonderful music, but also serve to
show the tremendous development from the Renaissance period’s polyphonic music to the
monodic style typical of Baroque music.

Interestingly, the books were not without controversy. The Fifth Madrigal Book, published in
1605, was written in response to an attack of book four by one of Monteverdi’s contemporaries,
Giovanni Artusi, remembered as one of the first music critics, and an outspoken reactionary.
Artusi attacked this book for its “crudities” and the “license” Monteverdi took with composing.

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Monteverdi responded in the introduction to book five, proposing the division of musical
practice into two camps, the “prima practica” and the “seconda practica.” The “prima” practice
was his descriptor for the old Renaissance polyphonic ideal that Artusi seems to have favored.
The “seconda” practice represented the new innovations that Monteverdi was bringing forward
to deliberately modernize music and its sound.

Monteverdi continued to incorporate the emerging musical innovations into his books, including
the use of string tremolo and pizzicato in book eight for special effect in particularly dramatic
scenes.

Monteverdi was ordained a Catholic priest in 1632, and during the final years of his life, when he
was often ill, he composed his final two masterpieces, both operas. “Il ritorno d’Ulisse in patria”
(The Return of Ulysses) was written in 1641. “L’incoronazione di Poppea” (The Coronation of
Poppea) was written in 1642 and is considered the culminating point of his work, as well as a
defining work of the emerging Baroque period. It contains tragic, romantic and comedic scenes
(which was a new development in opera), as well as a more realistic portrayal of its characters,
with warmer melodies than the previous music of the Renaissance. It also used a smaller
orchestra, and lessened the role of the choir.

Monteverdi enjoyed great fame during his lifetime. One of his earliest operas, “L’Orfeo,” is still
performed regularly by opera companies across the world, as is “L’incoronazione di Poppea.”
“L’Orfeo” (The Legend of Orpheus) is known for its dramatic power and lively orchestration,
and is considered by many historians to be the first example of a composer assigning specific
instruments to parts in opera. It is also one of the first large compositions for which the exact
instrumentation at its premiere is known. The plot is described in vivid musical pictures, with
clear and linear melody lines. “L’Orfeo” represents the emergence of a totally new form of
music, “dramma per la musica” (musical drama).

Frontispiece of Monteverdi's opera “L'Orfeo,” Venice edition, 1609

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This example from “L’Orfeo” is from Act 2. As a preface, Act 1 features Orfeo and Euridice
celebrating their wedding day. The act starts with nymphs and shepherds continuing the
celebration, and Orfeo sings “Vi recorda, o bosch ombrosi” (Do you recall O shady woods), with
the final verse being “Sol per te, bella Euridice” (Only through you, fair Euridice). There is a
definite air of joy in the music at this point in the opera. The opera continues with the news
Euridice’s death, and Orfeo’s journey into Hell to try to bring her back.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bU681o8BlZs

Nicknamed “The Red-Haired Priest,” Vivaldi was born in

Antonio Vivaldi
the city of Venice and suffered ill health from birth due to
(1678-1741)
respiratory problems that may have been asthma. Despite
his poor health, Vivaldi was a prolific composer. He led
such an interesting life that a movie, “Vivaldi,” is currently
in production, due for release in 2013. The film began
production in 2008 and was originally slated for release in
2009, with Joseph Fiennes in the lead role. Production
problems have plagued the film, and it ended up being
recast with a young actor named Max Irons in the lead role.
It looks to be on schedule now, so watch for it soon. The
film promotion includes the tagline of “One of the most
popular composers of all time had to choose between duty
and passion.” An allusion to some of Vivaldi’s more

colorful adventures, the film plans to feature his early life, when, as a young priest, he became
the music teacher at an orphanage. Ospedale della Pieta, although termed an orphanage, was
actually a home for the female offspring of noblemen and their “dalliances” with their
mistresses. Vivaldi, the son of one of the best violinists and most popular performers,
Gianbattisto Vivaldi, became a priest in 1703. Often, sons of upper-class Venetian families were
sent into the priesthood, as was the young Antonio, who resisted this vocation. He was
nicknamed the “red-haired priest” because of his startling red hair. Vivaldi gave up saying Holy
Mass in 1704, probably due to his health. He remained a devout Catholic, but clearly preferred
to follow music as a career rather than a career in the Church.

Vivaldi was first named the violin teacher at Ospedale in 1703, and eventually became the
maestro de concerti of the orphanage in 1716. For a period between 1709 and 1711, he was not
attached to Ospedale, as he wanted to travel and write operas, so he began to work for the San
Angelo theater in Venice as its manager. His first “big break” came at the theater with his work
“L’Estro Armonico” (The Musical Inspiration), which consisted of twelve concertos for the
violin. He also wrote several operas for the theater. Vivaldi also took a leave from Ospedale in
1713 to stage his first opera, “Ottone in villa.”

At the end of 1717, Vivaldi went on to travel for fourteen years, and worked for the governor of
Mantua, and even performed for the Pope twice. He received many honorary titles as well. He
was accompanied on his travels by a singer from the orphanage named Anna Giraud, which
created quite a scandal, since the composer was still a priest. Miss Giraud even moved in to live

21
with him! Vivaldi contended she was no more than a housekeeper and good friend, but the
rumors continued to swirl. One Cardinal Ruffo was particularly upset by the resulting gossip,
and forbade Vivaldi to be “artistically active” in Ferrara. Vivaldi was also believed to have had
an affair with Anna’s sister, Paulina, who also moved in with him and Anna. Whatever the
arrangement, Vivaldi stayed together with Anna until his death in 1741.

Vivaldi enjoyed a great many posts, performances and publications throughout his life. Of his
many works, perhaps “The Four Seasons,” remains one of his most recognizable compositions.

“The Four Seasons” appeared in 1725 in a publication in Amsterdam called “Il C’imento
dell’Armenia e dell’invenzione” (The trial of harmony and invention), Opus 8. This publication
consisted of twelve concertos, seven of which bore descriptive titles: “The Four Seasons,”
“Storm at Sea,” “Pleasure,” and “The Hunt.” In this collection, Vivaldi transformed the tradition
of descriptive music into an unmistakably Italian musical style in which the strings play a major
role.

The concerti were very successful. “Spring” became a favorite of France’s King Louis XV, who
is reported to have ordered it to be performed at the most unexpected moments! This resulted in
various commissions from his court for Vivaldi.

This performance of “Spring” features an ensemble performing in Baroque style – standing up!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IfiDcTkprZQ

“Summer” was another popular concerto from the collection. This performance, from 1988,
features I Musici.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pe-MIDDfckw

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 Johann Sebastian Bach The German composer, Johann Sebastian Bach, was truly a
1685-1750 journeyman throughout his lifetime. Ironically less famous
than Handel during his lifetime, he was known then and for
many years after his death as an organist, teacher, and
administrator, despite his prolific compositions. In fact,
during his lifetime, his compositions were often dismissed
as nothing more than the weekly required product of his
work functions. His contemporaries, especially the music
critic J.A. Scheibe, in fact found his music too involved and
lacking in immediate melodic appeal!
Fortunately, new generations of musicians “rediscovered”
his genius, and his chorale harmonizations and fugal works
were adopted as models for the succeeding generations.

Bach wrote in nearly every musical genre of his time except the dramatic styles of opera and
oratorio. His three “oratorios” are such only in a special, exceptional sense, and not truly in that
style. In addition, Bach opened up new musical dimensions in each genre he worked in,
enhancing musical quality and technical demands. Despite the critics’ rather harsh assessment of
his work and other developments taking place, Bach continued to develop his own style pretty
much unaffected by these outside influences. In fact, Bach is considered to have been the last
great representative of the Baroque era, since many of his contemporaries were already rejecting
its styles in favor of the new “enlightened” aesthetic that would eventually characterize the
Classical period.

Bach was the youngest son of Johann Ambrosius, a town musician, and likely his first teacher.
He was orphaned at age ten and went to live with his oldest brother, Johann Christoph, the
organist at St. Michael’s Church. It was from Johann Christoph that Johann Sebastian learned to
play the keyboard. He attended the St. Michael’s School, sang in the church choir, played the
violin, and was exposed to much of the great organ writing and playing of the time.

When he did not get an organist’s post in 1702, Bach worked through the summer of 1703 as a
violinist and “lackey” for the court of Weimar. He received his first organist post that summer at
the Neukirche in Arnstadt. The post was not without challenges to the young musician, and the
Church Council at one point resolved to reprimand Bach for the “strange sounds” during
services. Bach didn’t attempt to justify his playing and compositions to what probably seemed
like really narrow-minded, conservative old men. Despite this, the Council, knowing his “star
power,” relinquished and decided to treat this young, impetuous organist with leniency.
Unfortunately, new conflicts arose, resulting in further reprimands, including a complaint that he
had been “entertaining a strange damsel” to music in the organ loft at the church. By all
accounts, the “strange damsel” was most likely his cousin, Maria Barbara Bach, whom he later
married. By 1707, it was clear it was time for him to leave Arnstadt.

He moved to St. Blasius, Mühlhausen, in June 1707 and married his cousin, Maria Barbara Bach
four months later. His time there was short-lived, however, due to a religious controversy that
arose between the orthodox Lutherans (who were lovers of music) and a new breed called the
Pietists (strict puritans, and they also distrusted art and music in all forms). Concerned about the
Pietists’ growing influence, Bach looked elsewhere for employment.

23
He became organist and chamber musician to the Duke of Saxe-Weimar in 1708, and for nine
years was known as a leading organist, and also composed some of his greatest works for the
instrument during this time.

Perhaps the best known of Bach’s many works for organ is the
“Toccata and Fugue in d minor.” This performance, featuring
Jean-Baptiste Robin, is especially excellent not only for the
organist’s spectacular technical prowess, but also for allowing
the listener to also closely watch the organist play this
physically demanding work. Note that he is also playing from
memory! Click the link to view the video and listen to this
performance:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FSIm7nEdw6w

Not only is the “Toccata and Fugue in d minor” one of Bach’s best known works, but is also
possibly the most recognizable organ work of all time. Besides its magnificence as a work for
solo organ, it has been transcribed for solo piano, orchestra, brass ensemble, and has been used in
films, video games, cell phone ringtones, and even sampled for rock music.

The transcriptions of the work began as early as the 19th century when Bach was “rediscovered”
by composer-pianists such as Mendelssohn and Busoni, who created piano transcriptions of this
and many other works by Bach. The Walt Disney Studios film, “Fantasia” (1940) opens with
Maestro Leopold Stokowski’s transcription for full orchestra of the work. The Canadian Brass
featured the work as a brass ensemble piece in their 1980 release, “The Pachelbel Canon and
other Great Baroque Hits.”

Perhaps the most enduring use of the work is found in the movies. Besides its appearance in
“Fantasia,” the work was featured as the main theme for “Rollerball,” as well as “Monty
Python’s The Meaning of Life”, and Martin Scorsese’s “The Aviator,” to name but a few. The
introduction to the work in particular, has become a distinctively characteristic way in films to
introduce characters that are sinister or evil, or even dangerously insane. This is especially the
case in these films: “The Black Cat” (1934, with Boris Karloff as Hjalmar Poelzig); “20,000
Leagues Under the Sea” (1954, another Disney film, for the character of Captain Nemo); and
“The Phantom of the Opera” (1962 British film, for the character of “The Phantom”).

As you listen to the work a second time, think of all these varied uses of the work, while at the
same time remembering that Bach wrote it as a part of his regular “gig” as the church organist, in
addition to his sacred works that served to glorify God.

In 1717, after the situation had deteriorated in Weimar, Bach was appointed Kapellmeister at
Cöthen. Upon his polite request to be released from his duties in Weimar, however, he was
arrested in put in the local jail and held prisoner by the Duke of Weimar. During this period of
“enforced rest,” Bach of course was extremely productive, and prepared a cycle of organ chorale
preludes for the entire year, which were later published as the “Orgelbüchlein.” After a month,
the Duke reluctantly gave Bach permission to resign his office, and he was released from jail.

24
Bach’s new employer, Prince Leopold, was known as a talented musician who both loved and
understood music. Unlike most royalty of this time, Prince Leopold was an accomplished player
of the harpsichord, violin, and viola da gamba. Also, quite contrary to “court etiquette,” he
played freely and informally with his court musicians, and treated them as his equals. In this
context, then, Bach soon became on very friendly terms with his employer. Leopold was known
to have a high regard for Bach, and often asked his advice. This informal and easy going setting,
coupled with the fact that the court was Calvinist, meant that Bach had no chapel duties and
could instead focus his efforts on instrumental composition. (Recall that the Calvinists were
against the splendorous Lutheran liturgy and thus there was no church music at this court.)

The “Brandenburg Concertos,” believed to have been written sometime between Bach’s time in
Weimar, his time with Prince Leopold, and shortly after his time there, are another set of readily
recognized works by Bach. Of the six, “Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 in G Major, BWV 1048”
is probably the most recognizable of them all. Scored for three violins, three violas, three cellos
and basso continuo (including harpsichord), the work exhibits the intricacy of Bach’s
instrumental writing. This recording of the first movement (Allegro Moderato) features the
Freiburg Baroque Orchestra.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hZ9qWpa2rIg

When he traveled, Prince Leopold took with his musicians with him. In 1720, while Bach was
away from the court with the prince, Maria Barbara died, and was buried in his absence, leaving
their four children motherless. In December of 1721, Bach married Anna Magdalena Wilcke, a
singer, and the daughter of a court trumpeter. A week later, the prince married, and his new
bride immediately made it clear she was not interested in the arts, which resulted in a decline in
the support given to music. Therefore, in 1722, Bach applied for the post of “Director musices”
at Leipzig, and Kantor of the Thomasschule there. He was offered the post in 1723, and
remained in Leipzig for the remainder of his life.

Leipzig allowed Bach, the family man, to truly enjoy life. Sixteen years younger than Bach,
Anna Magdalena proved to be a good mother to Bach’s children, and eventually bore him
thirteen more. She took a strong interest in his work, often helping him copy his manuscripts.

Despite this happy family situation, life in Leipzig often included conflict with the authorities.
Bach’s duties centered on the Sunday and feast day services at the city’s two main churches.
There was also none of the easy-going manner of his previous court. Instead, Bach was expected
to keep strictly to his duties within the organized life of the church and the school. The Council
also reprimanded him for not disciplining his choirs, and other charges, which Bach chose to
ignore, which irritated this Council, who did not appreciate his many gifts, as had previously
been the case. The headmaster of the Thomasschule intervened, and Bach remained in Leipzig.
Therefore, in his early years there, he composed great amounts of church music, including
cantata cycles, the “Magnificat,” and the “St. John” and “St. Matthew” Passions. His virtuosity
as an organist was now well-known, too, and he was in constant demand as both a teacher as
well as an expert in organ construction.

His work with organ construction reveals his humorous side, as well as insight into the virtuosity
of his playing. He is reported to have said for fun prior to testing a new organ that “above all, I

25
must know whether the organ has a good lung,” and proceeded to pull out all the stops to
produce the largest sound possible, much to the consternation of the organ builders. To test an
organ’s capability, he usually improvised a prelude and fugue. The prelude allowed him to test
the organ’s power, and the fugue allowed him to test its clarity for intricate counterpoint.
Contemporaries described his playing this way: “His feet seem to fly across the pedals as if they
were winged, and mighty sounds filled the church” (Constantine Bellermann); “His fingers were
all of equal strength, all equally able to play with the finest precision. He had invented so
comfortable a fingering that he could master the most difficult parts with perfect ease” (using 5
fingers instead of the then normal 3). “He was able to accomplish passages on the pedals with
his feet which would have given trouble to the fingers of many a clever player on the keyboard”
(from Mizler’s “Nekrolog”).

By 1729, Bach’s interest in composing church music took a sharp decline, probably due to the
new headmaster of the Thomasschule’s view on education (which conflicted with how Bach
wanted to train his musicians) and his sacred works after that time (including the “b minor Mass”
and the “Christmas Oratorio”) were mainly arrangements of earlier music. He focused his
efforts, instead, on the collegium musicum that Telemann had founded in Leipzig in 1702. This
mostly amateur society gave regular public concerts, and for these concerts, Bach arranged and
composed works, including several large-scale serenatas to impress the Elector of Saxony, from
whom he was granted the courtesy title of “Hofcompositeur” in 1736.

In the last years of his life, Bach focused his creativity on some of his greatest works of musical
expression. He also became a member of the Mitzler society, a learned society dedicated to the
promotion of musical science. Upon joining, members were expected to provide an example of
their learning. For this exercise, Bach contributed a set of canonic variations on the Christmas
hymn, “Von Himmel hoch” (“From Heaven Above”). The “Musical Offering,” based on
Frederick the Great’s royal theme, also dates from this time, as do the “Goldberg Variations” and
the unfinished “Die Kunst der Fuge” (“The Art of the Fugue” ).

Having worked too much in dim light, his eyesight began to fail and he continued to write with
the assistance of his pupil and son-in-law. During his final months, he composed his last chorale
fantastia (“Before Thy Throne O Lord I Stand”) and also worked on the unfinished fugue
featuring the subject theme “B-A-C-H” (B in German notation is B-flat; H in German notation is
B-natural). His health aggravated by eye surgery and a stroke, he died in 1750.

No study of Johann Sebastian Bach would be complete without one of

his many vocal works. Cantata 140, “Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme”
(“Sleepers wake”) is one of his very familiar and probably best-loved
vocal works. It is based on Nicolai’s chorale melody (“Wachet Auf”)
and depicts the analogy of Christ as bridegroom, portraying the love
between Christ and soul. This recording features the Munich Bach Choir
and the Munich Bach Orchestra, conducted by Karl Richter, and
featuring tenor soloist Peter Schreier. Listen to how Bach skillfully
“floats” the voice over the accompaniment.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__lCZeePG48

26
 George Frederic Händel
1685-1759 The “Father of the English oratorio” was born in Germany
and died in London. An international superstar during his
lifetime, Handel’s legacy is the power, drama, and
beautiful melodies found in all his works.

Handel’s father planned that George would study law, so

at first, the young Handel had to practice music on a
“clandestine” basis. Eventually, his father allowed him to
study the organ with the principal organist in Halle. In
addition to playing the organ, Handel also played the
violin and harpsichord, and had various positions as a
performer in his young adult years.

Handel’s first “big break” came when he was just 18 years old and working at the opera house in
Hamburg. He worked there playing violin and harpsichord in the house orchestra, and enjoyed
the premiere of his opera, “Almira” there in 1705 at the age of 20. His continued success with
his operas in Hamburg led to an invitation to go to Italy where he spent three years. While in
Rome, he wrote Latin church music, as well as many Italian cantatas. After leaving Italy, he
returned to Germany and served as Kapellmeister to the elector in Hanover. However, he
immediately took a leave of absence and accepted an invitation to London for a production of his
opera, “Rinaldo.” He was back in Germany only a short time when he took another leave to go
back to London for another series of opera productions between 1712 and 1715. By 1717, he
began to work for the Earl of Carnarvon (near London) and remained a resident of England for
the remainder of his life, with trips to Italy and Germany for productions and also to recruit
singers.
Although we probably know Handel best for his “Messiah,” there is another enduring work that
remains a vital part of English culture to this day. That work, “Zadok the Priest” (Coronation
Anthem No. 1) is a work he wrote for the coronation of George II in 1727. One of four works he
wrote for that occasion, this work has been sung at every succeeding British coronation service
to this day, and is usually sung during the new monarch’s anointing.
Handel used texts from the King James Bible for this work, especially deriving material from
1 Kings 1: 38-40, as found below:
Zadok, the Priest and Nathan, the Prophet anointed Solomon King.
And all the people rejoic’d and said:
‘God save The King, long live The King, may The King live for ever!
Amen, Hallelujah!’
The work is written for full chorus and orchestra and begins with an orchestral introduction with
a building sense of tension, which is then dramatically broken by the entrance of the chorus.
Notice too that in the middle, the work changes meter and is dance-like, in 3/4 time. When the
“God Save the King” text comes in, the work returns to 4/4 time, ending with an extended
“Hallelujah” passage. This popular work has also been used in a variety of other settings,
including royal weddings, films, advertising campaigns, and television programs.

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Follow this link for the performance of “Zadok the Priest.” This recording appropriately features
a performance from a 2002 Queen’s Concert in honor of her Jubilee at Buckingham Palace. The
BBC Symphony Orchestra and Symphony Chorus are conducted by Sir Andrew Davis.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p1W1XJ96y9k

Handel’s oratorios were a large part of his compositional output, and are perhaps his most
enduring legacy. The English choral singing tradition, along with support by his generous
patrons, allowed Handel to use his oratorios to educate and entertain, as opposed to the more
devoutly religious music Bach was writing in Germany. Several of Handel’s oratorios were
written using the Old Testament as inspiration, including “Solomon.” “Solomon” was written in
1748, and features a simple plot and small cast. However, Handel, being a shrewd businessman,
used the work to pay homage to his current patron, King George II, by highlighting the parallels
between George and Solomon. Handel especially featured the qualities of piety, wisdom and
splendor in Solomon, which were also qualities King George II possessed. He also used the
work to praise the virtues of happy marriage and national religion.
This recording features “the arrival of the Queen of Sheba” from Act III of the work. In this
scene, the Queen arrives and is awed by the glory and splendor of Solomon’s court. The
performance is an historic telecast from 1954, featuring the Chicago Symphony Orchestra,
directed by Fritz Reiner.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHUHFLnRNwM
No study of Handel would be complete without looking at his most enduring work, “Messiah.”
The “Hallelujah Chorus” was inspired by a libretto sent to Handel by his friend and patron
Charles Jennens. The libretto was created from a variety of texts about the life of Christ, with
the real inspiration coming for Handel from the Isaiah 40 text, “Comfort ye, comfort ye my
people.” Handel thought the music would take a year to write, but prompted by the commission
from a charitable group in Dublin, he ended up completing the work in only a month!
Thus, the oratorio was completed by the fall of 1741 and was premiered in Dublin in 1741-2 to
benefit local charities. The tradition of standing during the “Hallelujah Chorus” began during a
performance from March 1743. King George II was there and stood up as the chorus began.
Although it’s unclear if he was just stretching his legs, thinking it was the national anthem, or
possibly out of respect, since George was a very pious man. Whatever the reason, people world
wide still stand to this day as soon as the first notes are played.
The oratorio was originally written for performance during Lent or on Easter. In modern times,
however, the “Hallelujah Chorus” in particular is most popularly heard during the Christmas
season.
Handel gave charitable performances of “Messiah” during the final ten years of his life to benefit
the Foundling Hospital. He used a modest ensemble of 16 singers and 40 orchestral players.
The recording of the “Hallelujah Chorus” that follows fairly closely replicates this more modest
force of performers, and features the Orchestra of the Antipodes, conducted by Antony Walker.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2iXmIjpGsGc

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The final example from Handel’s work is another recording from “Messiah.” “He shall feed his
flock” is one of the most popular arias from the work. This historic recording from 1943 features
American contralto Marian Anderson (1897-1993), and is accompanied by still photos of the
artist. The famous conductor Arturo Toscanini described her voice as one that is “heard once in
a hundred years.” Marian broke the color barrier by becoming the first African-American to
perform with New York’s Metropolitan Opera in 1955. Prior to that, she performed in both the
US and Europe, with Europe in the early 1930s really helping advance her career, since she
didn’t face the racial prejudice she often encountered in the US during this same period.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S7C5GeqzBUA

A photograph of Marian Anderson in recital

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 Section 7: Role of Women
Women were finally coming into their own in the Baroque period: there were renowned
composers and performers that were readily recognized during their lifetimes for their
contributions to music. Most of all, they were thriving in the secular world, and no longer in a
position to have to choose a religious life in order to be well educated as well as make music.

Catherine “Kitty” Clive (1658-1713) is a wonderful

example of just such a woman. A British actress, she
became a member of the Drury Lane theater company
around 1728. She quickly made a reputation for herself
as a comedic actress and singer in various productions,
and also was a popular favorite of audiences. The Drury
Lane company used a lot of Handel’s music between
1728 and 1745 and Clive became a friend of Handel’s.
Handel, ever the shrewd businessman, used Clive in his
oratorio performances, as well. This proved to be a
mutually beneficial collaboration: it helped give Clive a
Mezzotint engraving from 1735, “high style” reputation, and Handel benefited from her
attributed to Alexander & Joseph van Aken star power which always drew a large audience.

Clive thus became known not only for her comedic work, but also her interpretation of Handel’s
works.

Women in the Baroque were also gaining recognition in their own right as composers. Among
these women are Francesca Caccini, Barbara Strozzi, Sister Isabelle Leonarda, and Elisabeth-
Claude Jacquet de la Guerre.

Francesca Caccini Italian Francesca Caccini was a well known performer and
(1587-ca. 1645) composer of the Baroque period. As the daughter with a
composer father and singer step-mother, Francesca was well
trained in a variety of musical instruments, including the
keyboard, lute, guitar and harp, and could also sing.
Francesca Caccini
Although details of her education are slim, she also must have
learned Latin and studied literature in her youth, as she wrote
both Italian and Latin poetry when she was older. It is also
believed she began to perform publicly at a young age, taking
part in the earliest known operas by Peri, as well as her father.
After receiving several offers from both French and Italian royal courts, Francesca began to work
for the Italian Medici family in 1607. For this, she received a salary as well as a dowry from her
patrons. The dowry allowed her to marry a fellow singer at the court, Giovanni Battista
Signorini. Francesca’s duties at the Medici court include composing, singing and teaching. Her
students were the Medici princesses and their ladies-in-waiting. By 1611, Francesca and her
students replaced her father’s ensemble at the court, and sang there until the late 1620s.

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The court also required music for court spectacles, including operas. As such, Francesca was
expected to write operas, and indeed is remembered as the first woman known to have written an
opera. Her only surviving opera, “La liberazione di Ruggiero dall’isola d’Alcina” was written to
celebrate one of these court spectacles: the visit of Polish Prince Wladislaw to the court in 1625.
It is a tale that modern critics have interpreted as one about gender, suggesting that women must
give up their femininity to be successful. Others view it as a tale that suggests that women can
be dominant, even if they are not overtly successful, because of the lasting appeal of their music.
Whatever the interpretation, the work associates keys with the gender of the characters: the
“good” females are associated with flat keys; the “good” males are associated with sharp keys.
An androgynous character, a female sorceress who appears in the form of a man, is in the key of
C major – a “neutral” key.

Unfortunately, this work is not frequently performed, however various ensembles regularly
perform her other works. This recording features the Concordia-Moorhead College Bel Canto
ensemble in a 2009 performance of “Aure Volante.”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zr41GwApR3k

During her time at the Medici court, Francesca gave birth to a daughter, Margherita, in 1622.
Margherita eventually became a singer as well, ultimately performing together. Following her
husband’s death in 1626, Francesca remarried, this time to an aristocrat named Tomaso Raffaelli.
Francesca remained employed as a musician, writing music for her husband and their employer’s
academy. Also during this time, Francesca gave birth to a son, Tomaso, in 1628. Her second
husband died in 1630, leaving her a wealthy widow. About the same time, plague hit the city,
and she was forced to remain there until 1633.

Once the city was no longer under quarantine, Francesca returned to the Medici Court, resuming
her former duties, along with her daughter. By 1641, Francesca again departed the Medici court.
It is unknown what she did until her death, or even exactly when she died. The only thing
known for certain is that her son became the ward of his uncle, Girolamo Raffaelli, in February
of 1645, which would seem to indicate she had recently died.

As a court composer, Francesca wrote music for performance as well as teaching. “Che t’ho
fatt’io?” (“What have I done to you?”) is from her 1618 volume entitled “Il primo libro dell
musiche.” It contains 17 secular monodies with figured bass accompaniment, and was dedicated
to her patron, the Cardinal de Medici. The first two verses of the text are translated thus:
What have I done to you
That you so desire
My death, in order that I may not have you?
Do you not known that I live only by your radiance?
Ah, cruel heart, alas, give up your desire;
What have I done to you?

What satisfaction can it give you

That I waste away
Under the clear sun of your lovely eyes?
Come, turn your merciful gaze upon my suffering,
For I die, and burn; alas, if you cause my death,
What satisfaction will it give you?

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Follow this link to the recording of “Che t’ho fatt’io?”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6u67bTc1ew0

“O che nuovo stupor” is a work for soprano and string trio also dating from around 1618. This
work shows Francesca’s sacred side, since her work for the court would have necessitated
compositions fitting to the season, and Christmas would certainly have been no exception!
This recording features the ensemble Ciclo de Música de Cámara. The original and translated
text will be found just below the link to the recording.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bKkeWWq_KBI&translated=1

O che nuovo stupor: mirate intorno O what new astonishment: see all around
A mezza notte il giorno, Day in the middle of the night,
Mirate aprirs' il cielo, See the sky opening,
Udite il suono degli angelici cori. Hear the sound of the angelic choirs.
Venite, andiam, cerchiam Gesù, pastori, Come, let's go, let's look for Jesus, shepherds.

Io vo cantar, io vo gioire anch'io, I want to sing, and I want to rejoice,

Che nato in terra è Dio, That God is born on earth,
Che nato in terra è Dio per mia salute. That God is born on earth for my salvation.
Io'l vo vedere omai, I want to see him,
Io'l vo adorar che tanto il desiai, I want to adore what I have desired so much.

Voglio a quei sacri piè nudi e tremanti I want at those sacred naked shivering feet
Piegarmi e sospir' tanti To kneel, and so many sighs
Sparger sopra di lor, ch'io gli riscaldi, To shed over him, that I will warm them,
Mille volte baciarli, A thousand times to kiss him,
Mille s'io ne son degno ribaciarli, A thousand, if I'm worthy to kiss him again.

Voglio alla madre vergine beata, To the blessed virgin mother,

Perche mi sia avvocata, Because she is my intercessor,
Offrir non oro, no, ma nudo il core, I wish to offer not gold, no, but the naked heart,
Il core umiliato. The humble heart.
Venite, andiam, cerchiam Gesù, ch'è nato. Come, let's go, let's look for Jesus, who is born.

32
 Barbara Strozzi Italian composer Barbara Strozzi was an amazing woman:
(1619-1677) talented, beautiful, smart and business-wise, she also had the
good luck to be born into a household where she could
explore her creativity and intellect, while enjoying incredible
artistic freedom.
Branded by contemporaries as a courtesan (the Italian
equivalent of something roughly like a geisha) or a prostitute,
her life and family actually reflect these values for much of
the ruling class of Italy during this period. Indeed, courtesans
were valued for their intellectual capabilities during this time.
More words……
An often-cited quotation questioning her virtue is this: “It is a fine thing to distribute the flowers
after having already surrendered the fruit.” Remember that during this time, it was still a point
of contention whether or not women had souls or even belonged to the human race, so a
powerful and successful woman was certainly of interest to both sides of the discussion. These
slurs were likely as much driven by jealousy of her ability as moral commentaries upon her
values. The “adopted” (although more likely illegitimate) daughter of the poet Giulio Strozzi,
she and her mother Isabella (a servant) lived in the same household as Giulio, and indeed, she
was named his principle heir. Giulio, the illegitimate and recognized child of Roberto Strozzi,
was known as a member of one of the most powerful families in Florence. Indeed, the Strozzi’s
were second only to the Medici’s in terms of wealth and influence.

Thus, Barbara was born into a household where she was able to routinely interact with the
greatest minds of the age. While still a teenager, she became a “regular” at the meetings of the
Incogniti, a group of intellectuals that is often credited with the invention and spread of what
became known as opera, intertwining music and theater into a new art form. The group included
the great minds of the age: authors, poet, philosophers and musicians. Monteverdi is even
believed to have possibly been a member of the group. First recognized as a fantastic singer,
Barbara quickly showed prowess in writing music, first writing works using texts by her father,
and then writing music using texts given to her by members of the Incogniti to respond to a
challenge they issued her. As such, many of her works show a flexible musical form that readily
adapts to the texts she was setting, moving between recitative and aria, especially in longer
works such as her cantatas.

She is especially credited with being a composer of cantatas. Secular cantatas of the Baroque
were very much in keeping with the literal translation of “cantata:” a piece to be sung. Strozzi,
being quite free in musical form, again, focused her music around the setting of the text. In
addition, her style clearly showed off her own vocal ability, as she wrote nearly all of her work
for lyric soprano, with spectacular and difficult-sounding melodies that actually lay naturally in
the singer’s range, thereby actually making them quite readily achievable.

In addition to a prolific career as a composer and performer, Barbara, although never married,
was the mother of four children. Three of the children are believed to have been sired by a friend
of her father’s, Giovanni Paolo Vidman, supported by the fact that he provided for the children’s
religious education. During this time, it was not really an issue that they never married. Indeed,
wealthy Venetians who did not have a “religious bent” didn’t consider marriage an indispensable
sacrament!

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Barbara last published in 1664, and pretty much disappeared from public life, with no further
recorded history until her death was registered in 1677. It is believed she died in obscurity with
little money or property, after having been one of the “superstars” of her day.

The Chicago Early Music Consort is an ensemble dedicated to the preservation and performance
of early music. In this recording, the ensemble performs three songs by Barbara Strozzi.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GfB6qz4usMk

“Amor dormiglione” is another example from Strozzi’s Opus 2. The title is translated as either
“Arise, love, sleep no more” or “Cupid the Sleepyhead.” Regardless, the text itself is quite
satirical and Strozzi’s setting plays with the words to enhance it wonderfully. This recording is
from the Ensemble “Il giardinetto del paradisio” and features soprano Stefanie Brijoux,
accompanied by Zorro Zin on theorbo. The work is subtitled “Gesang und Basso continuo”
which indicates the voice is accompanied by a basso continuo instrument, in this case, the
theorbo, which is a type of Renaissance lute.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m5MjVxAt1EM

Translation of the text for “Amor dormiglione.”

Cupid, sleep no longer!

Arise now, wake up, for while you are asleep
My pleasures sleep, too, and my troubles are awake!
Don’t be a good-for-nothing, Cupid!
Arrows, arrows, fire, fire!
Arise, sleep no longer! Wake up now, Cupid, arise!

Ah, you lazy creature, you slowpoke,

You have no common sense.
Stupid Cupid! Cowardly Cupid!
Ah, while I remain filled with ardor,
You sleep on, Cupid.
That I really don’t need!

Sister Isabella Leonarda Ursuline nun, Isabella Leonarda, was an innovator. At age 73,
(1620-1704) she published a sonata for violin and organ, placing her in the
ranks of the first Italian women to compose in the Baroque
period’s new instrumental ensemble genre. Most of her work,
though, fell into the sacred motet genres, written for anywhere
from one to three voices, and sung either a cappella or with
optional instrumental accompaniment. She did compose four
motets based on non-liturgical texts, written in her native
Italian.

Not known as a performer, Isabella enjoyed the opportunity

34
for musical creativity to benefit her convent, and didn’t need to be a good performer to do this.
In some ways, Isabella is reminiscent of the Medieval nun, Hildegard of Bingen, in that her
works express intense religious devotion, with many dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Unlike
Hildegard, though, Isabella sometimes included a secondary dedication to a living person – local
nobility!

So, when we look at Isabella’s music, we really need to recall the social situation in the Baroque:
recall that many of the noble young women chose or were pushed into the religious life.
Therefore, there were large numbers of musically well-educated girls entering convents who
ended up composing music for the liturgical purposes of their sisters. Indeed, Isabella is just
such a person. Born into a noble family in Novara, she entered the convent at age 16, as did
many of her contemporaries, including two of her birth sisters (with two birth brothers also
becoming canons in Novara), and she also followed the established tradition of nuns who
composed vocal music for their sisters’ purposes. Interestingly, her family’s prominence and
consequent support to the convent may have enhanced her place in the convent, since she rose to
various positions of authority during her life, first madre, then superiora, next madre vicaria, and
finally consigliera. While the hierarchy of these positions isn’t fully known, it is believed that
the position of “superiora” was probably equivalent to “mother superior,” the highest “rank” in
the convent.

In total, Isabella published twenty volumes of her music, nearly all of which survives to this day.
Since her order was dedicated to the education of young women, her vocal works range from
psalms to masses, and various other forms that would support the various services and functions
of the order. Her music makes use of a broad harmonic spectrum, featuring quite rich chords.
She also makes good use of the affections, with especially ecstatic “alleluia” sections in some
works! Structurally, she tends to shy away from more conventional formal structures in favor of
alternating fast and slow sections and refrains in patterns that seem to be more reflective of the
texts or affections she is using, rather than theoretical dictates.

Sebastien de Brossard (1655-1730), the author of the first music dictionary written in the French
language, had this to say about Isabella: “All the works of this illustrious and incomparable
Isabelle Leonard (sic) are so beautiful, so gracious, and at the same time so learned and wise that
my great regret is not owning all of them.”

Unfortunately, modern artists have not embraced her music in great numbers, so there are no
video clips available of her work. However, Leonarda Music, has a wonderful album of her
music available, as well as samples from the album available at their site. The specific work of
interest is her “Messa Prima, Op. 18;” her first mass. In all of her masses, she only set three
sections of the Ordinary: the Kyrie, Gloria and Credo. This was the standard Northern Italian
practice during her lifetime. This mass was first published in 1696, and was scored for four
voices, as well as instrumental accompaniment (violins, cello, lute, and organ). The work is
almost entirely in the major mode, although she does display some of the occasional use of
accidentals that was becoming more frequent throughout the Baroque. In the Gloria and Credo,
she makes use of text painting, where the music is shaped to support and enhance the message of
the text. For example, words like “et resurrexit” (and rose again) almost sound like ringing bells,
and words like “mortuous” (dead) and “peccatorum” (sins) are especially expressive. Similarly,
words like “gloria” and “credo” (I believe) are particularly brilliant, almost like a personal
declaration of faith.

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The sampler features two sections from the “Gloria,” and another from the “Credo.” Click on
each link found on the sampler to hear passages from “Messa Prima.”

http://www.leonarda.com/le346.html

Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet Her portrait in many ways tells her story without words.
de la Guerre The daughter of an instrument maker-keyboardist,
(1666-1729) Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de la Guerre was educated under
the patronage of King Louis XIV for the first 18 years of
her life, supervised by Louis’s mistress, Madame de
Montespan. By the age of 11, she was cited as a child
wonder in the French journal “Mercure Galant” as one
“who sings at sight the most difficult music (and)
composes pieces and plays them in all keys.” A year later,
the same journal referred to her as “the marvel of our
century.”

When the French court moved to Versailles in 1683,

Elisabeth chose to remain in Paris, where she married an organist, Marin de la Guerre. Her first
stage work was completed and performed in 1685, with her first ballet coming in 1691. Her only
opera was written and published in 1694. Following the death of her husband and only child (a
son) in 1704, she began to host a series of concerts at her home and also undertook public
harpsichord recitals. She retired from public performance in 1717, and died in 1729, a very
wealth woman who had achieved both critical and royal honors, including a medal of honor from
King Louis XV.

A product of the incredible musical and cultural activities of the French courts, Elisabeth’s
accomplishments were still unusual for a woman of her time, and she clearly benefited from her
environment, and thus was a very successful and renowned musician.

The first example of her work comes from her only opera, “Cephale et Procris” (Cephale and
Procris). A classic tale of a love triangle, the libretto (story) was written by Joseph-Francois
Duche de Vancy (1668-1704), a poet who was believed to have been a protégé of Louis XIV’s
wife. Remembered as a particularly poor poet, and indeed, notorious for confusing story lines,
he is often blamed for the poor response the opera received, since the story line is quite
confusing. In addition to the primary love triangle between Procris (King’s daughter) and
Cephale (military hero) and Boree (a prince and also a military rival of Cephale), there is a
secondary love story between the protagonists’ confidants, with the resulting complexity leaving
audiences quite confused.

Poor story line aside, the work really is quite creative musically, and Elisabeth’s setting, while
following established formulas to some extent, still has some delightful innovations. Perhaps the
most dramatic of these is her use of absolute silence – a big surprise – at Procris’s two most

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compelling moments in the opera: first when she describes her feelings for Cephale, and second
as she is overcome by death and dies on stage from a wound accidentally inflicted on her by
Cephale. “Dieux cruels” (Cruel Gods) is from Act 2, Scene 3, and is one of four monologue airs
in the opera. An interesting feature of the work is that she uses two different time signatures in
the course of the work, creating rhythmic variety, likely to enhance the setting of the text. This
recording features Gonzalo Cuadra as Cephale and Adriana Sansone as Aurore, from the
Ensemble Parthenia (Argentina), directed by Daniela Dolci.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rc6oKjRFE9U
Elisabeth’s instrumental works, as did most of her work, enjoyed great success, earning her
renown as a composer. The “Suite in d minor” for harpsichord dates to 1707 and is her fifth
suite. Recall that a suite is usually comprised of various dance movements, and this one is no
exception. The two movements featured in this recording are “La Flamande” and “Sarabande.”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2aKUo0ZBbbw

An Italian harpsichord, built by Giralamo Zenti, 1666

found at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, New York
See more examples of Baroque instruments at:
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cris/ho_89.4.1220.htm

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 Section 8: Additional Musical Examples
Musical examples from the Baroque period abound on the internet. This section lists just a few
of these many resources that can be accessed for further enjoyment of specific composers. As
always, youtube.com provides a wealth of opportunities to explore your favorite composer(s)
work and you are encouraged to use their search engine to further appreciate the music of this
period.

Male composers

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ay79V_tMGzI&feature=related (the “Toccata” from

Monteverdi’s opera, “Orpheus”)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MXq5H0pX6JI&feature=related (More from Monteverdi’s

“Orpheus:” The Sinfonie Ritornelli and Orfeo’s aria)

Female composers

http://www.leonarda.com/le353.html (Leonarda is dedicated to promoting women’s music, and

the samples from this recording include additional listening samples for Francesca Caccini,
Barbara Strozzi, Isabella Leonarda, and Elisabeth-Claude Jacquet de la Guerre. Even though the
samples are short, they provide a very good “taste” of these women’s musical works.)

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 Section 9: Resources for Further Study
Just as there are numerous recordings available of Baroque music, there are also numerous
opportunities for further exploration of the period. This list is meant to provide a basis for
further study. For even more indepth study, also see the bibliography for Unit 4.

On the web:

http://www.early-music.com/what-is-early-music/ (Contains a music history synopsis by

country, including information on patrons and various composers)

www.handelhouse.org (website of the Handel House Museum in London, and contains pictures
and facts)

Books:

“The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music” is a magnificent resource for virtually every topic
related to the Baroque period, including composers and genres.

Fahlbusch, Erwin, Geoffrey William Bromiley and David B. Barrett. “The Encyclopedia of
Christianity, Volume 1,” Wm B Eerdmans Publishing, 1999. (Besides providing an indepth look
at the development of Christianity, this book also provides good musical references.)

Jezic, Diane and Elizabeth Wood. “Women Composers: The Lost Tradition Found,” Feminist
Press, 1994. (A marvelous look at women composers not only of the Baroque, but succeeding
periods as well.)

Marrocco, W. Thomas and Harold Gleason. “Music in America: An Anthology from the
Landing of the Pilgrims to the Close of the Civil War. 1620-1865,” W.W. Norton & Company,
Inc., 1964. (Contains music and information about American music.)

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