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Teaching electromagnetic field theory using

differential forms
Karl F. Warnick
[email protected]

Richard H. Selfridge
[email protected]

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Original Publication Citation

Warnick, K. F., R. H. Selfridge, and D. V. Arnold. "Teaching Electromagnetic Field Theory using
Differential Forms." Education, IEEE Transactions on 4.1 (1997): 53-68

BYU ScholarsArchive Citation

Warnick, Karl F.; Selfridge, Richard H.; and Arnold, David V., "Teaching electromagnetic field theory using differential forms" (1997).
All Faculty Publications. 669.
https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/facpub/669

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Authors
Karl F. Warnick, Richard H. Selfridge, and David V. Arnold

This peer-reviewed article is available at BYU ScholarsArchive: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/facpub/669

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 40, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1997 53

Teaching Electromagnetic Field

Theory Using Differential Forms
Karl F. Warnick, Richard H. Selfridge, Member, IEEE, and David V. Arnold

Abstract— The calculus of differential forms has significant of forms to electromagnetics. Deschamps was among the
advantages over traditional methods as a tool for teaching electro- first to advocate the use of forms in teaching engineering
magnetic (EM) field theory: First, forms clarify the relationship electromagnetics.
between field intensity and flux density, by providing distinct
mathematical and graphical representations for the two types of Existing treatments of differential forms in EM theory
fields. Second, Ampere’s and Faraday’s laws obtain graphical either target an advanced audience or are not intended to
representations that are as intuitive as the representation of provide a complete exposition of the pedagogical advantages
Gauss’s law. Third, the vector Stokes theorem and the divergence of differential forms. This paper presents the topic on an
theorem become special cases of a single relationship that is easier
for the student to remember, apply, and visualize than their
undergraduate level and emphasizes the benefits of differential
vector formulations. Fourth, computational simplifications result forms in teaching introductory electromagnetics, especially
from the use of forms: derivatives are easier to employ in curvilin- graphical representations of forms and operators. The calculus
ear coordinates, integration becomes more straightforward, and of differential forms and principles of EM theory are intro-
families of vector identities are replaced by algebraic rules. In duced in parallel, much as would be done in a beginning EM
this paper, EM theory and the calculus of differential forms are
developed in parallel, from an elementary, conceptually oriented course. We present concrete visual pictures of the various field
point of view using simple examples and intuitive motivations. We quantities, Maxwell’s laws, and boundary conditions. The aim
conclude that because of the power of the calculus of differential of this paper is to demonstrate that differential forms are an
forms in conveying the fundamental concepts of EM theory, it attractive and viable alternative to vector analysis as a tool for
provides an attractive and viable alternative to the use of vector
analysis in teaching electromagnetic field theory.
teaching electromagnetic field theory.

I. INTRODUCTION A. Development of Differential Forms

ERTAIN questions are often asked by students of elec-
C tromagnetic (EM) field theory: Why does one need both
field intensity and flux density to describe a single field? How
Cartan and others developed the calculus of differential
forms in the early 1900’s. A differential form is a quantity
that can be integrated, including differentials. More precisely,
does one visualize the curl operation? Is there some way to a differential form is a fully covariant, fully antisymmetric
make Ampere’s law or Faraday’s law as physically intuitive as tensor. The calculus of differential forms is a self-contained
Gauss’s law? The Stokes theorem and the divergence theorem subset of tensor analysis.
seem vaguely similar; do they have a deeper connection? Since Cartan’s time, the use of forms has spread to many
Because of difficulty with concepts related to these questions, fields of pure and applied mathematics, from differential
some students leave introductory courses lacking a real under- topology to the theory of differential equations. Differential
standing of the physics of electromagnetics. Interestingly, none forms are used by physicists in general relativity [1], quantum
of these concepts are intrinsically more difficult than other field theory [4], thermodynamics [5], mechanics [6], as well
aspects of EM theory; rather, they are unclear because of the as electromagnetics. A section on differential forms is com-
limitations of the mathematical language traditionally used to monplace in mathematical physics texts [7], [8]. Differential
teach electromagnetics: vector analysis. In this paper, we show forms have been applied to control theory by Hermann [9]
that the calculus of differential forms clarifies these and other and others.
fundamental principles of electromagnetic field theory.
The use of the calculus of differential forms in electro-
magnetics has been explored in several important papers and B. Differential Forms in EM Theory
texts, including Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler [1], Deschamps
[2], and Burke [3]. These works note some of the advantages The laws of electromagnetic field theory as expressed by
of the use of differential forms in EM theory. Misner et al. James Clerk Maxwell in the mid 1800’s required dozens of
and Burke treat the graphical representation of forms and equations. Vector analysis offered a more convenient tool for
operations on forms, as well as other aspects of the application working with EM theory than earlier methods. Tensor analysis
is in turn more concise and general, but is too abstract to give
Manuscript received June 15, 1994; revised June 19, 1996. students a conceptual understanding of EM theory. Weyl and
The authors are with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineer-
ing, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602 USA. Poincaé expressed Maxwell’s laws using differential forms
Publisher Item Identifier S 0018-9359(97)01545-8. early this century. Applied to electromagnetics, differential
0018–9359/97$10.00 © 1997 IEEE

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54 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 40, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1997

forms combine much of the generality of tensors with the curl operation is more difficult to visualize. The gradient, curl,
simplicity and concreteness of vectors. and divergence become special cases of a single operator, the
General treatments of differential forms and EM theory exterior derivative, and the curl obtains a graphical represen-
include papers [2], [10]–[14]. Ingarden and Jamiolkowski tation that is as clear as that for the divergence. The physical
[15] is an electrodynamics text using a mix of vectors and meanings of the curl operation and the integral expressions
differential forms. Parrott [16] employs differential forms to of Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws become so intuitive that the
treat advanced electrodynamics. Thirring [17] is a classical usual order of development can be reversed by introducing
field theory text that includes certain applied topics such as Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws to students first and using these
waveguides. Bamberg and Sternberg [5] develop a range of to motivate Gauss’s laws.
topics in mathematical physics, including EM theory via a The Stokes theorem and the divergence theorem have an
discussion of discrete forms and circuit theory. Burke [3] obvious connection in that they relate integrals over a bound-
treats a range of physics topics using forms, shows how to ary to integrals over the region inside the boundary, but in the
graphically represent forms, and gives a useful discussion language of vector analysis they appear very different. These
of twisted differential forms. The general relativity text by theorems are special cases of the generalized Stokes theorem
Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler [1] has several chapters on for differential forms, which also has a simple graphical
EM theory and differential forms, emphasizing the graphical interpretation.
representation of forms. Flanders [6] treats the calculus of Since 1992, we have incorporated short segments on dif-
forms and various applications, briefly mentioning electromag- ferential forms into our beginning, intermediate, and graduate
netics. electromagnetics courses. In the Fall of 1995, we reworked
We note here that many authors, including most of those the entire beginning electromagnetics course, changing em-
referenced above, give the spacetime formulation of Maxwell’s phasis from vector analysis to differential forms. Following
laws using forms, in which time is included as a differential. the first semester in which the new curriculum was used,
We use only the representation in this paper, since the students completed a detailed written evaluation. Out of 44
spacetime representation is treated in many references and is responses, four were partially negative; the rest were in favor
not as convenient for various elementary and applied topics. of the change to differential forms. Certainly, enthusiasm of
Other formalisms for EM theory are available, including students involved in something new increased the likelihood
bivectors, quaternions, spinors, and higher Clifford algebras. of positive responses, but one fact was clear: pictures of
None of these offer the combination of concrete graphical differential forms helped students understand the principles
representations, ease of presentation, and close relationship of electromagnetics.
to traditional vector methods that the calculus of differential
forms brings to undergraduate-level electromagnetics. D. Outline
The tools of applied electromagnetics have begun to be
Section II defines differential forms and the degree of a
reformulated using differential forms. The authors have devel-
form. Graphical representations for forms of each degree are
oped a convenient representation of electromagnetic boundary
given, and the differential forms representing the various
conditions [18]. Thirring [17] treats several applications of EM
quantities of electromagnetics are identified. In Section III
theory using forms. Reference [19] treats the dyadic Green
we use these differential forms to express Maxwell’s laws in
function using differential forms. Work is also proceeding on
integral form and give graphical interpretations for each of the
the use of Green forms for anisotropic media [20].
laws. Section IV introduces differential forms in curvilinear
coordinate systems. Section V applies Maxwell’s laws to find
C. Pedagogical Advantages of Differential Forms the fields due to sources of basic geometries. In Section VI
we define the exterior derivative, give the generalized Stokes
As a language for teaching electromagnetics, differential theorem, and express Maxwell’s laws in point form. Section
forms offer several important advantages over vector analysis. VII treats boundary conditions using the interior product.
Vector analysis allows only two types of quantities: scalar Section VIII provides a summary of the main points made
fields and vector fields (ignoring inversion properties). In a in the paper.
three-dimensional space, differential forms of four different
types are available. This allows flux density and field intensity
to have distinct mathematical expressions and graphical rep- II. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
resentations, providing the student with mental pictures that In this section we define differential forms of various
clearly reveal the different properties of each type of quantity. degrees and identify them with field intensity, flux density,
The physical interpretation of a vector field is often implicitly current density, charge density, and scalar potential.
contained in the choice of operator or integral that acts on it. A differential form is a quantity that can be integrated,
With differential forms, these properties are directly evident including differentials. is a differential form, as are
in the type of form used to represent the quantity. and . The type of
The basic derivative operators of vector analysis are the integral called for by a differential form determines its degree.
gradient, curl, and divergence. The gradient and divergence The form is integrated under a single integral over a
lend themselves readily to geometric interpretation, but the path and so is a -form. The form is integrated by a

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WARNICK et al.: TEACHING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY USING DIFFERENTIAL FORMS 55

TABLE I
DIFFERENTIAL FORMS OF EACH DEGREE

TABLE II
THE DIFFERENTIAL FORMS THAT REPRESENT FIELDS AND SOURCES

double integral over a surface, so its degree is two. A -form

is integrated by a triple integral over a volume. -forms are (.a) (b)
functions, ‘‘integrated’’ by evaluation at a point. Table I gives
examples of forms of various degrees. The coefficients of the
forms can be functions of position, time, and other variables.

A. Representing the Electromagnetic Field

with Differential Forms
From Maxwell’s laws in integral form, we can readily
determine the degrees of the differential forms that will
represent the various field quantities. In vector notation,

(c)
Fig. 1. (a) The 1-form dx, with surfaces perpendicular to the x-axis and
infinite in the y and z directions. (b) The 1-form 2 dz , with surfaces
perpendicular to the z -axis and spaced two per unit distance in the z direction.
(c) A general 1-form, with curved surfaces and surfaces that end or meet each
other.

field. This leads naturally to the equipotential representation

of the field, or the “energy picture.” The energy picture shifts
where is a surface bounded by a path is a volume emphasis from the local concept of force experienced by a
bounded by a surface is volume charge density, and test charge to the global behavior of the field as manifested
the other quantities are defined as usual. The electric field by change in energy of a test charge as it moves along a
intensity is integrated over a path, so that it becomes a - path.
form. The magnetic field intensity is also integrated over a Differential forms lead to the “energy picture” of field
path, and becomes a -form as well. The electric and magnetic intensity. A -form is represented graphically as surfaces
flux densities are integrated over surfaces, and so are -forms. in space [1], [3]. For a conservative field, the surfaces of
The sources are electric current density, which is a -form, the associated -form are equipotentials. The differential
since it falls under a surface integral, and the volume charge produces surfaces perpendicular to the -axis, as shown in
density, which is a -form, as it is integrated over a volume. Fig. 1(a). Likewise, has surfaces perpendicular to the -
Table II summarizes these forms. axis and the surfaces of are perpendicular to the -axis.
A linear combination of these differentials has surfaces that
B. -Forms: Field Intensity are skew to the coordinate axes. The coefficients of a -
The usual physical motivation for electric field intensity form determine the spacing of the surfaces per unit length;
is the force experienced by a small test charge placed in the greater the magnitude of the coefficients, the more closely
the field. This leads naturally to the vector representation of spaced are the surfaces. The -form , shown in Fig. 1(b),
the electric field, which might be called the “force picture.” has surfaces spaced twice as closely as those of in Fig. 1(a).
Another physical viewpoint for the electric field is the change In general, the surfaces of a -form can curve, end, or
in potential experienced by a charge as it moves through the meet each other, depending on the behavior of the coefficients

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56 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 40, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1997

Fig. 2. A path piercing four surfaces of a 1-form. The integral of the 1-form
over the path is four.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. (a) The 2-form dx dy , with tubes in the z direction. (b) Four tubes
of the form. If surfaces of a -form do not meet or end, of a 2-form pass through a surface, so that the integral of the 2-form over
the field represented by the form is conservative. The field the surface is four.
corresponding to the -form in Fig. 1(a) is conservative; the
field in Fig. 1(c) is nonconservative. position and so cannot be assigned units of length. The
Just as a line representing the magnitude of a vector has two possibility of confusion when using curvilinear coordinates
possible orientations, the surfaces of a -form are oriented seems to outweigh these considerations, and so we have chosen
as well. This is done by specifying one of the two normal Deschamps’ convention.
directions to the surfaces of the form. The surfaces of With this convention, the electric field intensity -form can
are oriented in the direction, and those of in the be taken to have units of energy per charge, or joules per
direction. The orientation of a form is usually clear from coulomb. This supports the “energy picture,” in which the
context and is omitted from figures. electric field represents the change in energy experienced by a
Differential forms are by definition the quantities that can charge as it moves through the field. One might argue that
be integrated, so it is natural that the surfaces of a -form are this motivation of field intensity is less intuitive than the
a graphical representation of path integration. The integral of concept of force experienced by a test charge at a point. While
a -form along a path is the number of surfaces pierced by this may be true, the graphical representations of Ampere’s
the path (Fig. 2), taking into account the relative orientations and Faraday’s laws that will be outlined in Section III favor
of the surfaces and the path. This simple picture of path the differential form point of view. Furthermore, the simple
integration will provide in the next section a means for correspondence between vectors and forms allows both to be
visualizing Ampere’s and Faraday’s laws. introduced with little additional effort, providing students a
The -form is said to be dual to the more solid understanding of field intensity than they could
vector field . The field intensity -forms obtain from one representation alone.
and are dual to the vectors and .
Following Deschamps, we take the units of the electric and C. -Forms: Flux Density and Current Density
magnetic field intensity -forms to be volts and amperes, as Flux density or flow of current can be thought of as tubes
shown in Table II. The differentials are considered to have that connect sources of flux or current. This is the natural
units of length. Other field and source quantities are assigned graphical representation of a -form, which is drawn as sets
units according to this same convention. A disadvantage of of surfaces that intersect to form tubes. The differential
Deschamps’ system is that it implies in a sense that the is represented by the surfaces of and superimposed.
metric of space carries units. Alternative conventions are The surfaces of perpendicular to the -axis and those of
available; Bamberg and Sternberg [5] and others take the perpendicular to the -axis intersect to produce tubes in the
units of the electric and magnetic field intensity -forms to direction, as illustrated by Fig. 3(a). (To be precise, the tubes
be volts per meter and amperes per meter, the same as their of a -form have no definite shape: tubes of have the
vector counterparts, so that the differentials carry no units same density those of .) The coefficients of a -
and the integration process itself is considered to provide form give the spacing of the tubes. The greater the coefficients,
a factor of length. If this convention is chosen, the basis the more dense the tubes. An arbitrary -form has tubes that
differentials of curvilinear coordinate systems (see Section IV) may curve or converge at a point.
must also be taken to carry no units. This leads to confusion The direction of flow or flux along the tubes of a -form is
for students, since these basis differentials can include factors given by the right-hand rule applied to the orientations of the
of distance. The advantages of this alternative convention are surfaces making up the walls of a tube. The orientation of
that it is more consistent with the mathematical point of view, is in the direction, and in the direction, so the flux
in which basis vectors and forms are abstract objects not due to is in the direction.
associated with a particular system of units, and that a field As with -forms, the graphical representation of a -form is
quantity has the same units whether represented by a vector fundamentally related to the integration process. The integral
or a differential form. Furthermore, a general differential form of a -form over a surface is the number of tubes passing
may include differentials of functions that do not represent through the surface, where each tube is weighted positively if

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WARNICK et al.: TEACHING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY USING DIFFERENTIAL FORMS 57

they can associate with the various fields and sources. As

vectors, field intensity and flux density are mathematically
and graphically indistinguishable as far as the type of physical
quantity they represent. As differential forms, the two types of
quantities have graphical representations that clearly express
the physical meaning of the field. The surfaces of a field
intensity -form assign potential change to a path. The tubes
of a flux density -form give the total flux or flow through a
surface. Charge density is also distinguished from other types
of scalar quantities by its representation as a -form.

III. MAXWELL’S LAWS IN INTEGRAL FORM

In this section, we discuss Maxwell’s laws in integral
Fig. 4. The 3-form dx dy dz , with cubes of side equal to one. The cubes
fill all space.
form in light of the graphical representations given in the
previous section. Using the differential forms defined in Table
II, Maxwell’s laws can be written
its orientation is in the direction of the surface’s oriention, and
negatively if opposite. This is illustrated in Fig. 3(b).
As with -forms, -forms correspond to vector fields in
a simple way. An arbitrary -form
is dual to the vector field , so that
the flux density -forms and are dual to the usual flux
density vectors and .

D. -Forms: Charge Density (2)

Some scalar physical quantities are densities, and can be The first pair of laws is often more difficult for students to
integrated over a volume. For other scalar quantities, such grasp than the second, because the vector picture of curl is
as electric potential, a volume integral makes no sense. The not as intuitive as that for divergence. With differential forms,
calculus of forms distinguishes between these two types of Ampere’s and Faraday’s laws are graphically very similar to
quantities by representing densities as -forms. Volume charge Gauss’s laws for the electric and magnetic fields. The close
density, for example, becomes relationship between the two sets of laws becomes clearer.
(1)
A. Ampere’s and Faraday’s Laws
where is the usual scalar charge density in the notation of [2].
A -form is represented by three sets of surfaces in space Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws equate the number of surfaces
that intersect to form boxes. The density of the boxes is of a -form pierced by a closed path to the number of tubes
proportional to the coefficient of the -form; the greater the of a -form passing through the path. Each tube of , for
coefficient, the smaller and more closely spaced are the boxes. example, must have a surface of extending away from it, so
A point charge is represented by an infinitesimal box at the that any path around the tube pierces the surface of . Thus
location of the charge. The -form is the union of Ampere’s law states that tubes of displacement current and
three families of planes perpendicular to each of the electric current are sources for surfaces of . This is illustrated
and axes. The planes along each of the axes are spaced in Fig. 5(a). Likewise, tubes of time-varying magnetic flux
one unit apart, forming cubes of unit side distributed evenly density are sources for surfaces of .
throughout space, as in Fig. 4. The orientation of a -form The illustration of Ampere’s law in Fig. 5(a) is arguably
is given by specifying the sign of its boxes. As with other the most important pedagogical advantage of the calculus of
differential forms, the orientation is usually clear from context differential forms over vector analysis. Ampere’s and Fara-
and is omitted from figures. day’s laws are usually considered the more difficult pair of
Maxwell’s laws, because vector analysis provides no simple
E. -Forms: Scalar Potential picture that makes the physical meaning of these laws intuitive.
Compare Fig. 5(a) to the vector representation of the same
-forms are functions. The scalar potential , for example, field in Fig. 5(b). The vector field appears to “curl” everywhere
is a -form. Any scalar physical quantity that is not a volume in space. Students must be convinced that indeed the field
density is represented by a -form. has no curl except at the location of the current, using some
pedagogical device such as an imaginary paddle wheel in a
F. Summary rotating fluid. The surfaces of , on the other hand, end
The use of differential forms helps students to understand only along the tubes of current; where they do not end, the
electromagnetics by giving them distinct mental pictures that field has no curl. This is the fundamental concept underlying

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58 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 40, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1997

(a) (b)
Fig. 5. (a) A graphical representation of Ampere’s law: tubes of current
produce surfaces of magnetic field intensity. Any loop around the three tubes
of J must pierce three surfaces of H . (b) A cross section of the same magnetic
field using vectors. The vector field appears to “curl” everywhere, even though Fig. 7. The star operator relates 1-form surfaces to perpendicular 2-form
the field has nonzero curl only at the location of the current. tubes.

involve scalar multiplication. With differential forms, we can-

not use these same relationships, because and are
-forms, while and are -forms. An operator that relates
forms of different degrees must be introduced.
The Hodge star operator [5], [17] naturally fills this role. As
vector spaces, the spaces of -forms and -forms are both one-
dimensional, and the spaces of -forms and -forms are both
three-dimensional. The star operator is a set of isomorphisms
between these pairs of vector spaces.
For -forms and -forms, the star operator satisfies

Fig. 6. A graphical representation of Gauss’s law for the electric flux density:
boxes of  produce tubes of D . -forms and -forms are related by

Ampere’s and Faraday’s laws: tubes of time-varying flux or

current produce field intensity surfaces. In , the star operator is its own inverse, so that .
A -form is dual to the same vector as the -form .
B. Gauss’s Laws Graphically, the star operator replaces the surfaces of a form
Gauss’s law for the electric field states that the number of with orthogonal surfaces, as in Fig. 7. The -form , for
tubes of flowing out through a closed surface must be equal example, has planes perpendicular to the -axis. It becomes
to the number of boxes of inside the surface. The boxes of under the star operation. This -form has planes
are sources for the tubes of , as shown in Fig. 6. Gauss’s perpendicular to the and the axes.
law for the magnetic flux density states that tubes of the - Using the star operator, the constitutive relations are
form can never end—they must either form closed loops
(3)
or go off to infinity.
Comparing Figs. 5(a) and 6 shows the close relationship (4)
between the two sets of Maxwell’s laws. In the same way
where and are the permittivity and permeability of the
that flux density tubes are produced by boxes of electric
medium. The surfaces of are perpendicular to the tubes of
charge, field intensity surfaces are produced by tubes of the
, and the surfaces of are perpendicular to the tubes of .
sources on the right-hand sides of Faraday’s and Ampere’s
The following example illustrates the use of these relations.
laws. Conceptually, the laws only differ in the degrees of the
Example 1 (Finding Due to an Electric Field Inten-
forms involved and the dimensions of their pictures.
sity): Let volts be the electric field
in free space. We wish to find the flux density due to this
C. Constitutive Relations and the Star Operator
field. Using the constitutive relationship between and
The usual vector expressions of the constitutive relations
for an isotropic medium,

(C)

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WARNICK et al.: TEACHING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY USING DIFFERENTIAL FORMS 59

While we restrict our attention to isotropic media in this

paper, the star operator applies equally well to anisotropic
media. As discussed in [5] and elsewhere, the star operator
depends on a metric. If the metric is related to the permittivity
or the permeability tensor, anisotropic star operators are ob-
tained, and the constitutive relations become and
[20]. Graphically, an anisotropic star operator acts
on -form surfaces to produce -form tubes that intersect the
surfaces obliquely rather than orthogonally.

D. The Exterior Product and the Poynting -form

Between the differentials of -forms and -forms is an
implied exterior product, denoted by a wedge . The wedge
is nearly always omitted from the differentials of a form, Fig. 8. The Poynting power flow 2-form S = E ^ H. Surfaces of the
especially when the form appears under an integral sign. 1-forms E and H are the sides of the tubes of S.
The exterior product of -forms is anticommutative, so that
. As a consequence, the exterior product
Consider the exterior product of the 1-forms and
is in general supercommutative, so that

(5)

where and are the degrees of and , respectively. One

usually converts the differentials of a form to right-cyclic order
using (5).
As a consequence of (5), any differential form with a re-
peated differential vanishes. In a three-dimensional space each
term of a -form will always contain a repeated differential if This is the Poynting -form . For complex fields,
, so there are no nonzero -forms for . . For time-varying fields, the tubes of this -form
The exterior product of two -forms is analogous to the represent flow of electromagnetic power, as shown in Fig. 8.
vector cross product. With vector analysis, it is not obvious The sides of the tubes are the surfaces of and . This gives a
that the cross product of vectors is a different type of quantity clear geometrical interpretation to the fact that the direction of
than the factors. Under coordinate inversion, changes power flow is orthogonal to the orientations of both and .
sign relative to a vector with the same components, so that Example 2 (The Poynting -Form Due to a Plane Wave):
is a pseudovector. With forms, the distinction between Consider a plane wave propagating in free space in the
and or individually is clear. direction, with the time-harmonic electric field
The exterior product of a -form and a -form corresponds volts in the direction. The Poynting -form is
to the dot product. The coefficient of the resulting -form is
equal to the dot product of the vector fields dual to the -form
and -form in the Euclidean metric.
Combinations of cross and dot products are somewhat
difficult to manipulate algebraically, often requiring the use (W)
of tabulated identities. Using the supercommutativity of the
exterior product, the student can easily manipulate arbitrary where is the wave impedance of free space.
products of forms. For example, the identities
E. Energy Density
The exterior products and are -forms that
represent the density of electromagnetic energy. The energy
density -form is defined to be
are special cases of
(6)

The volume integral of gives the total energy stored in a

region of space by the fields present in the region.
where and are forms of arbitrary degrees. The factors Fig. 9 shows the energy density -form between the plates
can be interchanged easily using (5). of a capacitor, where the upper and lower plates are equally

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60 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 40, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1997

(a) (b)

Fig. 9. The 3-form 2w due to fields inside a parallel-plate capacitor with

oppositely charged plates. The surfaces of E are parallel to the top and bottom
plates. The tubes of D extend vertically from charges on one plate to opposite
charges on the other. The tubes and surfaces intersect to form cubes of 2! ,
one of which is outlined in the figure.

and oppositely charged. The boxes of are the intersection

of the surfaces of , which are parallel to the plates, with the
tubes of , which extend vertically from one plate to the other.
(c)
IV. CURVILINEAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS Fig. 10. Surfaces of (a) d, (b) d scaled by 3=, and (c) dz .
In this section, we give the basis differentials, the star op-
erator, and the correspondence between vectors and forms for B. Spherical Coordinates
cylindrical, spherical, and generalized orthogonal coordinates. The basis differentials of the spherical coordinate system
are and , each having units of length. The
A. Cylindrical Coordinates -form
The differentials of the cylindrical coordinate system are
, , and . Each of the basis differentials is considered (10)
to have units of length. The general -form
(7) and the -form

is dual to the vector (11)

(8)
are both dual to the vector
The general -form
(12)
(9)

is dual to the same vector. The -form , for example, so that , for example, is dual to the vector .
is dual to the vector . As in the cylindrical coordinate system, differentials must be
Differentials must be converted to basis elements before converted to basis elements before the star operator is applied.
the star operator is applied. The star operator in cylindrical The star operator acts on -forms and -forms as follows:
coordinates acts as follows:

Also, . As with the rectangular coordinate Again, . The star operator applied to one is
system, . The star operator applied to , for
example, yields .
Fig. 10 shows the pictures of the differentials of the cylin-
drical coordinate system. The -forms can be obtained by Fig. 11 shows the pictures of the differentials of the spherical
superimposing these surfaces. Tubes of , for example, coordinate system; pictures of -forms can be obtained by
are square rings formed by the union of Figs. 10(a) and 10(c). superimposing these surfaces.

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WARNICK et al.: TEACHING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY USING DIFFERENTIAL FORMS 61

(a) (b)
Fig. 12. Electric flux density due to a point charge. Tubes of D extend
away from the charge.

To apply Gauss’s law

we choose to be a sphere enclosing the charge. The right-

hand side of Gauss’s law is equal to , and the left-hand side
is
(c)
Fig. 11. Surfaces of (a) dr , (b) d scaled by 10= , and (c) d scaled by
3= .

C. Generalized Orthogonal Coordinates Solving for and substituting into (15)

Let the location of a point be given by such that the (C) (16)
tangents to each of the coordinates are mutually orthogonal.
Define a function such that the integral of along any for the electric flux density due to the point charge. This can
path with and constant gives the length of the path. Define also be written
and similarly. Then the basis differentials are
(C) (17)
(13)
Since is the total amount of solid angle for a sphere
The -form and the
-form and is the differential element of solid angle, this
are both expression matches Fig. 12 in showing that the amount of flux
dual to the vector . The star operator on -forms per solid angle is constant.
and -forms satisfies
B. Line Charge
For a line charge with charge density coulombs per meter,
(14) by symmetry tubes of flux extend out radially from the line,
as shown in Fig. 13. The tubes are bounded by the surfaces
For -forms and -forms, . of and , so that has the form
(18)
V. ELECTROSTATICS AND MAGNETOSTATICS
In this section we treat several of the usual elementary Let be a cylinder of height with the line charge along its
applications of Maxwell’s laws in integral form. We find the axis. The right-hand side of Gauss’s law is
electric flux due to a point charge and a line charge using
Gauss’s law for the electric field. Ampere’s law is used to
find the magnetic fields produced by a line current.

A. Point Charge The left-hand side is

By symmetry, the tubes of flux from a point charge must
extend out radially from the charge (Fig. 12), so that
(15)

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62 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 40, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1997

VI. THE EXTERIOR DERIVATIVE AND MAXWELL’S LAWS

IN POINT FORM

In this section we introduce the exterior derivative and

the generalized Stokes theorem and use these to express
Maxwell’s laws in point form. The exterior derivative is a
single operator which has the gradient, curl, and divergence as
special cases, depending on the degree of the differential form
on which the exterior derivative acts. The exterior derivative
has the symbol , and can be written formally as

(22)
Fig. 13. Electric flux density due to a line charge. Tubes of D extend radially
away from the vertical line of charge. The exterior derivative can be thought of as implicit differen-
tiation with new differentials introduced from the left.

A. Exterior Derivative of -Forms

Consider the -form . If we implicitly differentiate
with respect to each of the coordinates, we obtain

(23)

which is a -form, the exterior derivative of . Note that the

differentials and are the exterior derivatives of
the coordinate functions and . The -form is dual
to the gradient of .
Fig. 14. Magnetic field intensity H due to a line current. If represents a scalar electric potential, the negative of its
exterior derivative is electric field intensity
Solving for and substituting into (18), we obtain

(C) (19) As noted earlier, the surfaces of the 1-form are equipo-
tentials, or level sets of the function , so that the exterior
for the electric flux density due to the line charge. derivative of a 0-form has a simple graphical interpretation.

C. Line Current B. Exterior Derivative of -Forms

If a current amperes flows along the -axis, sheets of the The exterior derivative of a -form is analogous to the vector
-form will extend out radially from the current, as shown curl operation. If is an arbitrary -form
in Fig. 14. These are the surfaces of , so that by symmetry , then the exterior derivative of is

(20)

where is a constant we need to find using Ampere’s law.

We choose the path in Ampere’s law
Using the antisymmetry of the exterior product, this becomes

to be a loop around the -axis. Assuming that , the

right-hand side of Ampere’s law is equal to . The left-hand
side is the integral of over the loop
(24)

which is a -form dual to the curl of the vector field

.
The magnetic field intensity is then Any -form for which is called closed and
represents a conservative field. Surfaces representing different
(A) (21) potential values can never meet. If , the field is non-
conservative, and surfaces meet or end wherever the exterior
for the line current source. derivative is nonzero.

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WARNICK et al.: TEACHING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY USING DIFFERENTIAL FORMS 63

C. Exterior Derivative of -Forms

The exterior derivative of a -form is computed by the same
rule as for -forms and -forms: take partial derivatives by
each coordinate variable and add the corresponding differential
on the left. For an arbitrary -form

(a) (b)
Fig. 15. The Stokes theorem for ! a 1-form. (a) The loop bd M pierces
three of the surfaces of ! . (b) Three tubes of d! pass through any surface
where six of the terms vanish due to repeated differentials. M bounded by the loop bd M .
The coefficient of the resulting -form is the divergence of the
vector field dual to .

D. Properties of the Exterior Derivative

Because the exterior derivative unifies the gradient, curl, and
divergence operators, many common vector identities become
special cases of simple properties of the exterior derivative.
The equality of mixed partial derivatives leads to the identity
(25)

so that the exterior derivative applied twice yields zero.

(a) (b)
This relationship is equivalent to the vector relationships
and . The exterior derivative Fig. 16. Stokes theorem for ! a 2-form. (a) Four tubes of the 2-form !
pass through a surface. (b) The same number of boxes of the 3-form d! lie
also obeys the product rule inside the surface.

(26)
E. The Generalized Stokes Theorem
where is the degree of . A special case of (26) is
The exterior derivative satisfies the generalized Stokes the-
orem, which states that for any -form
These and other vector identities are often placed in reference
tables; by contrast, (25) and (26) are easily remembered. (30)
The exterior derivative in cylindrical coordinates is

(27) where is a -dimensional region of space and

is its boundary. If is a -form, then the Stokes theorem
which is the same as for rectangular coordinates but with the becomes
coordinates in the place of . Note that the exterior
derivative does not require the factor of that is involved in
converting forms to vectors and applying the star operator. In
spherical coordinates

(28) This is the fundamental theorem of calculus.

If is a -form, then is a closed loop and is a
where the factors and are not found in the exterior surface that has the path as its boundary. This case is analogous
derivative operator. The exterior derivative is to the vector Stokes theorem. Graphically, the number of
surfaces of pierced by the loop equals the number of tubes
(29) of the -form that pass through the loop (Fig. 15).
If is a -form, then is a closed surface and
in general orthogonal coordinates. The exterior derivative is is the volume inside it. The Stokes theorem requires that the
much easier to apply in curvilinear coordinates than the vector number of tubes of that cross the surface equal the number
derivatives; there is no need for reference tables of derivative of boxes of inside the surface, as shown in Fig. 16. This
formulas in various coordinate systems. is equivalent to the vector divergence theorem.

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64 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 40, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1997

Compared to the usual formulations of these theorems, This is Gauss’s law for the electric field in point form.
Graphically, this law shows that tubes of electric flux density
can end only on electric charges. Similarly, Gauss’s law for
the magnetic field is
(40)
This law requires that tubes of magnetic flux density never
end; they must form closed loops or extend to infinity.
the generalized Stokes theorem is simpler in form and hence
easier to remember. It also makes clear that the vector Stokes H. Poynting’s Theorem
theorem and the divergence theorem are higher dimensional Using Maxwell’s laws, we can derive a conservation law
statements of the fundamental theorem of calculus. for electromagnetic energy. The exterior derivative of is

F. Faraday’s and Ampere’s Laws in Point Form

Faraday’s law in integral form is
Using Ampere’s and Faraday’s laws, this can be written
(31) (41)
Using the Stokes theorem, taking to be the surface , we Finally, using the definition (6) of , this becomes
can relate the path integral of to the surface integral of the
exterior derivative of (42)

(32) At a point where no sources exist, a change in stored elec-

tromagnetic energy must be accompanied by tubes of that
By Faraday’s law represent flow of energy toward or away from the point.

(33) I. Integrating Forms by Pullback

We have seen in previous sections that differential forms
For sufficiently regular forms and , we have that give integration a clear graphical interpretation. The use of
differential forms also results in several simplifications of the
(34)
integration process itself. Integrals of vector fields require a
since (33) is valid for all surfaces . This is Faraday’s law in metric; integrals of differential forms do not. The method of
point form. This law states that new surfaces of are produced pullback replaces the computation of differential length and
by tubes of time-varying magnetic flux. surface elements that is required before a vector field can be
Using the same argument, Ampere’s law becomes integrated.
Consider the path integral
(35)
(43)
Ampere’s law shows that new surfaces of are produced by
tubes of time-varying electric flux or electric current. The dot product of with produces a -form with a
single differential in the parameter of the path , allowing
G. Gauss’s Laws in Point Form the integral to be evaluated. The integral of the -form
dual to over the same path is computed by the method
Gauss’s law for the electric flux density is of pullback, as change of variables for differential forms is
commonly termed. Let the path be parameterized by
(36)

The Stokes theorem with as the volume and as

for . The pullback of to the path is denoted
the surface shows that
, and is defined to be
(37)

Using Gauss’s law in integral form (36)

(38)

We can then write

(39)

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WARNICK et al.: TEACHING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY USING DIFFERENTIAL FORMS 65

Using the pullback of , we convert the integral over to an K. Summary

integral in over the interval Throughout this section, we have noted various aspects of
the calculus of differential forms that simplify manipulations
(44) and provide insight into the principles of electromagnetics. The
exterior derivative behaves differently depending on the degree
of the form it operates on, so that physical properties of a field
Components of the Jacobian matrix of the coordinate transform are encoded in the type of form used to represent it, rather
from the original coordinate system to the parameterization than in the type of operator used to take its derivative. The
of the region of integration enter naturally when the exterior generalized Stokes theorem gives the vector Stokes theorem
derivatives are performed. Pullback works similarly for - and the divergence theorem intuitive graphical interpretations
forms and -forms, allowing evaluation of surface and volume that illuminate the relationship between the two theorems.
integrals by the same method. The following example illus- While of lesser pedagogical importance, the algebraic and
trates the use of pullback. computational advantages of forms cited in this section also
Example 3 (Work Required to Move a Charge through aid students by reducing the need for reference tables or
an Electric Field): Let the electric field intensity be given memorization of identities.
by . A charge of is
transported over the path given by
from to . The work required is given by VII. THE INTERIOR PRODUCT AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Boundary conditions can be expressed using a combination
(45) of the exterior and interior products. The same operator is
used to express boundary conditions for field intensities and
flux densities, and in both cases the boundary conditions have
which by (44) is equal to
simple graphical interpretations.

A. The Interior Product

The interior product has the symbol . Graphically, the
where is the pullback of the field -form to the path interior product removes the surfaces of the first form from
those of the second. The interior product , since
there are no surfaces to remove. The interior product of
with itself is one. The interior product of and is
. To compute the interior product ,
Integrating this new -form in over , we obtain the differential must be moved to the left of before
it can be removed, so that

as the total work required to move the charge along .

The interior product of arbitrary 1-forms can be found by
linearity from the relationships
J. Existence of Graphical Representations
With the exterior derivative, a condition can be given for the
existence of the graphical representations of Section II. These
(46)
representations do not correspond to the usual “tangent space”
picture of a vector field, but rather are analogous to the integral
curves of a vector field. Obtaining the graphical representation
of a differential form as a family of surfaces is the general The interior product of a 1-form and a 2-form can be found
nontrivial, and is essentially equivalent to Pfaff’s problem. By using
the solution of Pfaff’s problem, each differential form may be
represented graphically in two dimensions as families of lines.
In three dimensions, a -form can be represented as surfaces
if the rotation is zero. If , then there exist
local coordinates for which has the form , so that
it is the sum of two -forms, both of which can be graphically (47)
represented as surfaces. An arbitrary, smooth -form in
can be written locally in the form , so that the -form The following examples illustrate the use of the interior
consists of tubes of scaled by . product.

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66 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 40, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1997

Example 4 (The Interior Product of Two 1-Forms): The

interior product of and is

which is the dot product of the vectors dual to the (a) (b)
-forms and .
Example 5 (The Interior Product of a -Form and a
-Form): The interior product of and
is

(c)
Fig. 17. (a) The 1-form 1 H 0H2 . (b) The 2-form n^ H 0H
( 1 2 ). (c) The
J
1-form s , represented by lines on the boundary. Current flows along the lines.

which is the -form dual to , where and are dual for , the four electromagnetic boundary conditions can
to and . be written [18]
The interior product can be related to the exterior product
using the star operator. The interior product of arbitrary forms
and is
(48)
which can be used to compute the interior product in curvi-
where is the surface current density -form and is the
linear coordinate systems. (This formula shows the metric
surface charge density -form. The operator projects
dependence of the interior product as we have defined it; the
an arbitrary form to its component that has nonzero integral
interior product is usually defined to be the contraction of a
along the boundary.
vector with a form, which is independent of any metric.) The
interior and exterior products satisfy the identity
C. Surface Current
(49) The action of the operator can be interpreted graphi-
where is an arbitrary form. cally, leading to a simple picture of the field intensity boundary
The Lorentz force law can be expressed using the interior conditions. Consider the field discontinuity shown
product. The force -form is in Fig. 17(a). The exterior product of and is
a -form with tubes that run parallel to the boundary, as
(50) shown in Fig. 17(b). The component of with surfaces
parallel to the boundary is removed. The interior product
where is the velocity of a charge , and the interior product
removes the surfaces parallel to the
can be computed by finding the -form dual to and using boundary, leaving only surfaces perpendicular to the boundary,
the rules given above. is dual to the usual force vector . as in Fig. 17(c). Current flows along the lines where the
The force -form has units of energy, and does not have as
surfaces intersect the boundary. The direction of flow along
clear a physical interpretation as the usual force vector. In this the lines of the -form can be found using the right-hand rule
case we prefer to work with the vector dual to , rather than on the direction of in region above the boundary.
itself. Force, like displacement and velocity, is naturally a The field intensity boundary conditions state that surfaces
vector quantity.
of the -form end along lines of the surface current
density -form . Surfaces of cannot intersect a
B. Boundary Conditions boundary at all.
A boundary can be specified as the set of points satisfying Unlike other electromagnetic quantities, is not dual to
for some suitable function . The surface nor- the vector . The direction of is parallel to the lines
mal -form is defined to be the normalized exterior derivative of in the boundary, as shown in Fig. 17(c). ( is a
of twisted differential form, so that under coordinate inversion
it transforms with a minus sign relative to a nontwisted
(51) -form. This property is discussed in detail in [3], [18],
[21]. Operationally, the distinction can be ignored as long
The surfaces of are parallel to the boundary. Using a as one remains in right-handed coordinates.) is natural
subscript to denote the region where , and a subscript both mathematically and geometrically as a representation of

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WARNICK et al.: TEACHING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY USING DIFFERENTIAL FORMS 67

surface current density. The expression for current through a

path using the vector surface current density is

(52)

where is a surface normal. This simplifies to

(a) (b)
(53)

using the -form . Note that changes sign depending

on the labeling of regions one and two; this ambiguity is
equivalent to the existence of two choices for in (52).
The following example illustrates the boundary condition
on the magnetic field intensity.
Example 6 (Surface Current on a Sinusoidal Surface): A (c)
sinusoidal boundary given by has magnetic Fig. 18. (a) The 2-form 1 D 0D
2 . (b) The 3-form n^ D 0D
( 1 2 ), with
field intensity A above and zero below. The 
sides perpendicular to the boundary. (c) The 2-form s , represented by boxes
on the boundary.
surface normal -form is

yields the total charge on the surface. Note that changes

sign depending on the labeling of regions one and two. This
By the boundary conditions given above
ambiguity is equivalent to the existence of two choices for
the area element and orientation of the area in the
integral , where is the usual scalar surface charge
density. Often, the sign of the value of the integral is known
beforehand, and this subtlety goes unnoticed.

(A)
VIII. CONCLUSION
The usual surface current density vector is
, which clearly is not dual to . The primary pedagogical advantages of differential forms
The direction of the vector is parallel to the lines of are the distinct representations of field intensity and flux den-
on the boundary. sity, intuitive graphical representations of each of Maxwell’s
laws, and a simple picture of electromagnetic boundary con-
D. Surface Charge ditions. Differential forms provide visual models that can
help students remember and apply the principles of electro-
The flux density boundary conditions can also be interpreted
magnetics. Computational simplifications also result from the
graphically. Fig. 18(a) shows the -form . The exterior
use of forms: derivatives are easier to employ in curvilinear
product yields boxes that have sides parallel
coordinates, integration becomes more straightforward, and
to the boundary, as shown in Fig. 18(b). The component of
families of related vector identities are replaced by algebraic
with tubes parallel to the boundary is removed by
rules. These advantages over traditional methods make the
the exterior product. The interior product with removes the
calculus of differential forms ideal as a language for teaching
surfaces parallel to the boundary, leaving tubes perpendicular
electromagnetic field theory.
to the boundary. These tubes intersect the boundary to form
The reader will note that we have omitted important aspects
boxes of charge (Fig. 18(c)). This is the -form
of forms. In particular, we have not discussed forms as linear
.
operators on vectors, or covectors, focusing instead on the
The flux density boundary conditions have as clear a graph-
integral point of view. Other aspects of electromagnetics,
ical interpretation as those for field intensity: tubes of the
including vector potentials, Green functions, and wave propa-
difference in electric flux densities on either side
gation also benefit from the use of differential forms.
of a boundary intersect the boundary to form boxes of surface
Ideally, the electromagnetics curriculum set forth in this
charge density. Tubes of the discontinuity in magnetic flux
paper would be taught in conjunction with calculus courses
density cannot intersect the boundary.
employing differential forms. A unified curriculum, although
The sign of the charge on the boundary can be obtained from
desirable, is not necessary in order for students to profit from
the direction of in region above the boundary, which
the use of differential forms. We have found that because
must point away from positive charge and toward negative
of the simple correspondence between vectors and forms,
charge. The integral of over a surface
the transition from vector analysis to differential forms is
(54) generally quite easy for students to make. Familiarity with
vector analysis also helps students to recognize and appreciate

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68 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON EDUCATION, VOL. 40, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1997

the advantages of the calculus of differential forms over other [16] S. Parrott, Relativistic Electrodynamics and Differential Geometry.
methods. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987.
[17] W. Thirring, Classical Field Theory, vol. II. New York: Springer-
We hope that this attempt at making differential forms Verlag, 1978.
accessible at the undergraduate level helps to fulfill the vision [18] K. F. Warnick, R. H. Selfridge, and D. V. Arnold, “Electromagnetic
boundary conditions using differential forms,” Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng.,
expressed by Deschamps [2] and others, that students obtain vol. 142, no. 4, pp. 326–332, 1995.
the power, insight, and clarity that differential forms offer to [19] K. F. Warnick and D. V. Arnold, “Electromagnetic green functions using
electromagnetic field theory and its applications. differential forms,” J. Electromagn. Waves and Appl., vol. 10, no. 3, pp.
427–438, 1996.
[20] , “Differential forms in electromagnetic field theory,” in Antennas
and Propagation Symp. Proc., to be published, 1996.
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twisted tensors,” J. Math. Phys., vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 65–69, Jan. 1983.
[1] C. Misner, K. Thorne, and J. A. Wheeler, Gravitation. San Francisco,
CA: Freeman, 1973.
[2] G. A. Deschamps, “Electromagnetics and differential forms,” Proc.
IEEE, vol. 69, no. 6, pp. 676–696, June 1981.
Karl F. Warnick is a National Science Foundation Graduate Fellow in
[3] W. L. Burke, Applied Differential Geometry. Cambridge, U.K.: Cam-
Electrical Engineering at Brigham Young University, Provo, UT.
bridge Univ. Press, 1985.
[4] C. Nash and S. Sen, Topology and Geometry for Pphysicists. San His current interests include nonlinear differential equations, differential
Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1983. geometry, topology, and electromagnetics in anisotropic media.
[5] P. Bamberg and S. Sternberg, A Course in Mathematics for Students of
Physics, vol. II. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988.
[6] H. Flanders, Differential Forms with Applications to the Physical Sci-
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[7] Y. Choquet-Bruhat and C. DeWitt-Morette, Analysis, Manifolds and Richard H. Selfridge (M’87) received the B.S. degree in physics from
Physics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: North-Holland, 1982. California State University, Sacramento, in 1987, and the M.S. and Ph.D.
[8] S. Hassani, Foundations of Mathematical Physics. Boston, MA: Allyn degrees in electrical engineering from the University of California, Davis, in
and Bacon, 1991. 1980 and 1984, respectively.
[9] R. Hermann, Topics in the Geometric Theory of Linear Systems. Brook- From 1983 to 1987, he taught in the Department of Electrical and Computer
line, MA: Math Sci. Press, 1984. Engineering at California State University, Sacramento. Since July of 1987, he
[10] D. Baldomir, “Differential forms and electromagnetism in 3-dimensional has been a Professor of Electrical Engineering at Brigham Young University,
Euclidean space R3 ,” Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng., vol. 133, no. 3, pp. Provo, UT. His research interests include modeling of conduction processes
139–143, May 1986. in semiconductors and mode locking of argon and dye lasers. Recently, his
[11] N. Schleifer, “Differential forms as a basis for vector analysis-with research has been directed toward the invention and fabrication of novel D-
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1139–1145, Dec. 1983. and using differential forms in electrical engineering.
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the p-compound,” Amer. J. Phys., vol. 60, no. 12, pp. 1137–1147, Dec.
1992.
[13] D. Baldomir and P. Hammond, “Global geometry of electromagnetic
systems,” Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng., vol. 140, no. 2, pp. 142–150, Mar.
1992. David V. Arnold received the B.S. and M.S. degrees from Brigham Young
[14] P. Hammond and D. Baldomir, “Dual energy methods in electromag- University, Provo, UT, and the Ph.D. degree from the Massachusetts Institute
netics using tubes and slices,” Proc. Inst. Elec. Eng., vol. 135, no. 3A, of Technology, Cambridge.
pp. 167–172, Mar. 1988. He is currently an Assistant Professor in the Electrical and Computer
[15] R. S. Ingarden and A. Jamio lkowski, Classical Electrodynamics,. Am- Engineering Department at Brigham Young University. His research interests
sterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier, 1985. are in electromagnetic theory and microwave remote sensing.

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