247251661class Xi Physics PDF

के न्द्रीय विद्यालय संगठन
KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN
अहमदाबाद संभाग
AHMEDABAD REGION
अध्ययन-सामग्री
STUDY MATERIAL
CLASS: XI
PHYSICS
सत्र-2014-15
SESSION-2014-15
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2
MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
Physical constants:-
1. Mass of an electron (Me) = 9.1x10-31kg.

2. Mass of a proton ( Mp) = 1.6725 x 10-27kg.
3. Mass of a neutron (Mn) = 1.6746 x 10-27kg.
4. Charge of an electron (e) =-1.6 x 10-19c
5. Speed of light in vacuum (c) = 3 x108 m/sec.
6. Planck Constant (h) = 6.6256 x 10-34 J x sec .
7. Universal Gravitation constant (G) = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/ kg2.
8. Avogadro Number (NA) = 6.023 x1023mol-1.
9. Boltzmann constant (K) = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
10. Stefan Constant (σ) = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4.
11. Wien Displacement Constant (b) = 2.898 x10-3m K
12. Solar Constant (S) = 1.388 x 103 W m-2
13. Mass of the sun (MS) = 2x 1030kg.
14. Mass of the earth (ME) = 5.98x 1024kg
15. Radius of the earth (Re) = 6400 Km. = 6.4x106m.
16. Density of earth 5.522x103kg/m3.
17. Average angular velocity of the earth = 7.29x 10-5rad./sec
18. Average distance between the sun and earth = 1.5x1011m.
19. Average distance between moon and the earth =3.84x 10 8m.
20. Magnetic Moment of the earth = 6.4x 1021 Amp. X m2.
Conversion Coefficients
1. 1Light year = 9.46x1015m.
2. 1 A.U. = 1.496 x 1011m.
3. 1Å = 10-10m.
4. 1 Pound = 0.4536kg = 453.6 gm
5. 1 Fermi = 10-15m.
6. 1 C.S.L. = 1.4 x Mass of the sun.
3
7. 1 Shake = 10-8sec
8. 1ev = 1.6 x10-19 Joule.
9. 1 Horse Power = 746 Watt.
Quadratic Equation
An equation of second degree is called a quadratic equation. It is of the form
:-
ax2 + bx + c =0
The roots of a quadratic equation are
X = -b ±(b2 + 4ac)1/2
2a
Binomial Theorem
If n is any integer, positive or negative or a fraction and x is any real number,
then
(1+x)n = 1 + nx + n(n-1)x2 + .. .
Ị2
n
If IxI<<1, then (1+x) = 1+ nx.
Mensuration:-
1. Area of a circle = 𝜋 r2 =π D2/4
2. Surface area of a sphere = 4πr2 = πD2

3. Volume of a sphere = 4/3 πr3
4. Surface area of a cylinder = 2πr(r+l)
5. Volume of a cylinder =π r2 l
6. Curved surface area of a cone = πrl
7. Volume of a cone = 1/3πr2h
8. Surface area of a cube = 6x(side)2
9. Volume of a cube = (side)3
Fundamental Trigonometric relations

1
Cosec =
Sin θ
1
Sec =
Cos θ
4
Cos θ 1
Cot = =
Sin θ Tan θ
Sin θ
Tan =
Cos θ
Sin2 + Cos2 =1
1+ tan 2 =Sec2
1+ Cot2 = Cosec2
Sin(A+B) = SinACosB + CosASinB

Cos (A + B) = CosACosB – SinASinB
Sin (A – B) = SinACosB – CosASinB
Cos (A – B) = CosACosB + SinASinB
TanA + TanB
Tan(A + B) =
1 − TanATanB
Sin 2A = 2SinACosA
Cos 2A = 2Cos2A – 1=1- 2Sin2A = Cos2A – Sin2A
Sin (A+B) + Sin(A-B) = 2 SinACosB

Cos(A+B) + Cos (A-B) = 2CosACosB
(C+D) (C−D)
CosC + CosD = 2Cos Cos )
2 2
Logarithms
Logamn = Logam + Logan
𝑚
Loga ( ) = Logam - Logan
𝑛
Logam = Logbm x Logab
Log10103 = Log101000 = 3
Loga1 = 0
Logaa = 1
5
Average Values
< Sinθ> = 0 ,< Cosθ> = 0
< Sin2 >= ½
< Cos2 θ> = ½

Approximate Values
If angle ( ) small then 0
Sinθ
Cos 1
Tan
Differential Formulae
1. Differentiation of a constant© is zero
𝑑𝑐
=0
𝑑𝑥
d (cy )
2. dx
= c dy
dx
𝑑(𝑥 𝑛 )
3. = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
d[f x ±g x ] df (x)
4. = ± dgdx(x )
dx dx
d{f x g x } f x dg (x) g x df (x)

5. = +
dx dx dx
𝑑𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑔 𝑥
𝑑 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6. =
𝑑𝑥 𝑔 𝑥 {𝑔(𝑥)}2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
7. =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑒 𝑥
8. = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑛 𝑑𝑢
9. = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6
𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒 𝑥 1
10. =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 𝑎𝑥
11. = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎 𝑥 1
12. = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑(sin 𝑥)
13. = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(cos 𝑥)
14. = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(tan 𝑥)
15. = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(cot 𝑥)
16. = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 )
17. = −cosec 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 )
18. = sec 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Integral Formulae
1. ∫dx =x +c Where c = constant
𝑥 𝑛 +1
2. ∫xn+1
dx = +𝐶
𝑛 +1
3. ∫dx/x = logex +c
4. ∫Sinx dx = - Cosx +c
5. ∫Sin ax dx = -Cos ax
a
6. ∫Cos x dx = Sin x +c
7. ∫Sec2x dx = tan x +c
8. ∫ Cosec2x dx = -Cot x +c
9. ∫ Sec x tan x dx = Sec x +c
10. ∫Cosec x Cot x dx = - Cosec x + c
11. ∫ ex dx = ex +c
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Unit - I
Physical World AndMeasurement
Gist
There are four fundamental forces which govern both macroscopic and
microscopic phenomena. There are
(i) Gravitational force (iii) Electromagnetic force
(ii) Nuclear force (iv) Weak force
The relative strengths of these forces are
Fg :Fw:Fe:Fs=1:1025:1036:1038 .
All those quantities which can be measured directly or indirectly and in terms of
which the laws of physics can be expressed are called physical quantities.
(a) Fundamental quantities (b) Derived quantities.
The units of the fundamental quantities called fundamental units , and the units of
derived quantities called derived units.
System of units:-
(a) MKS (b) CGS (c) FPS (d) SI

 The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the
fundamentalquantities are raised to represent that physical quantity.
 The equation which expresses a physical quantity in terms of the fundamental

units of mass, length and time, is called dimensional equation.
 According to this principle of homogeneity a physical equation will be
dimensionally correct if the dimensions of all the terms in the all the terms
occurring on both sides of the equation are the same.
 If any equation is dimensionally correct it is not necessary that must be
mathematically correct too.
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 There are three main uses of the dimensional analysis-
(a) To convert a unit of given physical quantities from one system of units to
another system for which we use
n2 = n1[M1/M2]a[L1/L2]b[T1/T2]c
(b) To check the correctness of a given physical relation.

(c) To derive a relationship between different physical quantities.
 Significant figures: - The significant figures are normally those digits in a

measured quantity which are known reliably plus one additional digit that is
uncertain.
For counting of the significant figure rule are as:
(i) All non- zero digits are significant figure.

(ii) All zero between two non-zero digits are significant figure.
(iii) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an understood
decimal point are not significant. But such zeros are significant if they come
from a measurement.
(iv) All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point are
significant.
(v) All zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant.
(vi) All zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero digit are
not significant. Single zero conventionally placed to the left of the decimal
point is not significant.
(vii) The number of significant figures does not depend on the system of units.
 In addition or subtraction, the result should be reported to the same

number of decimal places as that of the number with minimum number of
decimal places.
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 In multiplication or division, the result should be reported to the same
number of significant figures as that of the number with minimum of
significant figures.
 Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measurement to the true value of the
physical quantity and precision refers to the resolution or the limit to which
the quantity is measured.
 Difference between measured value and true value of a quantity
represents error of measurement.
It gives an indication of the limits within which the true value may lie.
Mean of n measurements
a 1 +a 2 +a 3 +⋯…..+a 𝑛
amean =
𝑛
Absolute error ( Δa ) = amean - ai Where ai = measured value
It may be - positive, negative or zero.
(i) Mean absolute error
(ii) Relative error - it is the ratio of the mean absolute error to the true
value.
δa = I Δa I/ amean
(iii) The relative error expressed in percent is called percentage error.
The error is communicated in different mathematical operations as detailed below:
(i) For x = (a ± b), Δx = ± ( Δa + Δb)

(ii) For x = a x b , Δx/x = ± ( Δa/a + Δb/b)
(iii) For x = a/b , Δx/x = ± ( Δa/a + Δb/b)
n m p
(iv) For x= a b /c Δx/x = ± ( nΔa/a +m Δb/b + pΔc/c
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Very short answer type questions, (1 Mark )
Q1. State one law that holds good in all natural processes.
Ans. One such laws is the Newton’s gravitation law, According to this law everybody
in this nature are attracts with other body with a force of attraction which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportionally To the
square of the distance between them.
Q2: Among which type of elementary particles does the electromagnetic force act?
Ans : Electromagnetic force acts between on all electrically charged particles.
Q3. Name the forces having the longest and shortest range of operation.
Ans : longest range force is gravitational force and nuclear force is shortest range
force.
Q4. If ‘slap’ times speed equals power, what will be the dimensional equation for
‘slap’?
Ans . Slap x speed = power
Or slap = power/speed = [MLT-2]
Q5. If the units of force and length each are doubled, then how many times the unit
of energy would be affected?
Ans : Energy = Work done = Force x length
So when the units are doubled, then the unit of energy will increase four times.
Q6. Can a quantity has dimensions but still has no units?
Ans : No, a quantity having dimension must have some units of its measurement.
Q7. Justify L +L = L and L – L =L.
Ans: When we add or subtract a length from length we get length, So L +L =L
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AND L – L =L, justify.
Q8. Can there be a physical quantity that has no unit and no dimensions?
Ans : yes, like strain.
Q9. Given relative error in the measurement of length is 0.02, what is the percentage
error?
Ans: percentage error = 2 %
Q10. If g is the acceleration due to gravity and λ is wavelength, then which physical
quantity does represented by √gλ.
Ans. Speed or velocity.
Short answer type questions (2 marks)

Q1.If heat dissipated in a resistance can be determined from the relation:
H = I2Rt joule , If the maximum error in the measurement of current,

resistance and time are 2% ,1% , and 1% respectively, What would be the maximum
error in the dissipated heat?
Ans: % error in heat dissipated is ±6 %.
Q2. Name any three physical quantities having the same dimensions and also give
their dimensions.
Ans: Any group of physical quantities, like work , energy and torque and their
dimensions [ ML2 T-2].
Q3. In Vander Wall’s equation ( P + a/V2)( V – b ) = RT, Determine the dimensions
of a and b.
Ans : [a] = [ML5 T-2] and [b] = [ M0L3T0].
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Q4. Give the limitations of dimensional analysis.
Ans ……………………………
Q5. If X= a+ bt2 , where X is in meter and t is in second . find the unit of a and b?
Ans : unit of a is meter and unit of b is m/sec2.
Q6. What is meant by significant figures ? State the rules for counting the number of
significant figures in a measured quantity?
Ans. …………………………
Q7. Show that the maximum error in the quotient of two quantities is equal to the
sum of their individual relative errors.
Ans : For x = a/b , Δx/x = ± ( Δa/a + Δb/b)
Q8. Deduce the dimensional formulae for the following physical quantities.
A) Gravitational constant.
B) Power
C) coefficient of viscosity
D) Surface tension.
Ans: (A) gravitational constant = [M-1 L3 T-2],
B) Power = [ML2T-3]
C) Coefficient of viscosity = [ ML-1 T-1]
D) Surface tension = [ ML0T-2]
Q9. Name the four basic forces in nature. Arrange them in the order of their
increasing strengths.
Ans : (i) Gravitational force (ii) Electromagnetic force
(iii) nuclear force (iv) Weak force
The relative strengths of these forces are
Fg :Fw:Fe:Fs=1:1025:1036:1038 .
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Q10. Convert 1 Newton force in to Dyne.
Ans : 1N = 105 Dyne.
11.Taking velocity, time and force as the fundamental quantities, find the dimension
of mass.
Ans: Mass = (Force X Time)/Velocity

So [Mass] = [FTV-1]
Short answer type questions (3marks)

Q1. If E,M,J and G respectively denote energy, mass, angular momentum and
gravitational constant, Calculate the dimensions of EJ2 /M5G2
Q2. The frequency  of vibration of stretched string depends on its length L its mass
per unit length m and the tension T in the string obtain dimensionally an expression
for frequency .
Q3. What is meant by significant figures .State the rules for counting the number of
significant figures in a measured quantity?
Q4. A physical quantity X is given by X = A 2B3/CD , If the percentage errors of

measurement in A,B,C and D are 4%,2%,3% and 1% respectively, then calculate
the % error in X.
Q5. If two resistors of resistance R1=(4 ± 0.5) and R2=(16 ± 0.5) are connected
(1) In series and (2) Parallel . Find the equivalent resistance in each case with limits
of % error.
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Q6. The length of a rod measured in an experiment was found to be 2.48m, 2.46,
2.50m and 2.48m and 2.49m, Find the average length , the absolute error in each
observation and % error.
Q7. A famous relation in physics relates moving mass m to the rest mass m 0 of a
Particle in terms of its speed v and the speed of the light c. A boy recalls the
relation almost correctly but forgets where to put the constant c. He writes:
m = mo / (1 – v2)1/2
Guess where to put the missing c.
Q8. A calorie is a unit of heat energy and it equals about4.2 J, where 1 J = 4.2
kgm2s-2. Suppose we employ a system of units in which the unit of mass equals α
kg, the unit of length equals β m, the units of time is ϒ sec. show that a calorie
has a magnitude 4.2 α-1 β-2 ϒ2 in terms of the new units.
Q9. In the formula X = 3YZ2, X and Z have dimensions of capacitance and magnetic
induction respectively, what are the dimensions of Y in MKS system?
Q10. In an experiment, on the measurement of g using a simple pendulum the time
period was measured with an accuracy of 0.2 % while the length was measured
with accuracy of 0.5%. Calculate the percentage error in the value of g.
Q 11.If dimensions of length are expressed as GXcyhz, where G,c,h are universal
gravitational constant Speed of light and plank’s constant respectively, what are the
value of x,y,z?
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Q.12 The specific heats of a gas are measured as Cp= (12.280.2) units and Cv=(3.970.3)
units. Find the value of real gas constant R and  error in R. (R=CP-CV)
Ans. R=CP-CV = (12.280.2) - (3.970.3) = (8.310.5) units
% Error in R = (R/R) X 100 = {(CP + CV)/(CP-CV)}X100 = (0.5/8.31)X100
= 6.016 %
Q13. The depth x to which a bullet penetrates a human body depends upon (i) coefficient
of elasticity  and (ii) kinetic energy Ek. By the method of dimensions, show that
x (Ek/)1/3
Ans. x = Ka [Ek]b
So, L1= [ML-1T-2]a [ML2T-2]b a+b = 0, - a+2b = 1, - 2a - 2b = 0
On solving, a = - 1/3 and b = 1/3  x = K(Ek/)1/3
Long answer question ( 5 marks )

Q1. Explain:
(i) Absolute error (iii) Mean absolute error

(ii) Relative error (iv) percentage error
(v) Random error
Q2. Convert:
( i) Gravitational constant (G) = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2 kg-2 to cm3 g-1 s-2
(ii) The escape velocity v of a body depends on, the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ of
the planet and the radius R of the planet, Establish dimensionally for relation for the
escape velocity.
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Q3. Name the four basic forces in nature. Write a brief note of each, hence compare
their strengths and ranges.
HOTs
1
Q1. What are the dimensions of /u0ϵ0, where symbols have their usual meaning.
Ans : [ M0 L2 T-2]
Q2.What is the dimensions of (1/2 )ϵ0E2 , Where E electric field and ϵ0 permittivity of
free space.
Ans : [ M1 L-1 T-2 ]
Q3. The pairs of physical quantities that have the same dimensions are:
(a) Reynolds’s number and coefficient of friction,

(b) Curie and frequency of a light wave
(c) Latent heat and gravitational potential
(d) Planck’s constant and torque.
Ans : (a), (b).
Q4. If L,C,R represent inductance , capacitance and resistance respectively, the
combinations having dimensions of frequency are
(a) 1/√CL (b) L/C (c) R/L (d ) R/C
Ans : (a) and (c).
Q5. If the error in radius is 3%, what is error in volume of sphere?
(a) 3 % (b) 27 % (c) 9 % (d) 6 %
Ans : ( c ) 9%.
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Unit - II
KINEMATICS
Concept Map
18
Gist
*rest and Motion are relative terms; nobody can exist in a state of absolute rest or of
absolute motion.
*One dimensional motion:- The motion of an object is said to be one dimensional

motion if only one out of three coordinates specifying the position of the object
change with time. In such a motion an object move along a straight line path.
*Two dimensional motion:- The motion of an object is said to be two dimensional

motion if two out of three coordinates specifying the position of the object change
with time. In such motion the object moves in a plane.
*Three dimensional motion:- The motion is said to be three dimensional motion if all
the three coordinates specifying the position of an object change with respect to time
,in such a motion an object moves in space.
*The magnitude of displacement is less than or equal to the actual distance travelled
by the object in the given time interval.
Displacement ≤ Actual distance
*Speed:- It is rate of change of distance covered by the body with respect to time.
Speed = Distance travelled /time taken
Speed is a scalar quantity .Its unit is meter /sec. and dimensional formula is[M 0L1T-1]
.It is positive or zero but never negative.
*Uniform Speed:- If an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time than
the speed of the moving object is called uniform speed. In this type of motion,
position –time graph is always a straight line.
*Instantaneous speed:-The speed of an object at any particular instant of time is

called instantaneous speed. In this measurement, the time ∆t→0.
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When a body is moving with uniform speed its instantaneous speed = Average
speed = uniform speed.
*Velocity:- The rate of change of position of an object in a particular direction with

respect to time is called velocity. It is equal to the displacement covered by an
object per unit time.
Velocity =Displacement /Time
Velocity is a vector quantity, its SI unit is meter per sec. Its dimensional formula is
[M0L1T-1]. It may be negative, positive or zero.
*When a body moves in a straight line then the average speed and average velocity
are equal.
*Acceleration:- The rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time is

called its acceleration.
Acceleration = Change in velocity /time taken
It is a vector quantity, Its SI unit is meter/ sec.2 and dimension is [M0L1T-2], It may be
positive ,negative or zero.
*Positive Acceleration:- If the velocity of an object increases with time, its

acceleration is positive .
*Negative Acceleration :-If the velocity of an object decreases with time, its
acceleration is negative . The negative acceleration is also called retardation or
deacceleration.
*Formulas of uniformly accelerated motion along straight line:-

For accelerated motion, For deceleration motion
V = u + at v = u - at
S = ut + 1/2 at2 S = ut - 1/2 at2
V2 =u2+ 2as V2= u2- 2as
Sn = u + a/2(2n- 1) Sn = u - a/2( 2n- 1)
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*Free fall :- In the absence of the air resistance all bodies fall with the same
acceleration towards earth from a small height. This is called free fall. The
acceleration with which a body falls is called gravitational acceleration (g).Its value is
9.8 m/sec2.
*Relative Motion:- The rate of change of distance of one object with respect to the
other is called relative velocity. The relative velocity of an object B with respect to the
object A when both are in motion is the rate of change of position of object B with
respect to the object A.
*Relative velocity of object A with respect to object B
𝑉 AB = 𝑉 A - 𝑉 B
When both objects are move in same direction, then the relative velocity of object B
with respect to the object A
𝑉 BA = 𝑉 B - 𝑉 A
When the object B moves in opposite direction of object A .
𝑉 BA = 𝑉 B + 𝑉 A
When VA and VB are incident to each other at angle Θ
VAB = (V2A + V2B – 2VAVBCos Θ)1/2
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VA = V B VB < V A
For VB > VA
*Scalars: - The quantities which have magnitude only but no direction. For example :
mass, length, time, speed , temperature etc.
*Vectors :- The quantities which have magnitude as well as direction and obeys
vector laws of addition, multiplication etc.
For examples : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force , momentum etc.
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 Addition of Vectors :-
(i) Only vectors of same nature can be added.
(ii) The addition of two vector A and B is resultant R
𝑅 =𝐴+𝐵
And R = ( A2 + B2+ 2AB CosΘ)1/2
And tan β = B SinΘ/ ( A + B CosΘ) ,
Where Θ is the angle between vector A and vector B, And β is the angle which R
makes with the direction of A.
(iii) Vector addition is commutative 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴

(iv) Vector addition is associative,
(𝐴 +𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + ( 𝐵 + 𝐶 )
(v) R is maximum if Θ = 0 and minimum if Θ = 180 0.
Subtraction of two vectors :-
(i) Only vector of same nature can be subtracted.

(ii) Subtraction of B from A = vector addition of A and (-B),
𝑅 = 𝐴 – 𝐵 = 𝐴 + (−𝐵)
Where R = [ A2+ B2+2AB Cos(180 - Θ) ]1/2 and
tanβ = B Sin(180 - Θ)/ [ A + B Cos(180 - Θ) ], Where Θ is the angle between A and

B and β is the angle which R makes with the direction of A.
(iii) Vector subtraction is not commutative (𝐴 - 𝐵 ) ≠( 𝐵 - 𝐴)

(iv) Vector subtraction is not associative,
(𝐴 - 𝐵) - 𝐶 ≠ 𝐴 - ( 𝐵 - 𝐶 )
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Rectangular components of a vector in a plane :- If A makes an angle Θ with x-axis
and Ax and By be the rectangular components of A along X-axis and Y- axis
respectively, then
𝐴 = A 𝑥 + B𝑦 = A x i + A y j
Here Ax = A CosΘ and Ay = A SinΘ
And A = ( Ax2 + Ay2)1/2
And tanΘ = Ay/Ax
Dot product or scalar product : - The dot product of two vectors A and B,
represented by 𝐴.𝐵 is a scalar , which is equal to the product of the magnitudes of

A and B and the Cosine of the smaller angle between them.
If Θ is the smaller angle between A and B, then
A . B = AB CosΘ
(i) i.i = j.j = k.k = 1

(ii) 𝑖.𝑗 = 𝑗.𝑘 = 𝑘.𝑖 = 0
(iii) If 𝐴 = Axi + Ay𝑗+ Az𝑘and𝐵 = Bxi + By𝑗+ Bz𝑘
Then 𝐴.𝐵 =AxBx + AyBy +AzBz
Cross or Vector product :-
The cross product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵, represented by A x B is a vector , which

is equal to the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the sine of the smaller
angle between them.
If Θ is the smaller angle between A and B, then
𝐴 x 𝐵 = AB Sinθ𝑛
24
Where 𝑛 is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B.
(i) ixi=j𝑥j=kx k=0

(ii) 𝑖x𝑗=𝑘 𝑗x𝑘=𝐼 𝑘x𝑖=𝑗
𝑗x𝑖=-𝑘𝑘x𝑗=-𝑖𝑖x𝑘=-𝑗
(iii) If 𝐴=Ax𝑖+Ay𝑗+Az𝑘 and 𝐵=Bx𝑖+By𝑗+Bz𝑘
𝐴 x 𝐵 = ( AxBz - AzBy)𝑖 + ( AzBx - AxBz)𝑗 +( AxBy - AyBx)𝑘
25
Concept Map
26
Projectile motion : - Projectile is the name given to anybody which once thrown in
to space with some initial velocity, moves thereafter under the influence of gravity
alone without being propelled by any engine or fuel. The path followed by a projectile
is called its trajectory.
 Path followed by the projectile is parabola.

 Velocity of projectile at any instant t ,
V = [(u2 -2ugtsinθ +g2t2)]1/2
 Horizontal range
R = u2 Sin2Θ/g
For maximum range Θ =450,
Rmax = u2 /g
 Flight time
T = 2u SinΘ/g
 Height
H = u2 sin2Θ/2g
For maximum height Θ =900
Hmax.= u2/2g
27
Very Short answer type questions ( 1 marks )
Q1. What does the slope of v-t graph indicate ?
Ans : Acceleration
Q2. Under what condition the average velocity equal to instantaneous velocity?
Ans :For a uniform velocity.
Q.3. The position coordinate of a moving particle is given by x=6+18t+9t 2(x in meter,
t in seconds) what is it’s velocity at t=2s
Ans : 54 m/sec.
Q4. Give an example when a body moving with uniform speed has acceleration.
Ans : In the uniform circular motion.
Q5. Two balls of different masses are thrown vertically upward with same initial
velocity. Height attained by them are h1 and h2 respectively what is h1/h2.
Ans : 1/1, because the height attained by the projectile is not depend on the masses.
Q6. State the essential condition for the addition of the vector.
Ans : They must represent the physical quantities of same nature.
Q7. What is the angle between velocity and acceleration at the peak point of the
projectile motion ?
Ans : 90 0 .
Q8. What is the angular velocity of the hour hand of a clock ?
Ans : W = 2π/12 = π/6 rad h-1,
Q9. What is the source of centripetal acceleration for earth to go round the sun ?
Ans. Gravitation force of the sun.
28
Q10. What is the average value of acceleration vector in uniform circular motion .
Ans: Null vector.
Q 11.What do you mean by uniformly accelerated linear motion?
Q12.What is a freely falling body?
Q13.In one dimensional motion, can a particle have zero speed at an instant but non-zero
acceleration at that instant?
Q14.What is the acceleration of a body when its v – t graph is (i) perpendicular to time-
axis (ii) parallel to time-axis?
Q15.Define polar and axial vector with examples.
Q16.Can the directions of velocity of a body change when the acceleration is constant?
A) Yes, in projectile motion.
Q17. A stone tied to the end of a string is whirled in a circle. If the string breaks, the stone
flies away tangentially. Why?
A) When the string breaks, the centripetal force ceases. Due to inertia, the stone
continues its motion along tangent to the circular path.
Q18. Name the quantity which remains unchanged during the flight of an oblique projectile.
A) Horizontal component of velocity.
Q19. Can the speed of a body be negative?
A) No
Q20. Can a particle in one dimensional motion have zero speed and a non-zero velocity?
A) no
29
2
Q21. A ball hits a wall with a velocity of 30ms- and renounces with same velocity. What is the
change in its velocity?
A) V-u=-30-30=-60 ms-1.
Short Answer type question ( 2 marks )
Q1. Derive an equation for the distance travelled by an uniform acceleration body in
nth second of its motion.
𝑎
Ans. S Sn = u + ( 2n- 1)
2
Q2. The velocity of a moving particle is given by V=6+18t+9t2(x in meter, t in
seconds) what is it’s acceleration at t=2s
Ans. Differentiation of the given equation eq. w.r.t. time
We get a = 18 + 18t
At t = 2 sec.
a= 54 m/sec2.
Q3.what is relative velocity in one dimension, if VA and VB are the velocities of the
body A and B respectively then prove that VAB=VA-VB?
Ans. Relative Motion:- The rate of change of separation between the two object is
called relative velocity. The relative velocity of an object B with respect to the
object A when both are in motion is the rate of change of position of object B
with respect to the object A .
30
*Relative velocity of object A with respect to object B
VAB = VA - VB
When both objects are moving in same direction , then the relative velocity of object
B with respect to the object A
VBA = VB - VA
Q4. Show that when the horizontal range is maximum, height attained by the body
is one fourth the maximum range in the projectile motion.
Ans : We know that the horizontal range
R = u2 Sin2Θ/g
For maximum range Θ =450,
Rmax = u2 /g
and Height
H = u2 sin2Θ/2g
For Θ =450
H = u2 /4g = 1/4 of the Rmax.

Q6. State the parallelogram law of vector addition. Derive an expression for
magnitude and direction of resultant of the two vectors.
Ans. The addition of two vector 𝐴 and 𝐵 is resultant 𝑅

𝑹 =𝑨+𝑩
And R = ( A2 + B2+ 2AB CosΘ)1/2
And tan β = B SinΘ/ ( A + B CosΘ) ,
31
Where Θ is the angle between vector 𝐴 and vector 𝐵, And β is the angle which 𝑅
makes with the direction of 𝐴.
Q7. A gunman always keeps his gun slightly tilted above the line of sight while
Shooting. Why,
Ans. Because bullet follow parabolic trajectory under constant downward
acceleration.
Q8. Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity.
Ans : Derive the expression
V=rω
Q9. What do you mean by rectangular components of a vector? Explain how a
Vector can be resolved into two rectangular components in a plane .
Q10. The greatest height to which a man can a stone is h, what will be the longest
distanceupto which he can throw the stone ?
Ans: we know that
Hmax.= Rmax /2
So h = R/2
Or R = 2h
Q11.Derive the equations of motion :
a) V=u+at
b) S=ut+1/2at2
c) v2-u2=2as
32
Q12.The displacement x of a particle varies with time t as x=4t 2-15t+25,find the position,
velocity, and acceleration of the particle at t=0.When will the velocity of the particle
become zero? Can we call the motion of the particle as one with uniform
acceleration?
A) v=8t-15;a=8;at t=0,x=25m,v=-15ms-1 a=8ms-2;v=0 at t=15/8
Q13.A body covers 12m in 2nd second and 20m in 4th second. How much distance will it
cover in 4second after 5th second?
A) a=4ms-2,u=6ms-1,s=136m.
Q14.A ball thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 19.5 ms-1 from the top of the tower
returns to the earth in 6s. Find the height of tower.
A) h=58.8m
Q15.A car A moving at 10ms-1 on a straight road, is ahead of car B moving in the same
direction at 6ms-1.Find the relative velocity A w.r.t. B and vice versa.
A) VAB=4ms-1, VBA=-4ms-1
Q16.An object travels with different speeds during different time intervals in the same
direction. Find the expression for the average speed.
A) Suppose speeds are v1, v2, v3 in time t1, t2, t3
Average speed= (v1t1+ v2t2 + v3t3)/(t1+t2+t3)
Q17.A particle is moving along X-axis. At time t1 = 2s, its position is x1 = 3m and at t2 = 7s, its
position is x2 = 18m. What is the average velocity of the particle?
A) Average velocity = Δx/Δt =15/5= 3m/s
Q18.A runner runs 100m in 10 s, then turns around and jogs 50m back toward the starting
point in 30 s. find his (i) average speed (ii) average velocity.
A) Average speed = 3.75m/s and average velocity = 1.25m/s
33
Short answer questions (3marks )
Q1. If ‘R’ is the horizontal range for Ɵ inclination and H is the height reached by the
projectile, show that R(max.) is given by
Rmax =4H
Q2. A body is projected at an angle Θ with the horizontal. Derive an expression for
its horizontal range. Show that there are two angles Θ1 and Θ2 projections for the
same horizontal range. Such that (Θ1 +Θ2 ) = 900.
Q3. Prove that there are two values of time for which a projectile is at the same
height . Also show that the sum of these two times is equal to the time of flight.
Q4: Draw position –time graphs of two objects , A and B moving along straight line,
when their relative velocity is zero.
(i) Zero
Q5. Two vectors A and B are inclined to each other at an angle Θ. Using triangle law
of vector addition, find the magnitude and direction of their resultant.
Q6. Define centripetal acceleration. Derive an expression for the centripetal
acceleration of a particle moving with constant speed v along a circular path of
radius r.
Q7. When the angle between two vectors of equal magnitudes is 2π/3, prove that
the magnitude of the resultant is equal to either.
34
Q8. A ball thrown vertically upwards with a speed of 19.6 m/s from the top of a tower
returns to the earth in 6s. find the height of the tower. ( g = 9.8 m/sec2)
Q9. Find the value of λ so that the vector 𝑨 = 2𝑖 + λ 𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝑩 = 4𝑖 – 2𝑗 – 2𝑘 are
perpendicular to each.
Q10. Show that a given gun will shoot three times as high when elevated at angle of
600 as when fired at angle of 300 but will carry the same distance on a
horizontal plane.
Long answer question ( 5 marks)
Q1. Draw velocity- time graph of uniformly accelerated motion in one dimension.
From the velocity – time graph of uniform accelerated motion, deduce the
equations of motion in distance and time.
Q2. (a) With the help of a simple case of an object moving with a constant velocity
show that the area under velocity – time curve represents over a given time
interval.
(b) A car moving with a speed of 126 km/h is brought to a stop within a distance
of 200m. calculate the retardation of the car and the time required to stop it.
Q3. Establish the following vector inequalities :
(i) │ 𝒂 + 𝒃│ ≤ │𝒂 │ + │ 𝒃│
(ii) │ 𝒂 -𝒃 │ ≤ │𝒂 │ + │ 𝒃│
When does the equality sign apply.
Q4. What is a projectile ? show that its path is parabolic. Also find the expression
for :
35
(i) Maximum height attained and
(ii) Time of flight
Q5. Define centripetal acceleration. Derive an expression for the centripetal
acceleration of a body moving with uniform speed v along a circular path of
radius r. explain how it acts along the radius towards the centre of the circular
path.
Q.6.A particle moves along a circle of radius R as shown in figure. It starts from A and moves
in anticlockwise direction. Calculate the distance travelled and displacement (i) from A
to B (ii) from A to C and (iii) from A to D.
A) (i) Distance = πR/2 and displacement = √2 R (ii) Distance = πR and

displacement = 2R
(iii) Distance = 3πR/2 and displacement = √2 R
Q7.The position of a ball rolling in a straight line is given by;

x = 2 + 6.6 t – 1.1 t2
What is its velocity at (i) t = 2 s and (ii) t = 3 s?
A) (i) Velocity = 2.2m/s (ii) Velocity = 0 m/s
36
Q8.A body is moving in a straight line along X-axis. Its distance x in metres from the origin is
given by; x = 8t – 3t2, the time t is in seconds. Find the average speed of the body in
time interval t = 0 to t = 1 s.
A) v = 8-6t; at t = 0, v0 = 8m/s and at t = 1s, v1 = 2m/s
Average speed = 5m/s
Q9.State parallelogram law of vector addition. Show that resultant of two vectors A and B
inclined at an angle θ is R = √(A2 + B2 + 2ABcosθ).
Q10.Find unit vector parallel to the resultant of the vectors A = i + 4j – 2k and B = 3i – 5j + k

.
A) R= A + B = 4i – j – k and Unit vector R = R/|R| = (4i – j – k)/3√2
Q11.The position of a particle is given by
r = 3.0t i + 2.0t2j+ 5.0 k, where t is in seconds and the coefficients have the proper
units for r to be in metres. (a) Find v(t) and a(t) of the particle. (b) Find the
magnitude and direction of v(t) at t = 3.0s.
A) v (t) = 3.0 i + 4.0t j and a (t) = 4.0 j
Magnitude of v = 12.4 m/s and θ = tan-1(vy/vx) ≈ 76o
HOTS
Q1. 𝑨and𝑩are two vectors and Θ is the angle between them, If
│𝑨x𝑩│ = √3 (𝑨.𝑩), calculate the value of angle Θ .
Ans : 60 0
Q2. A boat is sent across a river with a velocity of 8km/h. if the resultant velocity
of boat is 10 km/h , then calculate the velocity of the river.
Ans : 6 km/h.
Q3. A cricket ball is hit at 450 to the horizontal with a kinetic energy E. calculate
37
the kinetic energy at the highest point.
Ans: E/2. (Because the horizontal component uCos450 is present on highest
Point.)
Q4. Speed of two identical cars are u and 4u at a specific instant. The ratio of
the respective distances at which the two cars stopped from that instant.
Ans : 1 : 16
Q5. A projectile can have the same range R for two angles of projection. If t1 and
t2be the time of flight in the two cases, then prove that
t1t2 = 2R/g
Ans: for equal range the particle should either be projected at an angle Θ and
(90 - Θ),
then t1 = 2u SinΘ/g
t2 = 2u Sin(90 - Θ)/g = 2u CosΘ/g
t1t2 = 2R/g .
(5 Mark Question)
1. Define angular acceleration. Establish its relation with linear acceleration.

2. Show that there are two angles of projection for which the horizontal range is same
for a projectile.
3. A projectile is projected with velocity u making angle θ with horizontal direction,
find:
(a) trajectory of projectile (b) time of flight (c) horizontal range (d) maximum height.
38
Unit – III
LAWS OF MOTION
MEMORY MAP
Newton’s 1st Law
If F = 0
u = Constant
Newton’s 2nd Law Newton’s 3rd Law
F = dp/dt Newton’s Laws of Motion F12 = F12
a = FNet/m F12 = - F12
FORCE
Principle of Conservation Impulse
of Momentum I = FAVG ∆t
If, Fext = 0; pi = pf I = ∆p
39
GIST
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’ 1st law or Law of Inertia
40
Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion until and
unless and until it is compelled by an external force to change its state of rest or of
uniform motion.
Inertia
The property by virtue of which a body opposes any change in its state of
rest or of uniform motion is known as inertia. Greater the mass of the body greater is the
inertia. That is mass is the measure of the inertia of the body.
Numerical Application
If, F = 0 ; u = constant
Physical Application
1. When a moving bus suddenly stops, passenger’s head gets jerked in the forward
direction.
2. When a stationery bus suddenly starts moving passenger’s head gets jerked in the
backward direction.
3. On hitting used mattress by a stick, dust particles come out of it.
4. In order to catch a moving bus safely we must run forward in the direction of motion
of bus.
5. Whenever it is required to jump off a moving bus, we must always run for a short
distance after jumping on road to prevent us from falling in the forward direction.
41
Key Concept
In the absence of external applied force velocity of body remains unchanged.
Newton’ 2nd law
Rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and

this change always takes place in the direction of the applied force.
dp F
dt
or, dp =F (here proportionality constant is 1)
dt
putting, p = mv
F = dp
dt
42
or, F = dmv
dt
or, F = mdv + vdm
dt dt
or, F = mdv (if m is constant dm/dt = 0)
dt
or, F = ma
Note :- Above result is not Newton’s second law rather it is the conditional result obtained
from it, under the condition when m = constant.
a = FNet
m
Where FNet is the vector resultant of all the forces acting on the body.
F1
F2
43
F6 m F3 m FNet
F5 F4
Where, FNet = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + F5 + F6
(a)Horizontal Plane
i) Case - 1 N
Body kept on horizontal plane is at rest.
For vertical direction
N = mg(since body is at rest)

mg
ii) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally under single horizontal force.
N
a
N = mg (since body is at rest) F
44
For horizontal direction
F = ma mg
iii) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under two
horizontal forces. (F1 > F2) N
a
N = mg (since body is at rest) F2 F1
F1 - F2 = ma mg
iv) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally under single inclined force
FSinθ F
N
a
N + FSinθ = mg (since body is at rest) θ FCosθ
FCosθ = ma
mg
v) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under an inclined
force and a horizontal force. F1Sinθ
a N F1 a
N + F1Sinθ = mg (since body is at rest) F2 θ F1Cosθ
45
F1Cosθ – F2 = ma
mg
vi) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under two inclined
forces acting on opposite sides.
a
N F1Sinθ F1
N + F1Sinθ = mg + F2 SinФ
(since body is at rest) F2CosФ
Ф θ
For horizontal direction F1Cosθ
F1Cosθ – F2CosФ = ma F2 F2SinФ
mg
(b)Inclined Plane
i) Case - 1 N
Body sliding freely on inclined plane.

a
Perpendicular to the plane
N = mgCosθ (since body is at rest) mgSinθ θ
Parallel to the plane mgCos θ
mgSinθ = ma θ mg
46
ii) Case - 2
Body pulled parallel to the inclined plane. a
N F
N = mgCosθ (since body is at rest)
mgSinθ
Parallel to the plane θ
F - mgSinθ = ma
mgCos θ
mg
iii) Case - 3
Body pulled parallel to the inclined plane but accelerating downwards.
Perpendicular to the plane F

a
Parallel to the plane mgSinθ θ
mgSinθ - F = ma
mgCos θ
47
θ mg
iv) Case - 4
Body accelerating up the incline under the effect of two forces acting parallel to the incline.
N F1
a

F2
F1 - F2 - mgSinθ = ma
mgCos θ
mg
v) Case - 5
Body accelerating up the incline under the effect of horizontal force.

F1Cos θ
a
N θ F1
N = mgCosθ + F1Sinθ (since body is at rest) F1Sin θ
Parallel to the plane mgSinθ
F1Cosθ - mgSinθ = ma
mgCos θ
mg
48
θ
vi) Case - 6
Body accelerating down the incline under the effect of horizontal force and gravity.
N
a
FSinθ
N + FSinθ = mgCosθ (since body is at rest) F θ
FCosθ
FCosθ + mgSinθ = ma
mgCos θ
mg a
θ
vii) Case - 7
Body accelerating up the incline under the effect of two horizontal forces acting on opposite
sides of a body and gravity.
a
N F2Cosθ
F1Sinθ θ F2
Perpendicular to the plane F1
N + F1Sinθ = mgCosθ + F2Sinθ(since body is at rest) θ F2Sinθ
F1Cosθ
F2Cosθ - F1Cosθ - mgSinθ = ma

mgCos θ
mg
θ mg
49
(c)Vertical Plane
i) Case - 1
Body pushed against the vertical plane by horizontal force and moving vertically downward.
a
mg = ma (since body is at rest) N
F=N
mg
ii) Case - 2
Body pushed against the vertical plane by horizontal force and pulled vertically upward.
F2
For vertical direction a
F2 - mg = ma
N
50
For horizontal direction (since body is at rest) F1
N = F1
mg
iii) Case - 3
Body pushed against the vertical plane by inclined force and accelerates vertically upward.
FCos θ
F
a
For horizontal direction θ
N = FSinθ (since body is at rest)
FSinθ N
FCosθ – mg = ma
mg
iv) Case - 3
Body pushed against the vertical plane by inclined force and accelerates vertically
downward.
a
N
For horizontal direction FSinθ
N = FSinθ (since body is at rest) θ
For vertical direction FCosθ
FCosθ + mg = ma mg
51
Tension In A Light String
Force applied by any linear object such as string, rope, chain, rod etc. is known
as it’s tension. Since string is a highly flexible object so it can only pull the object and can
never push. Hence tension of the string always acts away from the body to which it is
attached irrespective of the direction.
Tension of the string, being of pulling nature, always acts away from the body to which it is attached
i) Flexible wire holding the lamp pulls the lamp in upward direction and pulls the point of
suspension in the downward direction.
ii) Rope holding the bucket in the well pulls the bucket in the upward direction and the pulley
in the downward direction.
iii) Rope attached between the cattle and the peg pulls the cattle towards the peg and peg
towards the cattle.
52
iv) When a block is pulled by the chain, the chain pulls the block in forward direction and the
person holding the chain in reverse direction.
Key Point
In case of light string, rope, chain, rod etc. tension is same all along their lengths.
T1 P T2
Consider a point P on a light (massless) string. Let tensions on either side of it be T1 and T2
respectively and the string be accelerating towards left under these forces. Then for point P
T1 - T2 = ma
Since string is considered to be light mass m of point P is zero
or, T1 - T2 = 0
or, T1 = T2
i) Case - 1
Two bodies connected by a string are placed on a smooth horizontal plane and pulled by
a horizontal force.
N2 N1
m2 T T m1 F
53
m2g m1g
For vertical equilibrium of m1 and m2
N1 = m1g and N2 = m2g
For horizontal acceleration of m1 and m2
F – T = m1a and T = m2a
(Since both the bodies are connected to the same single string they have same acceleration)
ii) Case - 2
Two bodies connected by a horizontal string are placed on a smooth horizontal plane
and pulled by a inclined force.
N2 N1 FSinθ F
a
m2 T T m1 θ FCosθ
54
m2g m1g
N1 + FSinθ = m1g and N2 = m2g
FCosθ – T = m1a and T = m2a
(since both the bodies are connected to the same single string they have same accelerations)
iii) Case - 3
Two bodies connected by a inclined string are placed on a smooth horizontal plane and
pulled by a inclined force.
N2
a N1 FSinθ F
TCosθ
m2 TSinθ T m1 θ
T TSinθ FCosθ
TCosθ
m2g m1g
N1 + FSinθ = m1g + TSinθ and N2 + TSinθ = m2g
55
FCosθ – TCosθ = m1a and TCosθ = m2a
(Since both the bodies are connected to the same single string they have same accelerations)
iv) Case - 4
Two bodies connected by a string made to accelerate up the incline by applying force
parallel to the incline.
N1 F
a
m1gSinθ
N2
T m1gCosθ
m1g
m2gSinθ
m2g m2gCosθ
For equilibrium of m1 and m2 in the direction perpendicular to the plane
N1 = m1gCosθ and N2 = m2gCosθ
For acceleration of m1 and m2 up the incline
F - T - m1gSinθ = m1a and T - m2gSinθ = m2a
Tension of A light Rigid Rod
56
Force applied by rod is also known as its tension. Since rod is rigid, it
cannot bend like string. Hence rod can pull as well as push. Tension of rod can be of pulling
as well as pushing nature but one at a time. Tension of a rod attached to the body may be
directed towards as well as away from the body.
T T FFF T T
Tension of rod is pulling both the blocks Tension of rod is pushing both the blocks
i) Pillars supporting the house pushes the house in the upward direction and pushes the
ground in the downward direction.
ii) Wooden bars used in the chair pushes the ground in the downward direction and pushes
the seating top in the upward direction.
iii) Parallel bars attached to the ice-cream trolley pushes the trolley in the forward direction
and pushes the ice-cream vendor in the backward direction.(when the trolley is being pushed
by the vendor)
iv) Rod holding the ceiling fan pulls the fan in the upward direction and pulls the hook
attached to the ceiling in the downward direction.
v) Parallel rods attached between the cart and the bull pulls the cart in the forward direction
and pulls the bull in the backward direction.
Different Cases of Light Rigid Rod
i) Case - 1
Rod attached from the ceiling and supporting the block attached to its lower end.
Since the block is at rest
57
T
T = mg
T
mg
ii) Case - 2
Rod is attached between two blocks placed on the horizontal plane and the blocks are
accelerated by pushing force.
N1 N2
a
For vertical equilibrium of m1 and m2 m1 T T m2
N1 = m1g and N2 = m2g F
F – T = m1a and T = m2a m1g m2g
58
(Since both the bodies connected to the rod will have same acceleration)
iii) Case - 3
Rod is attached between two blocks placed on the horizontal plane and the blocks are
accelerated by pulling force. N2 N1
a
m2 T T m1 F
N1 = m1g and N2 = m2g m2g m1g
F – T = m1a and T = m2a
(Since both the bodies are connected to the same rod they have same acceleration)
iv) Case - 4
Rod is attached between two blocks placed on the incline plane and the blocks are
accelerated by pushing parallel to the incline. N2
a
m2gSinθ
For vertical equilibrium of m1 and m2 N1 T
N1 = m1gCosθ and N2 = m2gCosθ T m2gCosθ
m2ga
For acceleration of m1 and m2 parallel to F m1gSinθ
the incline m1gCosθ
F – m1gSinθ - T = m1a, θ m1g
59
T – m2gSinθ = m2a
Fixed Pulley
It is a simple machine in the form of a circular disc or rim supported by spokes

having groove at its periphery. It is free to rotate about an axis passing through its center
and perpendicular to its plane.
Key Point
In case of light pulley, tension in the rope on both the sides of the pulley is
same (to be proved in the rotational mechanics)
r r
T1 T2
Anticlockwise Torque - Clockwise Torque = Moment of Inertia x Angular acceleration
T1 x r - T2 x r = Iα
Since the pulley is light and hence considered to be massless, it’s moment of inertia
I=0
60
or, T1 x r - T2 x r = 0
or, T1 x r = T 2 x r
or, T1 = T2
Different Cases of Fixed Pulley
61
i) Case - 1
Two bodies of different masses (m1 > m2) are attached at T1
two ends of a light string passing over a smooth light pulley
For vertical equilibrium of pulley T1

a
T1 = T + T = 2T a
T T
For vertical acceleration of m1 and m2
m1g - T = m1a and T - m2g = m2a T T
m1 accelerates downwards and m2 accelerates upwards(m1>m2) m1 m2
m1g m2g
ii) Case - 2
62
Two bodies of different masses are attached at two ends of a light string passing over a
light pulley. m1 is placed on a horizontal surface and m2 is hanging freely in air.
N
a
For vertical equilibrium m1
N = m1g m1
T T
For horizontal acceleration of m1

a
T = m1a m1g T
For vertically downward acceleration of m2 T
m2g - T = m2a
m2g
iii) Case - 3
Two bodies of different masses are attached at two ends of a light string passing over a
light pulley. m1 is placed on an inclined surface and m2 is hanging freely in air.
For equilibrium of m1 perpendicular to incline plane a T

a
N = m1gCosθ N
For acceleration of m1 up the incline plane T
T - m1gSinθ = m1a m1
m1gSinθ m2
For vertically downward acceleration of m2
63
m2g - T = m2a m2g
m1g m1gCosθ
Movable Pulley
The pulley which moves in itself is known as movable pulley.
Key Point
64
In case of light movable pulley, acceleration of a body (pulley) goes on
decreasing on increasing the number of strings attached to it. That is the body attached with
two ropes moves with half the acceleration of the body attached with single rope.
Length of the string is constant z
x + 2y + z = L (Constant)
Differentiating both sides with respect to t (Time)
dx + 2dy + dz = dL
dt dt dt dt y
a1
or, v1 + 2v2 + 0 = 0 (z and L are constant) x
or, v1 + 2v2 = 0 a2
Again differentiating both sides with respect to t
dv1 + 2dv2 = 0
dt dt m1 m2
or, a1 + 2a2 = 0
or, a1 = - 2a2
That is acceleration of m1 (body attached to a single string) is opposite and twice the
acceleration of m2 (body attached to a double string)
65
Different Cases of Light Movable Pulley
i) Case - 1
Mass m1 is attached at one end of the string and the other end is fixed to a rigid support.
Mass m2 is attached to the light movable pulley.
w T1 T
For vertical acceleration of m1 T1
m1g - T = m12a (m1 is connected to a single string)
For vertical acceleration of m2 T T
T2 – m2g = m2a
2a
(m1 accelerates downwards and m 2 accelerates upwards since m1>2m2) T T
a
T2
For the clamp holding the first pulley
T1 = 2T
66
T T2a
For the clamp holding the movable pulley m1 m2
2T - T2 = mpulleya
or, 2T - T2 = 0 (light pulley)
or, 2T = T2 m1g m2g
ii) Case - 2
Mass m1 is attached at one end of the string and placed on a smooth horizontal surface and
the other end is fixed to a rigid support after passing through a light movable suspended
pulley. Mass m2 is attached to the light movable pulley.
N
2a
For vertical equilibrium of m1 a
N = m1g m1 T T T
For horizontal acceleration of m1

a
T = m12a m1g T
For vertical motion of m2 T T
m2g – 2T = m2a
m2
a
m2g
67
iii) Case - 3
Mass m1 is attached to the movable pulley and placed on a smooth horizontal surface. One
end of the string is attached to the clamp holding the pulley fixed to the horizontal surface
and from its other end mass m2 suspended.
N a
For vertical equilibrium of m1 T T
N = m1g m1
T T 2a
For horizontal motion of m1 T
2T = m1a m1g T
For vertical motion of m2 m2
m2g - T = m22a
m2g
iv) Case - 4
Mass m1 is attached to a movable pulley and placed on a smooth inclined surface. Mass m2
is is suspended freely from a fixed light pulley.
t T T
For equilibrium of m1 perpendicular to incline plane T
N = m1gCosθ a T 2a
x T T
For acceleration of m1 up the incline plane N T m2
68
2T - m1gSinθ = m1a
m1
For vertically downward acceleration of m2 m2g
m2g - T = m22a
m1gSinθ m1gCosθ
m1g
Newton’ 3rd law or Law of Action and Reaction
Every action is opposed by an equal and opposite reaction.
or
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
F12 m1 F21
m2
F12 is the force on the first body (m1) due to second body (m2)
F21 is the force on the second body (m2) due to first body (m1)
If F12 is action then F21 reaction and if F21 is action then F12 reaction
69
Force on the first body due to second body (F12) is equal and opposite to the force
on the second body due to first body (F21).
F21 = - F12
i) When we push any block in the forward direction then block pushes us in the backward
direction with an equal and opposite force.
ii) Horse pulls the rod attached to the cart in the forward direction and the tension of the rod
pulls the cart in the backward direction.
iii) Earth pulls the body on its surface in vertically downward direction and the body pulls the
earth with the same force in vertically upward direction.
iv) While walking we push the ground in the backward direction using static frictional force
and the ground pushes us in the forward direction using static frictional force.
v) When a person sitting on the horse whips the horse and horse suddenly accelerates, the
saddle on the back of the horse pushes the person in the forward direction using static
frictional force and the person pushes the saddle in the backward direction using static
frictional force.
Note – Normal reaction of the horizontal surface on the body is not the reaction of the weight of the
body because weight of the body is the force with which earth attracts the body towards its center,
hence its reaction must be the force with which body attracts earth towards it.
Linear Momentum
It is defined as the quantity of motion contained in the body. Mathematically it

is given by the product of mass and velocity. It is a vector quantity represented by p.
p = mv
70
Principle of Conservation Of Linear Momentum
It states that in the absence of any external applied force total momentum of a
system remains conserved.
Proof-
We know that,
F = ma
or, F = mdv
dt
or, F = dmv
dt
or, F = dp
dt
if, F=0
dp = 0
dt
or, p = Constant (differentiation of constant is zero)
or, pinitial = pfinal
71
i) Recoil of gun – when bullet is fired in the forward direction gun recoils in the backward
direction.
ii) When a person jumps on the boat from the shore of river, boat along with the person on it
moves in the forward direction.
iii) When a person on the boat jumps forward on the shore of river, boat starts moving in the
backward direction.
iv) In rocket propulsion fuel is ejected out in the downward direction due to which rocket is
propelled up in vertically upward direction.
Different Cases of Conservation of Linear Momentum
Recoil of gun
Let mass of gun be mg and that of bullet be mb.
Initially both are at rest, hence their initial momentum is zero.
pi = mgug + mbub = 0
72
Finally when bullet rushes out with velocity vg, gun recoils with velocity vb, hence their final
momentum is
pf = mgvg + mbvb
Since there is no external applied force, from the principal of conservation of linear
momentum
pf = pf
or, mgvg + mbvb = 0
or, mgvg = -mbvb
or, vg = - mbvb
mg
From above expression it must be clear that
1. Gun recoils opposite to the direction of motion of bullet.
2. Greater is the mass of mullet mb or velocity of bullet vb greater is the recoil of the gun.
3. Greater is the mass of gun mg, smaller is the recoil of gun.
Impulse and Impulsive Force
Impulsive Force
The force which acts on a body for very short duration of time but is still
capable of changing the position, velocity and direction of motion of the body up to large
extent is known as impulsive force.
Example -
1. Force applied by foot on hitting a football.
2. Force applied by boxer on a punching bag.
73
3. Force applied by bat on a ball in hitting it to the boundary.
4. Force applied by a moving truck on a drum.
Note- Although impulsive force acts on a body for a very short duration of time yet its
magnitude varies rapidly during that small duration.
Impulse
Impulse received by the body during an impact is defined as the product of
average impulsive force and the short time duration for which it acts.
I = Favg x t
Relation Between Impulse and Linear Momentum
Consider a body being acted upon by an impulsive force, this force changes
its magnitude rapidly with the time. At any instant if impulsive force is F then elementary
impulse imparted to the body in the elementary time dt is given by
dI = F x dt
Hence total impulse imparted to the body from time t1 to t2 is

t2
I = ∫Fdt
t1
But from Newton’s second law we know that
F = dp
dt
or, Fdt = dp
74
Therefore, p2
I= ∫ dp
p1
p2
or, I = [p]
p1
or, I = p2 – p1
Hence impulse imparted to the body is equal to the change in its momentum.
Graph Between Impulsive Force and Time
With the time on x axis and impulsive force on y axis the graph of the
following nature is obtained
t1 t2
Area enclosed under the impulsive force and time graph from t1 to t2 gives the impulse
imparted to the body from time t1 to t2.
75
i) While catching a ball a player lowers his hand to save himself from getting hurt.
ii) Vehicles are provided with the shock absorbers to avoid jerks.
iii) Buffers are provided between the bogies of the train to avoid jerks.
iv) A person falling on a cemented floor receive more jerk as compared to that falling on a
sandy floor.
v) Glass wares are wrapped in a straw or paper before packing.
Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces
If the number of forces acts at the same point, they are called concurrent forces.
The condition or the given body to be in equilibrium under the number of forces acting on
the body is that these forces should produce zero resultant.
The resultant of the concurrent forces acting on a body will be zero if they can be
represented completely by the sides of a closed polygon taken in order.
F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + F5 = 0
F3 F4
F2
F3
F5
F4 F1
F2
F1
76
F5
Lami’s Theorem – It states that the three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium if each
force is proportional the sine of the angle between the other two forces.
F1 F2
β β α
F1
F3
F2
F3
F1 = F2 = F3
Sin α Sin β Sin ϒ
Inertial and Non-inertial Frame of Reference
77
Frame of reference is any frame with respect to which the body is
analyzed. All the frames which are at rest or moving with a constant velocity are said to be
inertial frame of reference. In such frame of reference all the three laws of Newton are
applicable.
Any accelerated frame of reference is said to be non-inertial frame of

reference. In such frames all the three laws of Newton are not applicable as such. In order
to apply Newton’s laws of motion in a non-inertial frame, along with all other forces a pseudo
force F = ma must also be applied on the body opposite to the direction of acceleration of
the frame.
a a
T T
θ θ a
T TCosθ T TCosθ
TSinθ TSinθ ma
mg mg
Inertial Frame of Reference Inertial Frame of Reference
(Frame outside the accelerated car) (Frame attached to the accelerated car)
For vertical equilibrium of body For vertical equilibrium of body
TCosθ = mg 78 TCosθ = mg
For horizontal acceleration of body, as the For horizontal equilibrium of the body, as
body is accelerated along with the car the body is at rest when observed from the
when observed from the external frame frame attached to the car
Since body is at rest when observed from the non-inertial frame attached to
the accelerated car a pseudo force F = ma is applied on the body opposite to the acceleration of
the car which balance the horizontal component of tension of the string TSinθ acting on the body.
Note- From which ever frame we may observe the situation, final result always comes out to be
the same.
Reading of Spring Balance
Reading of a spring balance is equal to the tension in the spring of the balance but
measured in kilogram.
Reading = T kgf
79
Reading of Weighing Machine
a=0
Reading of a weighing machine is equal to the normal reaction applied by the machine but
measured in kilogram.
Reading = N kgf
LIFT
T T T
a a
T T T
mg a=0 mg mg
Observer Outside the Lift
Lift Accelerating Vertically Up

Moving up with increasing velocity.
80
or
Moving down with decreasing velocity.

Lift Accelerating Vertically Up Lift Accelerating Vertically
Down
Moving up with constant velocity.
Moving up with decreasing velocity.
or
or
Moving down with constant velocity.
Moving down with increasing velocity.
a=0For vertical motion of body
For vertical motion of body
mg - T = ma
T = mg
or, T = mg - ma
or, T = m(g - a)
T T T
a a
T T T
mg' a=0 mg’ mg’
Observer Inside the Lift
(Body is at rest according to the observer inside the lift)
Lift Accelerating Vertically

Up Lift Accelerating Vertically Lift Accelerating Vertically
Up Down
Moving up with increasing velocity.
Moving up with constant velocity. Moving up with decreasing velocity.
or
81
or or
Moving down with decreasing
velocity.
Moving down with constant velocity. Moving down with increasing velocity.
Since body is at rest

82
MEMORY MAP
Static Frictional
Force
0 ≤ fs ≤ µsN
83
Kinetic Frictional Rolling Frictional

Force
84
FRICTION
Friction - The property by virtue of which the relative motion between two surfaces in
contact is opposed is known as friction.
Frictional Forces - Tangential forces developed between the two surfaces in contact, so as
to oppose their relative motion are known as frictional forces or commonly friction.
Types of Frictional Forces - Frictional forces are of three types :-
1. Static frictional force
2. Kinetic frictional force
3. Rolling frictional force
Static Frictional Force - Frictional force acting between the two surfaces in contact which
are relatively at rest, so as to oppose their relative motion, when they tend to move relatively
under the effect of any external force is known as static frictional force. Static frictional force
is a self adjusting force and its value lies between its minimum value up to its maximum
value.
Minimum value of static frictional force - Minimum value of static frictional force is zero in
the condition when the bodies are relatively at rest and no external force is acting to move
them relatively.
fs(min) = 0
Maximum value of static frictional force - Maximum value of static frictional force is µsN
(where µs is the coefficient of static friction for the given pair of surface and N is the normal
reaction acting between the two surfaces in contact) in the condition when the bodies are
just about to move relatively under the effect of external applied force.
85
fs(max) = µsN
Therefore, fs(min) ≤ fs ≤ fs(max)
Or, 0 ≤ fs ≤ µsN
Kinetic Frictional Force - Frictional force acting between the two surfaces in contact which
are moving relatively, so as to oppose their relative motion, is known as kinetic frictional
force. It’s magnitude is almost constant and is equal to µkN where µk is the coefficient of
kinetic friction for the given pair of surface and N is the normal reaction acting between the
two surfaces in contact. It is always less than maximum value of static frictional force.
fk = µkN
Since, fk < fs(max) = µsN
Therefore, µkN < µsN
or, µk < µs
Limiting Frictional Force – The maximum value of static frictional force is the maximum
frictional force which can act between the two surfaces in contact and hence it is also known
as limiting frictional force.
Laws of Limiting Frictional Force –
1. Static friction depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact.
2. It comes into action only when any external force is applied to move the two bodies
relatively, with their surfaces in contact.
3. Static friction opposes the impending motion.
4. It is a self adjusting force.
5. The limiting frictional force is independent of the area of contact between the two
surfaces.
86
Cause of Friction
Old View - The surfaces which appear to be smooth as seen through our naked eyes are
actually rough at the microscopic level. During contact, the projections of one surface
penetrate into the depressions of other and vice versa. Due to which the two surfaces in
contact form a saw tooth joint opposing their relative motion. When external force is applied
so as to move them relatively this joint opposes their relative motion. As we go on increasing
the external applied force the opposition of saw tooth joint also goes on increasing up to the
maximum value known as limiting frictional force (µsN) after which the joint suddenly breaks
and the surfaces start moving relatively. After this the opposition offered by the saw tooth
joint slightly decreases and comes to rest at almost constant value (µkN)
Modern View – According to modern theory the cause of friction is the atomic and
molecular forces of attraction between the two surfaces at their actual point of contact.
When any body comes in contact with any other body then due to their roughness at the
microscopic level they come in actual contact at several points. At these points the atoms
and molecules come very close to each other and intermolecular force of attraction start
acting between them which opposes their relative motion.
Contact Force - The forces acting between the two bodies due to the mutual contact of
their surfaces are known as contact forces. The resultant of all the contact forces acting
between the bodies is known as resultant contact force. Example friction (f) and normal
reaction (N) are contact forces and their resultant (Fc) is the resultant is the resultant contact
force.
Fc N
87
f
mg
Fc = √ f2 + N2
Since maximum value of frictional force is Limiting frictional force (µsN) Therefore maximum
value of contact force is
Fc(max) = √ (µsN) 2 + N2
or, Fc(max) = N√ µs 2 + 12
or, Fc(max) = N√ µs 2 + 1
Angle of Friction – The angle between the resultant contact force (of normal reaction and
friction) and the normal reaction is known as the angle of friction.
Tan  = f Fc N
or,  = Tan-1 f
N 
or,  max = Tan-1 f max
88
N
or,  max = Tan-1 µsN
N mg
or,  max = Tan-1 µs
Angle of Repose – The angle of the inclined plane at which a body placed on it just begins
to slide is known as angle of repose.
N = mgCosθ (since body is at rest) fs
Parallel to the plane when body is at rest mgSinθ θ
mgSinθ = fs mgCosθ
When body is just about to slide mg

θ
mgSinθ = fs(max) = µsN = µsmgCosθ

or, Tanθ = µs
-1
or, θ = Tan µs
89
Note - Angle of repose is equal to the maximum value of angle of friction
Rolling Frictional Force - Frictional force which opposes the rolling of bodies (like cylinder,
sphere, ring etc.) over any surface is called rolling frictional force. Rolling frictional force
acting between any rolling body and the surface is almost constant and is given by µrN.
Where µr is coefficient of rolling friction and N is the normal reaction between the rolling
body and the surface.
fr = µrN
Note – Rolling frictional force is much smaller than maximum value of static and kinetic
frictional force.
fr << fk < fs(max)
or, µrN << µkN < µsN
or, µr << µk < µs
Cause of Rolling Friction – When any body rolls over any surface it causes a little
depression and a small hump is created just ahead of it. The hump offers resistance to the
motion of the rolling body, this resistance is rolling frictional force. Due to this reason only,
hard surfaces like cemented floor offers less resistance as compared to soft sandy floor
because hump created on a hard floor
is much smaller as compared to the soft floor.
fr
v(direction of rolling)
90
Need to Convert Kinetic Friction into Rolling Friction – Of all the frictional forces rolling
frictional force is minimum. Hence in order to avoid the wear and tear of machinery it is
required to convert kinetic frictional force into rolling frictional force and for this reason we
make the use of ball-bearings.
Rings having groove on its inner side
Rings having groove on its outer side
Steel ball trapped between the groves
Friction: A Necessary Evil – Although frictional force is a non-conservative force and

causes lots of wastage of energy in the form of heat yet it is very useful to us in many ways.
That is why it is considered as a necessary evil.
Advantages of Friction -
i) Friction is necessary in walking. Without friction it would have been impossible for us to
walk.
ii) Friction is necessary for the movement of vehicles on the road. It is the static frictional
force which makes the acceleration and retardation of vehicles possible on the road.
iii) Friction is helpful in tying knots in the ropes and strings.
iv) We are able to hold anything with our hands by the help of friction only.
Disadvantages of Friction -
i) Friction causes wear and tear in the machinery parts.
ii) Kinetic friction wastes energy in the form of heat, light and sound.
91
iii) A part of fuel energy is consumed in overcoming the friction operating within the various
parts of machinery.
Methods to Reduce Friction –
i) By polishing – Polishing makes the surface smooth by filling the space between the
depressions and projections present in the surface of the bodies at microscopic level and
there by reduces friction.
ii) By proper selection of material – Since friction depends upon the nature of material used
hence it can be largely reduced by proper selection of materials.
iii) By lubricating – When oil or grease is placed between the two surfaces in contact, it
prevents the surface from coming in actual contact with each other. This converts solid
friction into liquid friction which is very small.
Horizontal Plane
i) Body kept on horizontal plane is at rest and no force is applied.
For vertical equilibrium
N = mg
ffriction = 0 (friction is a opposing force and there is no external applied force)
92
mg
ii) Body kept on horizontal plane is at rest under single horizontal force.
For vertical equilibrium N
N = mg (since body is at rest)

F
For horizontal equilibrium (since body is at rest) fs
F = fs mg
iii) Body kept on horizontal plane is just about to move.
For vertical direction N

F
For horizontal direction (since body is just about to move) fs = fs(max) = µsN
F = fs = fs(max) = µsN
a mg
iv) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally.
For vertical direction N a

F
For horizontal direction fk = µkN
F – fk = ma
or, F – µkN = ma mg
v) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under single
upward inclined force.
93
N FSinθ F

N + FSinθ = mg (since body is at rest)
For horizontal direction FCosθ
FCosθ - fk = ma fk = µkN
or, FCosθ - µkN = ma

mg
vi) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under single
downward inclined force.
N

a
N = FSinθ + mg (since body is at rest) FCosθ
θ θ
For horizontal direction F
FCosθ - fk = ma f k = µ kN FSinθ
or, FCosθ - µkN = ma

mg
vii) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under an inclined
force and an opposing horizontally applied force.
N FSinθ F

N + FSinθ = mg (since body is at rest)
F1 θ θ
For horizontal direction FCosθ
FCosθ - F1 - fk = ma fk = µkN
94
or, FCosθ - F1 - µkN = ma
mg
vi) Body kept on horizontal plane is accelerating horizontally towards right under two inclined
forces acting on opposite sides.
N F1Sinθ F1
a
For vertical direction(since body is at rest)
N + F1Sinθ = mg + F2 SinФ F2CosФ Ф
θ
For horizontal direction F2 F2SinФ F1Cosθ
F1Cosθ – F2CosФ - µkN = ma f k = µ kN
mg
Inclined Plane
i) Case - 1 N
Body is at rest on inclined plane.

N fs

mgSinθ θ
Parallel to the plane (since body is at rest)
mgSinθ = fs
mgCos θ
mg
95
ii) Case - 2
Body is just about to move on inclined plane. N
fs = fs(max) = µsN

mgSinθ
Parallel to the plane (since body is at rest)
mgSinθ = fs = fs(max) = µsN

mgCos θ
mg
iii) Case - 3
Body is accelerating downwards on inclined plane. N

a
fk

mgSinθ
Parallel to the plane
mgSinθ - fk = ma
96
or, mgSinθ - µkN = ma mgCos θ
mg
iv) Case - 4
Body is accelerating up the incline under the effect of force acting parallel to the incline.
N F
F - fk - mgSinθ = ma
or, F - µkN - mgSinθ = ma fk mgCos θ
mg
v) Case - 5
97
Body accelerating up the incline under the effect of horizontal force.
FCos θ
N θ
a F
Perpendicular to the plane FSinθ
N = mgCosθ + FSinθ (since body is at rest)
FCosθ - mgSinθ - fk = ma fk mgCos θ
or, FCosθ - mgSinθ - µkN ma mg
Vertical Plane
i) Case - 1
Body pushed against the vertical plane by horizontal force and is at rest.
fs
For horizontal direction (since body is at rest)
F=N
F
98
For vertical direction N
mg = fs
mg
ii) Case - 2
Body pushed against the vertical plane by horizontal force and pulled vertically upward
F1
a
For horizontal direction (since body is at rest)
F=N F
F1 - mg – fs = ma fs
mg
iii) Case - 3
Body pushed against the vertical plane by inclined force and accelerates vertically upward.
FCosθ
F a
For horizontal direction θ
N = FSinθ (since body is at rest)
FSinθ N
FCosθ - mg - fs = ma fs
99
mg
100
MEMORY MAP
ω = v = 2= 2f 
r T
Centripetal Force Centrifugal Force
FC = mv2 = mrω2 FCF = mv2 = mrω2

r r
Circular Motion
Radially Outward Direction Radially Inward Direction
Critical
Condition For
Body Tied to String Body Attached to Rod
Vertical
101Circular Motion
Vtop = √(rg) and Vbottom = √(5rg) Vtop = 0 and Vbottom = √(4rg)
Ttop = 0 and Tbottom = 6mg Ttop = -mg and Tbottom = 5mg

102
CIRCULAR MOTION
Circular Motion – When a body moves such that it always remains at a fixed distance from
a fixed point then its motion is said to be circular motion. The fixed distance is called the
radius of the circular path and the fixed point is called the center of the circular path.
Uniform Circular Motion – Circular motion performed with a constant speed is known as
uniform circular motion.
Angular Displacement – Angle swept by the radius vector of a particle moving on a circular
path is known as angular displacement of the particle. Example :– angular displacement of
the particle from P1 to P2 is θ.
P2
P1
Relation Between Angular Displacement and Linear Displacement –
Since, Angle = arc
radius
Anglular Displacement = arc P1P2
103
radius
θ= s
Angular Velocity – Rate of change of angular displacement of a body with respect to time
is known as angular displacement. It is represented by ω.
Average Angular Velocity – It is defined as the ratio of total angular displacement to total
time taken.
ωavg = Total Angular Displacement
Total Time Taken
ωavg = ∆θ
∆t
Instantaneous Angular Velocity – Angular velocity of a body at some particular instant of

time is known as instantaneous angular velocity.
Or
Average angular velocity evaluated for very short duration of time is known as
instantaneous angular velocity.
ω = Lim ωavg = ∆θ
∆ t→0 ∆t
ω = dθ
dt
104
Relation between Angular Velocity and Linear Velocity
We know that angular velocity
ω = dθ
dt
Putting, θ = s/r
ω = d (s/r)
dt
or, ω = 1 ds
r dt
or, ω= v
or, v = rω
Time Period of Uniform Circular Motion – Total time taken by the particle performing
uniform circular motion to complete one full circular path is known as time period.
In one time period total angle rotated by the particle is 2 and time period is T. Hence
angular velocity
ω = 2 
T
or, T = 2 
ω 
105
Frequency - Number of revolutions made by the particle moving on circular path in one
second is known as frequency.
f= 1 = ωa
T 2
Centripetal Acceleration – When a body performs uniform circular motion its speed
remains constant but velocity continuously changes due to change of direction. Hence a
body is continuously accelerated and the acceleration experienced by the body is known as
centripetal acceleration (that is the acceleration directed towards the center).
v2
a P2
r v1 ∆v ∆v
O θ ∆s C B
R v2 θ v1 v θ v
P1
Consider a particle performing uniform circular motion with speed v. When the
particle changes its position from P1 to P2 its velocity changes from v1 to v2 due to change of
direction. The change in velocity from P1 to P2 is ∆v which is directed towards the center of
the circular path according to triangle law of subtraction of vectors.
From figure ∆OP1P2 and ∆ABC are similar, hence applying the condition of similarity
BC = P1 P1
AB O P1
or, ∆v = ∆s
v r
or, ∆v = v∆s
106
r
Dividing both sides by ∆t, ∆v = v∆s
∆t r∆t
Taking limit ∆t 0 both sides,
Lim ∆v = v Lim ∆θ
∆ t→0 ∆t r ∆ t →0 ∆t
or, dv = vds
dt dt
or, a = v2
Putting v = rω, a = rω2
Since the change of velocity is directed towards the center of the circular path,
the acceleration responsible for the change in velocity is also directed towards center of
circular path and hence it is known as centripetal acceleration.
Centripetal Force – Force responsible for producing centripetal acceleration is known as

centripetal force. Since centripetal acceleration is directed towards the center of the circular
path the centripetal force is also directed towards the center of the circular path.
If a body is performing uniform circular motion with speed v and angular velocity ω
on a circular path of radius r, then centripetal acceleration is given by
107
Fc Fc = mv2 = mrω2
Net Acceleration of a Body Performing Non-Uniform Circular Motion
When a body performs non-uniform circular motion its speed i.e.

magnitude of instantaneous velocity varies with time due to which it experiences tangential
acceleration aT along with the centripetal acceleration aC. Since both the accelerations act
simultaneously on a body and are mutually perpendicular to each other, the resultant
acceleration aR is given by their vector sum.
aR
aT
aC
aR = aT + aC
aR =√ aT2 + aC2
Physical Application of Centripetal Force

108
i) Case - 1
Circular motion of a stone tied to a string.
Centripetal force is provided by the tension of the string
Fc = mv2 = T
ii) Case - 2
Circular motion of electron around the nucleus.
Centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the positively
charged nucleus and negatively charged electron
Fc = mv2 = FE
iii) Case - 3
Circular motion of planets around sun or satellites around planet.
109
Centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force of attraction between the planet and
sun
Fc = mv2 = Fg
iv) Case - 4
Circular motion of vehicles on a horizontal road.
Centripetal force is provided by the static frictional force between the road and the tyre of
the vehicle.
Fc = mv2 = fs
v) Case - 5
Circular motion of a block on rotating platform.
Centripetal force is provided by the static frictional force between the block and the platform.
Fc = mv2 = fs
vi) Case - 6
Circular motion of mud particles sticking to the wheels of the vehicle.
110
Centripetal force is provided by the adhesive force of attraction between the mud particles
and the tyres of the vehicle.
Fc = mv2 = Fadhesive
At very high speed when adhesive force is unable to provide necessary centripetal force, the
mud particles fly off tangentially. In order to prevent the particles from staining our clothes,
mud-guards are provided over the wheels of vehicle.
v v
vii) Case - 7
Circular motion of a train on a horizontal track.
Centripetal force is provided by the horizontal component of the reaction force applied by
the outer track on the inner projection of the outer wheels N NH
Fc = mv2 = NHorizontal
NH
viii) Case - 8
Circular motion of a toy hanging from ceiling of vehicle.
111
θ T TCosθ
TSinθ
mg
Car moving with constant velocity on horizontal road Car taking a turn with constant velocity on a horizontal road
Whenever car takes a turn, string holding the toy gets tilted outward such that the vertical
component of the tension of string balances the weight of the body and the horizontal
component of tension provides the necessary centripetal force.
TSinθ = mv2
TCosθ = mg
Therefore, Tanθ = v2
rg
ix) Case - 9
Conical pendulum.
θ T
T a
TCosθ
TSinθ
mg
112
Whenever bob of a pendulum moves on a horizontal circle it’s string generates a cone. Such
a pendulum is known as conical pendulum. The vertical component of the tension of the
string balances the weight of the body and the horizontal component of tension provides the
necessary centripetal force.
TSinθ = mv2
TCosθ = mg
rg
x) Case - 10
Well of death.
N NCosθ
NCosθ
mg
113
In the well of death, the rider tries to push the wall due to its tangential velocity in the
outward direction due to which wall applies normal reaction in the inward direction. The
vertical component of the normal reaction balances the weight of the body and its horizontal
component provides the necessary centripetal force.
NSinθ = mv2
NCosθ = mg
rg
xi) Case - 11
Turning of aero plane. FP FPCosθ
FP
FPSinθ
mg mg
While taking a turn aero-plane tilts slightly inwards due to which it’s pressure force also gets
tilted inwards due to which it’s pressure force also gets tilted inwards such that it’s vertical
component balances the weight of the body and the horizontal component provides the
114
FPSinθ = mv2
FPCosθ = mg
rg
xi) Case - 11
Banking of Roads
In case of horizontal road necessary centripetal force mv2/r is provided by static frictional
force. When heavy vehicles move with high speed on a sharp turn (small radius) then all the
factors contribute to huge centripetal force which if provided by the static frictional force may
result in the fatal accident.
To prevent this roads are banked by lifting their outer edge. Due to
this, normal reaction of road on the vehicle gets tilted inwards such that it’s vertical
component balances the weight of the body and the horizontal component provides the
n nCosθa
115
cθ
nSinθ
nSinθ = mv2
nCosθ = mg
rg
xii) Case - 12
Bending of Cyclist
In case of a cyclist moving on a horizontal circular track necessary

centripetal force is provided by static frictional force acting parallel along the base. As this
frictional force is not passing from the center of mass of the system it tends to rotate the
cycle along with the cyclist and make it fall outward of the center of the circular path.
To prevent himself from falling, the cyclist leans the cycle inwards
towards the center of the circle due to which the normal reaction of the surface of road on
the cycle also leans inward such that that its vertical component balances the weight of the
body and the horizontal component provides the necessary centripetal force.
116
N NCosθ
NSinθ
mg
NSinθ = mv2
NCosθ = mg
rg
xiii) Case - 13
Motion of a Ball in a Bowl
117
ω
o r
a θ N NCosθ
A θ
NCosθ
mg
When the bowl rotates with some angular velocity ω. The vertical component of
the normal reaction of the bowl on the ball balances the weight of the body and its horizontal
component provides the necessary centripetal force.
NSinθ = mv2
NCosθ = mg
rg
xiv) Case - 14
Motion of a train on the banked tracks.
At the turns tracks are banked by slightly elevating the outer tracks with respect to
the inner ones. This slightly tilts the train inwards towards the center of the circular path due
to which the normal reaction of the tracks on the train also gets slightly tilted inwards such
that the vertical component of the normal reaction balances the weight of the train and it’s
horizontal component provides the necessary centripetal force.
118
N NCosθ
mg
NSinθ = mv2
NCosθ = mg
rg
Vertical Circular Motion
Whenever the plane of circular path of body is vertical its motion is said to be
vertical circular motion.
Vertical Circular Motion of a Body Tied to a String
119
vA A
TA
mg
TA
Consider a body of mass m tied to a string and performing vertical circular

motion on a circular path of radius r. At the topmost point A of the body weight of the body
mg and tension TA both are acting in the vertically downward direction towards the center of
the circular path and they together provide centripetal force.
TA + mg = mvA2
Critical velocity at the top most point
As we go on decreasing the vA , tension TA also goes on decreasing and in the critical

condition when vA is minimum tension TA = 0. The minimum value of vA in this case is known
as critical velocity TA(Critical) at the point A. From above
0 + mg = mvA(Critical)2
120
or, vA(Critical)2 = rg
or, vA(Critical) = √rg
If the velocity at point A is less than this critical velocity then the string will slag and the body
in spite of moving on a circular path will tend to fall under gravity.
Critical velocity at the lower most point
2r
TB
TB
VB
121
mg
Taking B as reference level of gravitational potential energy and applying energy

conservation
EA = EB
PA + KA = PB + KB
mg2r + 1mvA2 = mg0 + 1mvB2
2 2
Putting, vA = √rg
mg2r + 1m(√rg) 2 = 0 + 1mvB2
2 2
or, 4mgr + mgr = mvB2
or, 5mgr = mvB2
or, vB = √5gr
This is the minimum possible velocity at the lower most point for vertical circular motion
known as critical velocity at point B.
vB(Critical) = √5gr
Tension at lowermost point in critical condition
For lowermost point B net force towards the center is centripetal force. Tension
TB acts towards the center of the circular path whereas weight mg acts away from it. Hence,
TB – mg = mvB2
Putting, vB = √5rg
122
TB – mg = m5gr
or, TB = 6mg
Hence in critical condition of vertical circular motion of a body tied to a string

velocities at topmost and lowermost be √(rg) and √(5rg) respectively and tensions in the
strings be 0 and 6mg respectively.
General Condition for Slagging of String in Vertical Circular Motion
For the body performing vertical circular motion tied to a string, slagging of
string occurs in the upper half of the vertical circle. If at any instant string makes angle θ with
vertical then applying net force towards center is equal to centripetal force, we have
mgCos θ
θ T v
mg
123
T + mgCos θ = mv2
For slagging T = 0,
0 + mgCos θ = mv2
or, v = √rgCos θ
Case-1 At Topmost point θ = 0, therefore v = √rg
Case-2 At θ = 60o, therefore v = √rgCos60 = √rg/2
Case-3 When string becomes horizontal that is at θ = 90o, v = √rgCos90 = 0
Velocity Relationship at different Points of Vertical Circular Motion
Let initial and final velocities of the body performing vertical circular
motion be v1 and v2 and the angle made by string with the vertical be θ1 and θ2. Taking
lowermost point of vertical circular path as reference level and applying energy
conservation,
V1
V2
θ2 rCosθ1 rCosθ2
124
θ1
r r
E1 = E2
P1 + K1 = P2 + K2
mg(r + rCosθ1) + 1mv12 = mg(r + rCosθ2) + 1mv22
2 2
or, mgr(Cosθ1 – Cosθ2) = 1m(v22 – v12)
or, (v22 – v12) = 2gr(Cosθ1 – Cosθ2)
125
Vertical Circular Motion of a Body Attached to a Rod
Since rod can never slag hence in the critical situation a body attached
to the rod may reach the topmost position A of the vertical circular path with almost zero
velocity. In this case its weight mg acts in vertically downward direction and tension of rod
acts on the body in the vertically upward direction. Applying net force towards center is
equal to centripetal force,
vA A
TA
mg
TA
mg - TA = mvA2
Putting vA = 0 (for critical condition)
mg - TA = 0
or, TA = mg
126
Critical velocity and Tension at the lower most point
2r
TB
TB
VB
mg
Taking B as reference level of gravitational potential energy and applying energy

conservation
EA = EB
PA + KA = PB + KB
mg2r + 1mvA2 = mg0 + 1mvB2
2 2
Putting, vA = 0(for critical condition)
127
mg2r + 0 = 0 + 1mvB2
or, 4mgr = mvB2
or, vB = √4rg
This is the minimum possible velocity at the lower most point for vertical circular motion
known as critical velocity at point B.
vB(Critical) = √4rg
Tension at lowermost point in critical condition
For lowermost point B applying net force towards center is equal to

centripetal force. Tension TB acts towards the center of the circular path whereas weight mg
acts away from it in vertically downward direction. Hence,
TB – mg = mvB2
Putting, vB = √4rg
TB – mg = m4gr
or, TB = 5mg
Hence in critical condition of vertical circular motion of a body attached to the

rod velocities at topmost and lowermost be 0 and √4rg respectively and tensions in the rod
be mg (pushing nature) and 5mg (pulling nature) respectively.
Motion of A Body Over Spherical Surface
128
N
mgSinθ
mgCosθ
mg
A body of mass m is moving over the surface of the smooth sphere of radius
r. At any instant when the radius of sphere passing through the body makes angle θ with the
vertical the tangential velocity of the body is v. Since net force towards the center is
centripetal force we have
mgCosθ – N = mv2
or, N = mgCosθ – mv2
129
if v increases N decreases and when the body just loses contact with the sphere
N = 0.
Putting N = 0,
0 = mgCosθ – mv2
or, mv2 = mgCosθ
or, v = √rg Cosθ
This is the minimum velocity at which the body loses contact and it is the
maximum velocity at which the body remains in contact with the surface.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
It is a pseudo force experienced by a body which is a part of the circular

motion. It is a non-realistic force and comes into action only when the body is in a circular
motion. Once the circular motion of the body stops, this force ceases to act. Its magnitude is
exactly same as that of centripetal force but it acts opposite to the direction of the centripetal
force that is in the radially outward direction.
Frame of reference attached to a body moving on a circular path is a non-

inertial frame since it an accelerated frame. So when ever any body is observed from this
frame a pseudo force F = ma = mv2/r = mrω2 must be applied on the body opposite to the
direction of acceleration along with the other forces. Since the acceleration of the frame in
circular motion is centripetal acceleration a = v2/r directed towards the center of the circular
path, the pseudo force applied on the bodies observed from this frame is F = mv2/r directed
away from the center of the circular path. This pseudo force is termed as a centrifugal force.
130
FCF FCentrifugal = mv2 = mrω2 (Directed in radially outward direction)
CENTRIFUGE
It is an apparatus used to separate cream from milk. It works on the principal of

centrifugal force. It is a cylindrical vessel rotating with high angular velocity about its central
axis. When this vessel contains milk and rotates with high angular velocity all the particles of
milk start moving with the same angular velocity and start experiencing centrifugal force
FCentrifugal = mrω2 in radially outward direction. Since centrifugal force is directly proportional
to the mass of the particles, massive particles of milk on experiencing greater centrifugal
force starts depositing on the outer edge of the vessel and lighter cream particles on
experiencing smaller centrifugal force are collected near the axis from where they are
separated apart.
Cream
131
Very Short Answer Type (1 Mark Questions)
1. Is net force needed to keep a body moving with uniform velocity?
2. Is Newton’s 2nd law (F = ma) always valid. Give an example in support of your
132
answer?
3. Action and reaction forces do not balance each other. Why?
4. Can a body remain in state of rest if more than one force is acting upon it?
5. Is the centripetal force acting on a body performing uniform circular motion always
constant?
6. The string is holding the maximum possible weight that it could withstand. What will
happen to the string if the body suspended by it starts moving on a horizontal circular path
and the string starts generating a cone?
7. What is the reaction force of the weight of a book placed on the table?
8. What is the maximum acceleration of a vehicle on the horizontal road? Given that
coefficient of static friction between the road and the tyres of the vehicle is µ.
9. Why guns are provided with the shoulder support?
10. While paddling a bicycle what are the types of friction acting on rear wheels and in which
direction?
Answer
1. No.
2. It is valid in an inertial frame of reference. In non-inertial frame of reference (such
as a car moving along a circular path), Newton’s 2nd law doesn’t hold apparently.
3. Since they are acting on different bodies.
4. Yes, if all the forces acting on it are in equilibrium.
5. No, only its magnitude remains constant but its direction continuously goes on
changing.
6. It will break because tension in the string increases as soon as the body starts moving.
7. The force with which the book attracts the earth towards it.
8. amax = fs(max)/m = µN/m = µmg/m = µg.
9. So that the recoil of gun may be reduced by providing support to the gun by the
shoulders.
133
10. Static friction in forward direction and rolling friction in backward direction.
Short Answer Type( 2 Marks Questions)
1. Explain why the water doesn’t fall even at the top of the circle when the bucket full
of water is upside down rotating in a vertical circle?
2. The displacement of a particle of mass 1kg is described by s = 2t + 3t2. Find
the force acting on particle? (F = 6N)
3. A particle of mass 0.3 kg is subjected to a force of F = -kx with k = 15 Nm–1. What will be
its initial acceleration if it is released from a point 10 cm away from the origin?
–2
(a = - 5 ms )
4. Three forces F1, F2 and F3 are acting on the particle of mass m which is stationary. If F1 is
removed, what will be the acceleration of particle? (a = F1/m)
5. A spring balance is attached to the ceiling of a lift. When the lift is at rest spring balance
reads 50 kg of a body hanging on it. What will be the reading of the balance if the lift moves
:-
(i) Vertically downward with an acceleration of 5 ms–2
(ii) Vertically upward with an acceleration of 5 ms–2
(iii) Vertically upward with a constant velocity.
Take g = 10m/s2. [(i) 25kgf,(ii) 75kgf, (iii) 50kgf]
6. Is larger surface area break on a bicycle wheel more effective than small surface area
brake? Explain?
7. Calculate the impulse necessary to stop a 1500 kg car moving at a speed of 25ms–1?
( –37500 N-s)
8.Give the magnitude and directions of the net force acting on a rain drop falling freely with
a constant speed of 5 m/s? (Fnet = 0)
9. A block of mass .5kg rests on a smooth horizontal table. What steady force is required to
give the block a velocity of 2 m/s in 4 s? (F= .25N)
10. Calculate the force required to move a train of 200 quintal up on an incline plane of 1 in
50 with an acceleration of 2 ms–2. The force of friction per quintal is 0.5 N?
134
(F = 44100N)
Short Answer Type (3 Marks Questions)
1. A bullet of mass 0.02 kg is moving with a speed of 10m–1s. It penetrates 10 cm of a

wooden block before coming to rest. If the thickness of the target is reduced to 6 cm only
find the KE of the bullet when it comes out? (Ans : 0.4 J)
2. A man pulls a lawn roller with a force of F. If he applies the force at some angle with the
ground. Find the minimum force required to pull the roller if coefficient of static friction
between the ground and the roller is µ?
3. A ball bounces to 80% of its original height. Calculate the change in momentum?
4. A pendulum bob of mass 0.1 kg is suspended by a string of 1 m long. The bob is

displaced so that the string becomes horizontal and released. Find its kinetic energy when
the string makes an angle of (i) 0°, (ii) 30°, (iii) 60° with the vertical?
5. The velocity of a particle moving along a circle of radius R depends on the distance
covered s as F = 2αs where α is constant. Find the force acting on the particle as a function
of s?
6. A block is projected horizontally on rough horizontal floor with initial velocity u. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the floor is µ. Find the distance travelled
by the body before coming to rest?
7. A locomotive of mass m starts moving so that its velocity v changes according to v = √(α
s), where α is constant and s is distance covered. Find the force acting on the body after
time t?
8. Derive an expression for the centripetal force?
9. Find the maximum value of angle of friction and prove that it is equal to the angle of
repose?
10. State and prove Lami’s theorem?
135
Long Answer Type (5 Marks Questions)
1. Find the maximum and minimum velocity of a vehicle of mass m on a banked road of
banking angle θ, if coefficient of static friction of the wheels of vehicle with the road is µ?
2. Find the maximum and minimum force applied parallel up the incline on a block of mass
m placed on it if angle of inclination is θ and coefficient of static friction with the block is µ so
that the block remains at rest?
3. Prove that in case of vertical circular motion circular motion of a body tied to a string
velocities at topmost and lowermost point be √(rg) and √(5rg) respectively and tensions in
the strings be 0 and 6mg respectively?
4. Find the maximum horizontal velocity that must be imparted to a body placed on the top
of a smooth sphere of radius r so that it may not loose contact? If the same body is imparted
half the velocity obtained in the first part then find the angular displacement of the body over
the smooth sphere when it just loses contact with it?
5. Find the acceleration of the blocks and the tension in the strings?
m3 m2 m1 F
Some Intellectual Stuff
1. Find the acceleration of the blocks m1 and m2. All the surfaces are smooth and string and
pulley are light? Also find the net force on the clamped pulley?
m2 x
m1
136
2. A body of mass m explodes into three fragments of with masses in the ratio 2:2:6. If the
two similar masses move of perpendicular to each other with the speed of 10m/s each, find
the velocity of the third particle and its direction relative to the two other bodies?
3. A mass of 5 kg is suspended by a rope of length 2m from the ceiling. A horizontal force of

50 N is applied at the mid point P of the rope? Calculate the angle that the rope makes with
the vertical and the tension in the part of the rope between the point of suspension and point
P?. Neglect the mass of the rope. (g = 10ms–2)
4. A body moving inside a smooth vertical circular track is imparted a velocity of √(4rg) at the
lowermost point. Find its position where it just loses contact with the track?
5.
m2
m1
m2 m1
Find in both the cases
(i)Acceleration of the two blocks.(ii)Tension in the clamp holding the fixed pulley?
6. Mass of both the blocks is m and coefficient of kinetic friction with the ground is µ. Find
the acceleration of the two blocks and tension in the string attached between the two
blocks?
137
F
7. A small sphere of mass m is placed in a hemispherical bowl of radius R. Bowl is rotated

with angular velocity ω. Find the angle made by the radius of the bowl passing through the
sphere with the vertical when the sphere starts rotating with the bowl?
ω
o R
8. Mass of both the blocks is m find net force on the pulley?
9. Mass of both the blocks is m find acceleration of both the blocks and net force on the
clamp holding the fixed pulley?
138
10. Mass of both the blocks is m find acceleration of the system and the tension in the rod?
139
Unit –V
WORK ENERGY AND POWER
MEMORY MAP
140
Work
W=F.s
Energy Power
K.E.=1mv2; G.P.E.=mgh Pavg = ∆W ; Pinst = dW
WORK
2 ∆t dt
E.P.H.=1kx2 ENERGY
2
POWER
Elastic Collision Elastic Collision

Energy and Momentum Only Momentum
Both Conserved Conserved
141
GIST
WORK
PHYSICAL DEFINITION
When the point of application of force moves in the direction of the applied force
under its effect then work is said to be done.
MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION OF WORK
142
Work is defined as the product of force and displacement in the direction of force
W=Fxs
FSinθ F
FCosθ
If force and displacement are not parallel to each other rather they are
inclined at an angle, then in the evaluation of work component of force (F) in the direction of
displacement (s) will be considered.
W = (Fcosθ) x s
or, W = FsCosθ
143
VECTOR DEFINITION OF WORK
Force and displacement both are vector quantities but their product, work is a
scalar quantity, hence work must be scalar product or dot product of force and displacement
vector.
W=F .s
WORK DONE BY VARIABLE FORCE

Force varying with displacement
In this condition we consider the force to be constant for any elementary

displacement and work done in that elementary displacement is evaluated. Total work is
obtained by integrating the elementary work from initial to final limits.
dW = F . ds
s2
W = ∫ F . ds
s1
Force varying with time
144
In this condition we consider the force to be constant for any elementary
displacement and work done in that elementary displacement is evaluated.
dW = F . ds
Multiplying and dividing by dt,
dW = F . ds dt
dt
or, dW = F . v dt (v=ds/dt)
Total work is obtained by integrating the elementary work from initial to final
limits.
t2
W = ∫ F . v dt
t1
WORK DONE BY VARIABLE FORCE FROM GRAPH

Let force be the function of displacement & its graph be as shown.
145
aF B
a F M N
a A
s1 ds s2
To find work done from s1 to s2 we consider two points M & N very close on
the graph such that magnitude of force (F) is almost same at both the points. If elementary
displacement from M to N is ds, then elementary work done from M to N is.
dW = F.ds
dW = (length x breadth)of strip MNds
dW = Area of strip MNds
Thus work done in any part of the graph is equal to area under that
part. Hence total work done from s1 to s2 will be given by the area enclosed under the graph
from s1 to s2.
W = Area (ABS2S1A)
DIFFERENT CASES OF WORK DONE BY CONSTANT FORCE
Case i) Force and displacement are in same direction
θ=0
Since, W = Fs Cos θ
Therefore W = Fs Cos 0
146
or, W = Fs
Ex - Coolie pushing a load horizontally
a F
Case ii) Force and displacement are mutually perpendicular to each other
θ = 90
or, W=0
Ex - coolie carrying a load on his head & moving horizontally with constant velocity. Then he
applies force vertically to balance weight of body & its displacement is horizontal.
mg
(3) Force & displacement are in opposite direction F
147
θ = 180
or, W = - Fs
a mg
Ex - Coolie carrying a load on his head & moving vertically down with constant velocity.
Then he applies force in vertically upward direction to balance the weight of body & its
displacement is in vertically downward direction.
ENERGY
Capacity of doing work by a body is known as energy.
Note - Energy possessed by the body by virtue of any cause is equal to the total work done by the
body when the cause responsible for energy becomes completely extinct.
TYPES OF ENERGIES
There are many types of energies like mechanical energy, electrical, magnetic,
nuclear, solar, chemical etc.
148
MECHANICAL ENERGY
Energy possessed by the body by virtue of which it performs some

mechanical work is known as mechanical energy.
It is of basically two types-
(i) Kinetic energy
(ii) Potential energy
KINETIC ENERGY
Energy possessed by body due to virtue of its motion is known as the kinetic
energy of the body. Kinetic energy possessed by moving body is equal to total work done by
the body just before coming out to rest.
V0
Consider a body of man (m) moving with velocity (vo).After travelling through
distance (s) it comes to rest.
u = vo
v=0
s=s
149
Applying, v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = v02 + 2as
or, 2as = - v02
or, a = -vo2
2s
Hence force acting on the body,
F = ma
Fon body = - mvo2
2s
But from Newton’s third law of action and reaction, force applied by body is equal and
opposite to the force applied on body
Fby body = -Fon body
=+mvo2
2s
Therefore work done by body,
W = F. s
or, W = mv02.s.Cos 0
2s
or, W = 1 mvo2
Thus K.E. stored in the body is,
K.E.= 1 mvo2
150
KINETIC ENERGY IN TERMS OF MOMENTUM
K.E. of body moving with velocity v is
K.E. = 1 mvo2
Multiplying and dividing by m
K = 1 mv2 x m
2 m
= 1 m2v2
2 m
But, mv = p (linear momentum)
Therefore, K = p2
2m
POTENTIAL ENERGY
Energy possessed by the body by virtue of its position or state is known as

potential energy. Example:- gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy,
electrostatic potential energy etc.
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its height above surface of earth is

known as gravitational potential energy. It is equal to the work done by the body situated at
some height in returning back slowly to the surface of earth.
Consider a body of mass m situated at height h above the surface of earth.

Force applied by the body in vertically downward direction is
F = mg
Displacement of the body in coming back slowly to the surface of earth is
151
s=h
Hence work done by the body is
W = FsCosθ
or, W = FsCos0
or, W = mgh
This work was stored in the body in the form of gravitational potential energy due to its
position. Therefore
G.P.E = mgh
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
Energy possessed by the spring by virtue of compression or expansion

against elastic force in the spring is known as elastic potential energy.
Spring
It is a coiled structure made up of elastic material & is capable of applying

restoring force & restoring torque when disturbed from its original state. When force (F) is
applied at one end of the string, parallel to its length, keeping the other end fixed, then the
spring expands (or contracts) & develops a restoring force (FR) which balances the applied
force in equilibrium.
On increasing applied force spring further expands in order to increase

restoring force for balancing the applied force. Thus restoring force developed within the
spring is directed proportional to the extension produced in the spring.
152
A FR
FR ∝ x
or, FR = kx (k is known as spring constant or force constant)
If x = 1, F R = k
Hence force constant of string may be defined as the restoring force

developed within spring when its length is changed by unity.
But in equilibrium, restoring force balances applied force.
F = FR = k x
If x = 1, F = 1
Hence force constant of string may also be defined as the force required
to change its length by unity in equilibrium.
153
Mathematical Expression for Elastic Potential Energy
-dx
x0
Consider a spring of natural length ‘L’ & spring constant ‘k’ its length is
increased by xo. Elastic potential energy of stretched spring will be equal to total work done
by the spring in regaining its original length.
If in the process of regaining its natural length, at any instant extension in the spring was x
then force applied by spring is
F = kx
154
If spring normalizes its length by elementary distance dx opposite to x under this force then
work done by spring is
dW = F. (-dx) . Cos0
(force applied by spring F and displacement –dx taken opposite to extension x are in same direction)
dW = -kxdx
Total work done by the spring in regaining its original length is obtained in integrating dW
from x0 to 0
∫
W = -kxdx
x0
x0
or, W = -k[x2/2]
or, W = - k ( 02/2 - x02/2)
o r, W = -k (0 - x02/2)
or, W = 1 kxo2
This work was stored in the body in the form of elastic potential energy.
E.P.E = 1 kxo2
155
2
WORK ENERGY THEOREM
It states that total work done on the body is equal to the change in kinetic
energy.(Provided body is confined to move horizontally and no dissipating forces are
operating).
v1 v2
a F F
Consider a body of man m moving with initial velocity v1. After travelling through
displacement s its final velocity becomes v2 under the effect of force F.
u = v1
v = v2
s=s
Applying, v2 = u2 + 2as
v22 = v12 + 2as
or, 2as = v22 - v12
or, a = v22 - v12
2s
Hence external force acting on the body is
F = ma
F = m v22 - v12
2s
Therefore work done on body by external force
156
W=F. s
or, W = m v22 - v12 . s .Cos 0
2s
(since force and displacement are in same direction)
or, W = 1 mv22 - 1 mv12
2 2
or, W = K2 – K1
or, W = ∆K
PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
a v0 y
h v1 h
h-y
v2
157
It states that energy can neither be creased neither be destroyed. It can
only be converted from one form to another.
Consider a body of man m situated at height h & moving with velocity vo. Its energy will be.
E1 = P 1 + K1
or, E1 = mgh + ½ mvo2
If the body falls under gravity through distance y, then it acquires velocity v1 and its height
becomes (h-y)
u = vo
s=y
a=g
v = v1
From v2 = u2 +2as
v12 = vo2 + 2gy
Energy of body in second situation
E2 = P2 + K2
or, E2 = mg (h-y) + ½ mv2
or, E2 = mg (h-y) + ½ m (vo2 + 2gy)
or, E2 = mgh - mgy + ½ mvo2 + mgy
or, E2 = mgh + ½ mvo2
Now we consider the situation when body reaches ground with velocity v2
u = vo
158
s=h
a=g
v = v2
From v2 = u2 +2as
2
2 = vo2 + 2gh
Energy of body in third situation
E3 = P3 + K3
or, E3 = mg0 + ½ mv22
or, E3 = 0 + ½ m (vo2 + 2gh)
or, E3 = ½ mvo2 + mgh
From above it must be clear that E1 = E2 = E3. This proves the law of conservation of
energy.
CONSERVATIVE FORCE
Forces are said to be conservative in nature if work done against the forces
gets conversed in the body in form of potential energy. Example:- gravitational forces,
elastic forces & all the central forces.
PROPERTIES OF CONSERVATIVE FORCES
1. Work done against these forces is conserved & gets stored in the body in the form of P.E.
2. Work done against these forces is never dissipated by being converted into non-usable
forms of energy like heat, light, sound etc.
159
3. Work done against conservative forces is a state function & not path function i.e. Work
done against it, depends only upon initial & final states of body & is independent of the path
through which process has been carried out.
4. Work done against conservative forces is zero in a complete cycle.
TO PROVE WORK DONE AGAINST CONSERVATIVE FORCES IS A STATE FUNCTION
Consider a body of man m which is required to be lifted up to height h. This can be done in 2
ways. F
(i) By directly lifting the body against gravity
(ii) By pushing the body up a smooth inclined plane.

mg
Min force required to lift the body of mass m vertically is h
F = mg
And displacement of body in lifting is F
s=h
Hence work done in lifting is
W 1 = FsCos0o (since force and displacement are in same direction) mg
W1 = mgh
160
Now we consider the same body lifted through height h by pushing it up a smooth inclined
plane F
mgSinθ
Sinθ
a F
mgSinθ
Min force required to push the body is
F = mgSinθ
And displacement of body in lifting is
s= h
Sinθ
Hence work done in pushing is
W 2 = FsCos0
or, W 2 = mgSinθ . h . 1a
Sinθ
or, W2 = mgh
From above W 1 = W 2 we can say that in both the cases work done in lifting the body through
height ‘h’ is same.
161
To Prove That Work Done Against Conservative Forces Is Zero In A
Complete Cycle
F F
mg mg
h h
F F
mg mg
Consider a body of man m which is lifted slowly through height h & then allowed to come
back to the ground slowly through height h.
For work done is slowly lifting the body up,
Minimum force required in vertically upward direction is
F = mg
Vertical up displacement of the body is
s=h
Hence work done is
W = FsCosθ
or, W I = FsCos0 (since force and displacement are in same direction)
162
or, WI = mgh (since force and displacement are in same direction)
For work done is slowly bringing the body down,
Minimum force required in vertically upward direction is
F = mg
Vertical down displacement of the body is
s=h
Hence work done is
or, W 2 = FsCos180(since force and displacement are in opposite direction)
or, W2 = - mgh
Hence total work done against conservative forces in a complete cycle is
W = W1 + W2
or, W = (mgh) + (-mgh)
or, W=0
NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
Non conservative forces are the forces, work done against which does
not get conserved in the body in the form of potential energy.
PROPERTIES OF NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
1. Work done against these forces does not get conserved in the body in the form of
P.E.
2. Work done against these forces is always dissipated by being converted into non
usable forms of energy like heat, light, sound etc.
163
3. Work done against non-conservative force is a path function and not a state
function.
4. Work done against non-conservative force in a complete cycle is not zero.
PROVE THAT WORK DONE AGAINST NON–CONSERVATIVE FORCES IS A PATH

FUNCTION
Consider a body of mass (m) which is required to be lifted to height ‘h’ by pushing it up the
rough incline of inclination.
A h
Sinθ
a h
N F
164
mgSinθ θ
fk
a mgSinθ
mg
Minimum force required to slide the body up the rough inclined plane having coefficient of
kinetic friction µ with the body is
F = mgSinθ + fk
or, F = mgSinθ + µN
or, F = mgSinθ + µmgCosθ
Displacement of the body over the incline in moving through height h is
s= h
Sinθ
Hence work done in moving the body up the incline is
W = F.s.Cos0(since force and displacement are in opposite direction)
or, W = (mgSinθ + µmgCosθ). h .1
Sinθ
or, W = mgh + µmgh
Tanθ
Similarly if we change the angle of inclination from θ to θ1, then work done will be
W1 = mgh + µmgh
Tanθ1
This clearly shows that work done in both the cases is

different & hence work done against non-conservative force in a path function and not a
state function i.e. it not only depends upon initial & final states of body but also depends
upon the path through which process has been carried out.
165
To Prove That Work Done Against Non-conservative Forces In A Complete Cycle Is
Not Zero
Consider a body displaced slowly on a rough horizontal plane through displacement s from
A to B.
N N
A F B F
fk = µN fk = µN
mg s mg
Minimum force required to move the body is
F = fk = µN = µmg
Work done by the body in displacement s is
W = F.s.Cos0(since force and displacement are in same direction)
or, W = µmgs
Now if the same body is returned back from B to A
N N
F A F B
fk = µN fk = µN
mg mg
166
Minimum force required to move the body is
F = fk = µN = µmg
Work done by the body in displacement s is
W = F.s.Cos0(since force and displacement are in same direction)
or, W = µmgs
Hence total work done in the complete process
W = W1 + W2 = 2µmgs
Note - When body is returned from B to A friction reverse its direction.
POWER
Rate of doing work by a body with respect to time is known as power.
Average Power
It is defined as the ratio of total work done by the body to total time taken.
Pavg = Total work done = ∆W
Total time taken ∆t
Instantaneous Power
Power developed within the body at any particular instant of time is known as
instantaneous power.
167
Or
Average power evaluated for very short duration of time is known as

instantaneous power.
P inst = Lim Pavg
∆ t→0
or, P inst = Lim ∆W
∆ t→0 ∆t
Pinst = dW
dt
or, Pinst = dF . s
dt
or, Pinst = F . d s
dt
or, Pinst = F . v
EFFICIENCY
It is defined as the ratio of power output to power input.
Or
It is defined as the ratio of energy output to energy input.
Or
168
I It is defined as the ratio of work output to work input.
Ƞ = POutput = EOutput = WOutput
PInput EInput WInput
PERCENTAGE EFFICIENCY
Percentage Efficiency = Efficiency x 100
Percentage Efficiency = Ƞ = POutput = EOutput = WOutput x 100
PInput EInput WInput
COLLISION
Collision between the two bodies is defined as mutual interaction of the

bodies for a short interval of time due to which the energy and the momentum of the
interacting bodies change.
Types of Collision
There are basically three types of collisions-
i) Elastic Collision – That is the collision between perfectly elastic bodies. In this type of
collision, since only conservative forces are operating between the interacting bodies, both
kinetic energy and momentum of the system remains constant.
169
ii) Inelastic Collision – That is the collision between perfectly inelastic or plastic bodies. After
collision bodies stick together and move with some common velocity. In this type of collision
only momentum is conserved. Kinetic energy is not conserved due to the presence of non-
conservative forces between the interacting bodies.
iii) Partially Elastic or Partially Inelastic Collision – That is the collision between the partially
elastic bodies. In this type of collision bodies do separate from each other after collision but
due to the involvement of non-conservative inelastic forces kinetic energy of the system is
not conserved and only momentum is conserved.
Collision In One Dimension – Analytical Treatment
u1 u2 u1 u2 v’1<u1 v’2>u2 u1>v> u2
Before Collision Collision Starts Velocity Changing of Bodies Common Velocity
Consider two bodies of masses m1 and m2 with their center of masses

moving along the same straight line in same direction with initial velocities u1 and u2 with m1
after m2. Condition necessary for the collision is u1 > u2 due to which bodies start
approaching towards each other with the velocity of approach u1 - u2.
Collision starts as soon as the bodies come in contact. Due to its greater velocity and inertia
m1 continues to push m2 in the forward direction whereas m2 due to its small velocity and
inertia pushes m1 in the backward direction. Due to this pushing force involved between the
two colliding bodies they get deformed at the point of contact and a part of their kinetic
energy gets consumed in the deformation of the bodies. Also m1 being pushed opposite to
the direction of the motion goes on decreasing its velocity and m2 being pushed in the
direction of motion continues increasing its velocity. This process continues until both the
bodies acquire the same common velocity v. Up to this stage there is maximum deformation
in the bodies maximum part of their kinetic energy gets consumed in their deformation.
170
Elastic collision
v v’’1<v v’’2>v v1 v2 v1 v2
In case of elastic collision bodies are perfectly elastic. Hence after their maximum
deformation they have tendency to regain their original shapes, due to which they start
pushing each other. Since m2 is being pushed in the direction of motion its velocity goes on
increasing and m1 being pushed opposite to the direction of motion its velocity goes on
decreasing. Thus condition necessary for separation i.e. v2>v1 is attained and the bodies get
separated with velocity of separation v2 - v1.
In such collision the part of kinetic energy of the bodies which has been
consumed in the deformation of the bodies is again returned back to the system when the
bodies regain their original shapes. Hence in such collision energy conservation can also be
applied along with the momentum conservation.
Applying energy conservation
Ei = Ef
1m1u12 + 1m2u22 = 1m1v12 + 1m2v22
2 2 2 2
m1(u12 - v12) = m2(v22 – u22)
m1(u1 - v1)(u1 + v1) = m2(v2 – u2)(v2 + u2) ………(i)
Applying momentum conservation
pi = pf
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
m1(u1 - v1) = m2(v2 – u2) ……….(ii)
Dividing equation (i) by (ii)
u1 + v1 = v2 + u2
or, v2 – v1 = u1 – u2
or, Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach
171
or, v2 = v1 + u1 – u2
Putting this in equation (i)
v1 = (m1-m2)u1 + 2m2 u2
(m1+m2) (m1+m2)
Similarly we can prove
v2 = (m2-m1)u2 + 2m1 u1
(m1+m2) (m1+m2)
Case 1- If the bodies are of same mass,
m1 = m2 = m
v1 = u2
v2 = u1
Hence in perfectly elastic collision between two bodies of same mass, the velocities
interchange.ie. If a moving body elastically collides with a similar body at rest. Then the
moving body comes at rest and the body at rest starts moving with the velocity of the moving
body.
Case 2- If a huge body elastically collides with the small body,
m1 >> m2
m2 will be neglected in comparison to m1
v1 = (m1-0)u1 + 2.0. u2
(m1+0) (m1+0)
v1 = u1
and
v2 = (0-m1)u2 + 2m1 u1
(m1+0) (m1+0)
172
v2 = -u2 + 2u1
If, u2 = 0
v2 = 2u1
Hence if a huge body elastically collides with a small body then there is almost
no change in the velocity of the huge body but if the small body is initially at rest it gets
thrown away with twice the velocity of the huge moving body.eg. collision of truck with a
drum.
Case 3- If a small body elastically collides with a huge body,
m2 >> m1
m1 will be neglected in comparison to m2
v1 = (0-m2)u1 + 2m2 u2
(0+m2) (0+m2)
or, v1 = -u1 + 2u2
If u2 = 0
v1 = -u1
and
v2 = (m2-0)u2 + 2.0.u1
(0+m2) (0+m2)
v2 = u2
Hence if a small body elastically collides with a huge body at rest then there is
almost no change in the velocity of the huge body but if the huge body is initially at rest
small body rebounds back with the same speed.eg. collision of a ball with a wall.
Inelastic collision
173
In case of inelastic collision bodies are perfectly inelastic. Hence after
their maximum deformation they have no tendency to regain their original shapes, due to
which they continue moving with the same common velocity.
consumed in the deformation of the bodies is permanently consumed in the deformation of
the bodies against non-conservative inelastic forces. Hence in such collision energy
conservation can-not be applied and only momentum conservation is applied.
Applying momentum conservation
pi = pf
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v + m2v
or, m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1+m2)v
or, v = m1u1 + m2u2
(m1+m2)
Partially Elastic or Partially Inelastic Collision
In this case bodies are partially elastic. Hence after their maximum
deformation they have tendency to regain their original shapes but not as much as perfectly
elastic bodies. Hence they do separate but their velocity of separation is not as much as in
the case of perfectly elastic bodies i.e. their velocity of separation is less than the velocity of
approach.
consumed in the deformation of the bodies is only slightly returned back to the system.
Hence in such collision energy conservation can-not be applied and only momentum
conservation is applied.
(v2 – v1) < (u1 – u2)
Collision In Two Dimension – Oblique Collision
174
v1 Sinθ
v1
v1Cosθ
u1
u2 θ
v2CosØ
v2
v2SinØ
Before Collision Collision Starts After Collision
When the centers of mass of two bodies are not along the same straight
line, the collision is said to be oblique. In such condition after collision bodies are deflected
at some angle with the initial direction. In this type of collision momentum conservation is
applied separately along x-axis and y-axis. If the collision is perfectly elastic energy
conservation is also applied.
Let initial velocities of the masses m1 and m2 be u1 and u2 respectively along

x-axis. After collision they are deflected at angles θ and Ø respectively from x-axis, on its
either side of the x axis.
Applying momentum conservation along x-axis
pf = pi
m1v1 Cosθ + m2v2 Cos Ø = m1u1 + m2u2
175
Applying momentum conservation along y-axis
pf = pi
m1v1 Sinθ - m2v2 Sin Ø = m10 + m20
or, m1v1 Sinθ - m2v2 Sin Ø = 0
or, m1v1 Sinθ = m2v2 Sin Ø
In case of elastic collision applying energy conservation can also be applied
Kf = Ki
1m1u12 + 1m2u22 = 1m1v12 + 1m2v22
2 2 2 2
Coefficient Of Restitution
It is defined as the ratio of velocity of separation to the velocity

of approach.
e = Velocity of separation
Velocity of approach
or, e = (v2 – v1)
(u1 – u2)
Case-1 For perfectly elastic collision, velocity of separation is equal to velocity of approach,
therefore
e=1
Case-2 For perfectly inelastic collision, velocity of separation is zero, therefore
e=0
176
Case-3 For partially elastic or partially inelastic collision, velocity of separation is less than
velocity of approach, therefore
e<1
Very Short Answer Type (1 Mark Questions)
1. Define the conservative and non-conservative forces? Give example of each?
2. A light body and a heavy body have same linear momentum. Which one has
greater K.E? (Ans: Lighter body has more K.E.)
3.If the momentum of the body is doubled by what percentage does its K.E
Changes? (300%)
4. A truck and a car are moving with the same K.E on a straight road. Their engines
are simultaneously switched off which one will stop at a lesser distance?
(Truck)
5. What happens to the P.E of a bubble when it rises up in water? (decrease)
6. Define spring constant of a spring?
7. What happens when a sphere collides head on elastically with a sphere of same
177
mass initially at rest?
8. Derive an expression for K.E of a body of mass m moving with a velocity v by
calculus method.
9. After bullet is fired, gun recoils. Compare the K.E. of bullet and the gun.
(K.E. of bullet > K.E. of gun)
10. In which type of collision there is maximum loss of energy?
Very Short Answer Type( 2 Marks Questions)
1. A bob is pulled sideway so that string becomes parallel to horizontal and released.
Length of the pendulum is 2 m. If due to air resistance loss of energy is 10% what is
the speed with which the bob arrives the lowest point? (Ans :
6m/s)
2. Find the work done if a particle moves from position r1 = (4i + 3j + 6k)m to a
position r 2 = (14i = 13j = 16k) under the effect of force, F = (4i + 4j - 4k)N?
(Ans : 40J)
3. 20 J work is required to stretch a spring through 0.1 m. Find the force constant of the
spring. If the spring is stretched further through 0.1m calculate work done?
(Ans : 4000 Nm–1, 60 J)
4. A pump on the ground floor of a building can pump up water to fill a tank of
volume 30m3 in 15 min. If the tank is 40 m above the ground, how much electric
power is consumed by the pump? The efficiency of the pump is 30%.
(Ans : 43.556 kW)
5. Spring of a weighing machine is compressed by 1cm when a sand bag of mass
0.1 kg is dropped on it from a height 0.25m. From what height should the sand
Bag be dropped to cause a compression of 4cm? (Ans :

4m)
6. Show that in an elastic one dimensional collision the velocity of approach before
collision is equal to velocity of separation after collision?
7. A spring is stretched by distance x by applying a force F. What will be the new
force required to stretch the spring by 3x? Calculate the work done in increasing the
extension?
178
8. Write the characteristics of the force during the elongation of a spring. Derive the
relation for the P.E. stored when it is elongated by length. Draw the graphs to show
the variation of potential energy and force with elongation?
9. How does a perfectly inelastic collision differ from perfectly elastic collision? Two
particles of mass m1 and m2 having velocities u1 and u2 respectively make a head on
collision. Derive the relation for their final velocities?
10. In lifting a 10 kg weight to a height of 2m, 250 Joule of energy is spent. Calculate the
acceleration with which it was raised?(g=10m/s2) 2
(Ans : 2.5m/s )
Short Answer Type( 3 Marks Questions)
1. An electrical water pump of 80% efficiency is used to lift water up to a height of 10m.Find
mass of water which it could lift in 1hrour if the marked power was 500 watt?
2. A cycle is moving up the incline rising 1 in 100 with a const. velocity of 5m/sec. Find the
instantaneous power developed by the cycle?
3. Find % change in K.E of body when its momentum is increased by 50%.
4. A light string passing over a light frictionless pulley is holding masses m and 2m at its
either end. Find the velocity attained by the masses after 2 seconds.
5. Derive an expression for the centripetal force experienced by a body performing uniform
circular motion.
6. Find the elevation of the outer tracks with respect to inner. So that the train could safely
pass through the turn of radius 1km with a speed of 36km/hr. Separation between the tracks
is 1.5m?
7. A block of mass m is placed over a smooth wedge of inclination θ. With what horizontal
acceleration the wedge should be moved so that the block must remain stationery over it?
8. Involving friction prove that pulling is easier than pushing if both are done at the same
angle.
9. In vertical circular motion if velocity at the lowermost point is √(6rg) where find the tension
in the string where speed is minimum. Given that mass of the block attached to it is m?
10. A bullet of mass m moving with velocity u penetrates a wooden block of mass M
suspended through a string from rigid support and comes to rest inside it. If length of the
string is L find the angular deflection of the string.
179
Long Answer Type (5 Marks Questions)
1. What is conservative force? Show that work done against conservative forces is a state
function and not a path function. Also show that work done against it in a complete cycle is
zero?
2. A body of man 10 kg moving with the velocity of 10m/s impinges the horizontal spring of
spring constant 100 Nm-1 fixed at one end. Find the maximum compression of the spring?
Which type of mechanical energy conversion has occurred? How does the answer in the
first part changes when the body is moving on a rough surface?
3. Two blocks of different masses are attached to the two ends of a light string passing over
the frictionless and light pully. Prove that the potential energy of the bodies lost during the
motion of the blocks is equal to the gain in their kinetic energies?
4. A locomotive of mass m starts moving so that its velocity v is changing according to the
law v √(as), where a is constant and s is distance covered. Find the total work done by all
the forces acting the locomotive during the first t seconds after the beginning of motion?
5. Derive an expression for the elastic potential energy of the stretched spring of spring
constant k. Find the % change in the elastic potential energy of spring if its length is
increased by 10%?
Some Intellectual Stuff
1. A body of mass m is placed on a rough horizontal surface having coefficient of
static friction µ with the body. Find the minimum force that must be applied on the body so
that it may start moving? Find the work done by this force in the horizontal displacement s of
the body?
2. Two blocks of same mass m are placed on a smooth horizontal surface with a spring of
constant k attached between them. If one of the block is imparted a horizontal velocity v by
an impulsive force, find the maximum compression of the spring?
3. A block of mass M is supported against a vertical wall by a spring of constant k. A bullet of

mass m moving with horizontal velocity v0 gets embedded in the block and pushes it against
the wall. Find the maximum compression of the spring?
4. Prove that in case of oblique elastic collision of a moving body with a similar body at rest,
the two bodies move off perpendicularly after collision?
5. A chain of length L and mass M rests over a sphere of radius R (L < R) with its one end
fixed at the top of the sphere. Find the gravitational potential energy of the chain considering
the center of the sphere as the zero level of the gravitational potential energy?
180
UNIT –V
MOTION OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND
RIGID BODY
181
CONCEPT MAP
CENTRE OF
MASS
CHARACTERISTICS
POSITION VECTOR COORDINATES MOTION

𝑚 1 𝑟1 +𝑚 2 𝑟2 ………………+𝑚 𝑛 𝑟𝑛 𝑁
R= (IN CASE OF AN
𝑚 1 𝑚 2+ …………..+𝑚 𝑛
𝑥 = 1/𝑀 𝑚𝑝 𝑥𝑝 ISOLATED SYSTEM)
𝑃=1
UNIFORM VELOCITY
𝑁
𝑦 = 1/𝑀 𝑚𝑝 𝑦𝑝
𝑃=1
𝑧 = 1/𝑀 𝑚𝑝 𝑧𝑝
𝑃=1
ROTATIONAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN A PLANE
CAUSES CONSEQUENCES
TORQUE
ANGULAR MOTION OF A
MOTION OF A STONE TIED
MOMENTUM BODY ROLLING
TO A STRING WOUND
OVER A ROTATING DOWN AN
CYLINDER INCLINED PLANE
WITHOUT
SLIPPING
182
GIST
.Centre of mass of a body is a point where the entire mass of the body can be
supposed to be concentrated
For a system of n-particles, the centre of mass is given by
.Torque𝜏:The turning effect of a force with respect to some axis, is calledmoment

of force or torque due to the force. Torque is measured as the product of the
magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
force from the axis of rotation.

𝜏=𝑟 × 𝐹
.Angular momentum (𝑳). It is the rotational analogue of linear momentum and is

measured as the product of linear momentum and the perpendicular distance of its
line of axis of rotation.
Mathematically: If 𝑃 is linear momentum of the particle and 𝑟 its position vector, then
angular momentum of the particle, 𝐿 = 𝑟 × 𝑃
(a)In Cartesian coordinates:𝐿𝑍 = 𝑥𝑝𝑦 − 𝑦𝑝𝑥
(b)In polar coordinates:𝐿 = 𝑟 𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅,
Where ∅ is angle between the linear momentum vector 𝑃 and the position of vector
𝑟.
S.I unit of angular momentum is kg 𝑚2 𝑠 −1 .
Geometrically, angular momentum of a particle is equal to twice the product of

mass of the particle and areal velocity of its radius vector about the given axis.
183
.Relation between torque and angular momentum:
𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿1 𝑑𝐿2 𝑑𝐿3

(i)𝜏 = (ii) If the system consists of n-particles, then𝜏 = + + +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐿𝑛
⋯+ .
𝑑𝑡
.Law of conservation of angular momentum. If no external torque acts on a

system, then the total angular momentum of the system always remain conserved.
Mathematically: 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝑛 = 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
.Moment of inertia (I).the moment of inertia of a rigid body about a given axis of
rotation is the sum of the products of masses of the various particles and squares of
their respective perpendicular distances from the axis of rotation.
𝑖=𝑛
Mathematically: I=𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + 𝑚3 𝑟32 +. . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛2 = 𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
SI unit of moment of inertia is kg 𝑚2 .
MI corresponding to mass of the body. However, it depends on shape & size of the
body and also on position and configuration of the axis of rotation.
Radius of gyration (K).it is defined as the distance of a point from the axis of
rotation at which, if whole mass of the body were concentrated, the moment of
inertia of the body would be same as with the actual distribution of mass of the body.
𝑟2 2 2 2
1 +𝑟 2 +𝑟 3 +⋯+𝑟 𝑛 =
Mathematically: K= 𝑛
rms distance of particles from the axis of
rotation.
SI unit of gyration is m. Note that the moment of inertia of a body about a given axis
is equal to the product of mass of the body and squares of its radius of gyration
about that axis i.e. I=M𝑘 2 .
.Theorem of perpendicular axes. It states that the moment of inertia of a plane

lamina about an axis perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of the moment of
inertia of the lamina about any two mutually perpendicular axes inits plane
184
andintersecting each other at the point, where the perpendicular axis passes through
the lamina.
Mathematically: 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 ′
Where x & y-axes lie in the plane of the Lamina and z-axis is perpendicular to its
plane and passes through the point of intersecting of x and y axes.
.Theorem of parallel axes.It states that the moment of inertia of a rigid body about
any axis is equal to moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis through its
center of mass plus the product of mass of the body and the square of the
perpendicular distance between the axes.
Mathematically: 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝑀 𝑕2 , where 𝐼𝑐 is moment of inertia of the body about an

axis through its centre of mass and 𝑕 is the perpendicular distance between the two
axes.
185
.Moment of inertiaof a few bodies of regular shapes:
.Moment of inertia and angular momentum.The moment of inertia of a rigid body

about an axis is numerically equal to the angular momentum of the rigid body, when
rotating with unit angular velocity about that axis.
1
Mathematically: 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2 𝐼 𝜔2
186
.Moment of inertia and kinetic energy of rotation. The moment of inertia of a rigid
body about an axis of rotation is numerically equal to twice the kinetic energy of
rotation of the body, when rotation with unit angular velocity about that axis.
1
Mathematically:𝐾. 𝐸. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2 𝐼𝜔2
.Moment of inertia and torque. The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis
of rotation is numerically equal to the external torque required to produce a unit
angular acceleration in the body BOUT THE GIVEN AXIS.
MATHEMATICALLY: 𝜏 = 𝐼𝑎
.Law of conservation of angular momentum. If no external torque acts on a

system, the total angular momentum of the system remains unchanged.
Mathematically:
𝐼𝜔 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, 𝐼1 𝜔1 = 𝐼2 𝜔2 ,
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚.
For translational equilibriumof a rigid body, 𝐹 = 𝑖 𝐹𝑖 =0
or rotational equilibrium of a rigid body, 𝜏= 𝑖 𝜏𝑖 =0

1. The following table gives a summary of the analogy between various quantities
describing linear motion and rotational motion.
187
s.no. Linear motion s.no. Rotational motion
1. Distance/displacement (s) 1. Angle or angular

displacement (𝜽)
𝒅𝜽
2. 𝒅𝒔 2. Angular velocity, 𝝎 =
Linear velocity, 𝝑 = 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕
3. 3. Angular acceleration=𝜶 =
Linear acceleration,
𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝟐 𝜽
𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒓 =
𝜶= = 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒓𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒓𝟐
4. Moment of inertia (𝑰)

Mass (m)
4.
5. Angular momentum, 𝑳 = 𝑰𝝎
Linear momentum, 𝒑 = 𝒎 𝒗
5.
6. Torque, 𝝉 = 𝑰𝒂
Force, 𝑭 = 𝒎 𝒂
6.
𝒅𝑳
7. 𝒅𝒑 Also, torque, 𝝉 =
Also, force 𝑭 = 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕
7.
8. 8. 𝟏
𝟏 Rotational KE, 𝑲𝑹 = 𝑰𝝎𝟐
Translational KE, 𝑲𝑻 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
9. 9.
Work done, 𝑾 = 𝝉𝜽
Work done, 𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔
10. 10.
Power, 𝑷 = 𝝉𝝎
Power, 𝑷 = 𝑭 𝒗
188
11. Linear momentum of a system 11. Angular momentum of a
is conserved when no external system is conserved when
force acts on the system. no external torque acts on
the system
12. 12. Equations of rotational

Equation of translator motion
motion
i. 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟏 i. 𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎𝟏 + 𝒂𝒕
ii. 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝟏
𝟐 ii. 𝜽 = 𝝎𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
iii. 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 =
iii. 𝝎𝟐𝟐− 𝝎𝟐𝟏= 𝟐𝒂𝜽,
𝟐𝒂𝒔, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔
have their usual
have their usual
meaning.
meaning.
189
(1 Marks Questions)
1. If one of the particles is heavier than the other, to which will their centre of
mass shift?
Answer:- The centre of mass will shift closer to the heavier particle.
2. Can centre of mass of a body coincide with geometrical centre of the body?
Answer:- Yes, when the body has a uniform mass density.
Type equati
3.Which physical quantity is represented by a product of the moment of inertia
and the angular velocity?
Answer: - Product of I and ω represents angular momentum(L=I ω).
4. What is the angle between 𝐀and 𝐁 , if 𝐀 and 𝐁 denote the adjacent sides of
𝟏
a parallelogram drawn from a point and the area of parallelogram is 𝟐AB.
1
Answer:- Area of parallelogram= A X B = ABsin Ѳ =2AB. (Given)
1
sin Ѳ =2 = sin 300 or Ѳ= 300
5. Which component of linear momentum does not contribute to angular

momentum?
Answer:- The radial component of linear momentum makes no contribution to
angular momentum.
6.A disc of metal is melted and recast in the form of solid sphere. What will
happen to the moment of inertia about a vertical axis passing through the
centre?
1 2
Answer:- Moment of inertia will decrease, because Id = 2 m r 2 and Is = m r 2 , the
5
radius of sphere formed on recasting the disc will also decrease.
7. What is rotational analogue of mass of body?

Answer:- Rotational analogue of mass of a body is moment of inertia of the body.
190
8. What are factors on which moment of inertia depend upon?
Answer:- Moment of inertia of a body depends on position and orientation of the axis
of rotation. It also depends on shape, size of the body and also on the distribution of
mass of the body about the given axis.
9. Is radius of gyration of a body constant quantity?

Answer:- No, radius of gyration of a body depends on axis of rotation and also on
distribution of mass of the body about the axis.
10. Is the angular momentum of a system always conserved? If no, under what
condition is it conserved?
Answer:- No, angular momentum of a system is not always conserved. It is
conserved only when no external torque acts on the system.
(2 Marks Questions)
1. Why is the handle of a screw made wide?
Answerwer:- Turning moment of a force= force × distance(r) from the axis of
rotation. To produce a given turning moment, force required is smaller, when r is
large. That’s what happens when handle of a screw is made wide.
2. Can a body in translatory motion have angular momentum? Explain.

Answer:- Yes, a body in translatory motion shall have angular momentum, the fixed
point about which angular momentum is taken lies on the line of motion of the body.
This follows from L = r p sin Ѳ.
L=0, only when Ѳ =00 or Ѳ=1800 .
3. A person is sitting in the compartment of a train moving with uniform

velocity on a smooth track. How will the velocity of centre of mass of
compartment change if the person begins to run in the compartment?
Answer:- We know that velocity of centre of mass of a system changes only when an
external force acts on it. The person and the compartment form one system on
which no external force is applied when the person begins to run. Therefore, there
will be no change in velocity of centre of mass of the compartment.
191
4. A particle performs uniform circular motion with an angular momentum L. If
the frequency of particle’s motion is doubled and its K.E is halved, what
happens to the angular momentum?
Answer:-L = m v r and v = r ω = r 2 π n
v v m v2
r= ∴ L = mv =
2πn 2πn 2πn
As,
1 K.E
K.E= mv2 , therefore, L =
2 πn
K.E′ K.E/2 K.E L

When K.E. is halved and frequency (n) is doubled, L = = = 4πn = 4
πn′ π 2n
i.e. angular momentum becomes one fourth.
5. An isolated particle of mass m is moving in a horizontal plane(x-y), along

the x-axis at a certain height above the ground. It explodes suddenly into two
fragments of masses m/4 and 3 m/4. An instant later, the smaller fragments is
at y= +15 cm. What is the position of larger fragment at this instant?
Answer:- As isolated particle is moving along x-axis at a certain height above the
ground, there is no motion along y-axis. Further, the explosion is under internal
forces only. Therefore, centre of mass remains stationary along y-axis after
collision. Let the co-ordinates of centre of mass be (xcm , 0).
m 1 y 1 +m 2 y 2
Now, ycm = =0∴ m1 y1 + m2 y2 = 0
m 1 +m 2
Or y2=−m 1 y 1 =−m /4×15=−5 cm

m2 3m /4
So, larger fragment will be at y= -5 ; along x-axis.
6. Why there are two propellers in a helicopter?

Answer:- If there were only one propeller in a helicopter then, due to conservation of
angular momentum, the helicopter itself would have turned in the opposite direction.
7. A solid wooden sphere rolls down two different inclined planes of the same
height but of different inclinations. (a) Will it reach the bottom with same
speed in each case? (b) Will it take longer to roll down one inclined plane than
192
other? Explain.
Answer: - (a) Yes, because at the bottom depends only on height and not on slope.
(b) Yes, greater the inclination(θ), smaller will be time of decent, as t ∝
1/ sin θ.
8. There is a stick half of which is wooden and half is of steel. It is pivoted at

the wooden end and a force is applied at the steel end at right angles to its
length. Next, it is pivoted at the steel end and the same force is applied at the
wooden end. In which case is angular acceleration more and why?
Answer:- We know that torque, τ= Force × Distance = I α = constant
τ 1
∴ α= i. e α ∝
I I
Angular acc. (α) will be more, when I is small, for which lighter material(wood)
should at larger distance from the axis of rotation I.e. when stick is pivoted at the
steel end.
9. Using expressions for power in rotational motion, derive the relation = 𝐈 𝛂 ,

where letters have their usual meaning.
Answer:- We know that power in rotational motion, P = τ ω ……….(i)
1
and K.E. of motion, E= 2 I ω2 .………(ii)
As power= time rate of doing work in rotational motion, and work is stored in the
body in the form of K.E.
d
∴ P = dt (K.E. of rotation)
d 1 1 dω
= I ω = I × 2ω
dt 2 2 dt
P=Iωα
Using (i), P = τ ω = I ω α or τ = I α , which is the required relation.
10. Calculate radius of gyration of a cylindrical rod of mass m and length L

about an axis of rotation perpendicular to its length and passing through the
centre.
Answer: - K=? , mass= m, length=L
Moment of inertia of the rod about an axis perpendicular to its length and passing
through the centre is
193
mL2
I=
12
mL 2 L L
Also, I = mK 2 ∴ mK 2 = or K= = .
12 12 2 3
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Explain that torque is only due to transverse component of force. Radial

component has nothing to do with torque.
2. Show that Centre of mass of an isolated system moves with a uniform

velocity along a straight line path.
3. If angular momentum is conserved in a system whose moment of inertia is

decreased, will its rotational kinetic energy be also conserved ? Explain.
Ans:- Here, L = I ω = constant
1
K.E. of rotation, K = 2 I ω2
1 2 2 L2
K= I ω =
21 21
As L is constant, ∴ K ∝ 1/I
When moment of inertia(I) decreases, K.E. of rotation(K) increases. Thus K.E. of
rotation is not conserved.
4. How will you distinguish between a hard-boiled egg and a raw egg by
spinning each on a table top?
Ans:- To distinguish between a hard-boiled egg and a raw egg, we spin each on a
table top. The egg which spins at a slower rate shall be raw. This is because in a
raw egg, liquid matter inside tries to get away from its axis of rotation. Therefore, its
moment of inertia I increases. As τ = I α = constant, therefore, α decreases i.e.
raw egg will spin with smaller angular acceleration. The reverse is true for a hard
boiled egg which will rotate more or less like a rigid body.
194
5.Equal torques are applied on a cylindrical and a hollow sphere. Both have
same mass and radius. The cylinder rotates about its axis and the sphere
rotates about one of its diameters. Which will acquire greater speed? Explain.
6.Locate the centre of mass of uniform triangular lamina and a uniform cone.
7.A thin wheel can stay upright on its rim for a considerable length when
rolled with a considerable velocity, while it falls from its upright position at the
slightest disturbance when stationary. Give reason.
Answer:- When the wheel is rolling upright, it has angular momentum in the
horizontal direction i.e., along the axis of the wheel. Because the angular
momentum is to remain conserved, the wheel does not fall from its upright position
because that would change the direction of angular momentum. The wheel falls only
when it loses its angular velocity due to friction.
8. Why is the speed of whirl wind in a tornado so high?

Answer:- In a whirl wind, the air from nearby region gets concentrated in a small
space thereby decreasing the value of moment of inertia considerably. Since, I ω=
constant, due to decrease in moment of inertia, the angular speed becomes quite
high.
9. Explain the physical significance of moment of inertia and radius of

gyration.
10. Obtain expression for K.E. of rolling motion.
195
(5 Marks Questions)
1. Define centre of mass. Obtain an expression for perpendicular of centre of mass

of two particle system and generalise it for particle system.
2. Find expression for linear acceleration of a cylinder rolling down on a inclined

plane.
A ring, a disc and a sphere all of them have same radius and same mass roll down
on inclined plane from the same heights. Which of these reaches the bottom (i)
earliest (ii) latest?
3. (i) Name the physical quantity corresponding to inertia in rotational motion. How is
it calculated? Give its units.
(ii)Find expression for kinetic energy of a body.
4. State and prove the law of conservation of angular momentum. Give one
illustration to explain it.
5. State parallel and perpendicular axis theorem.

Define an expression for moment of inertia of a disc R, mass M about an axis along
its diameter.
(TYPICAL PROBLEMS)
1. A uniform disc of radius R is put over another uniform disc of radius 2R of the
same thickness and density. The peripheries of the two discs touch each other.
Locate the centre of mass of the system.
Ans:-
Let the centre of the bigger disc be the origin.
2R = Radius of bigger disc
R = Radius of smaller disc
𝑚1 = 𝜋𝑅 2 × 𝑇 × 𝜌
196
𝑚2 = 𝜋(2𝑅)2 × 𝑇 × 𝜌, where T = Thickness of the two discs
𝜌 =Density of the two discs
∴The position of the centre of mass

𝑚 1 𝑥 1 +𝑚 2 𝑥 2 𝑚 1 𝑦 1 +𝑚 2 𝑦 2
= ,
𝑚 1 +𝑚 2 𝑚 1 +𝑚 2
𝑥1 = 𝑅 𝑦1 = 0
𝑥2 = 0 𝑦2 = 0
𝜋𝑅 2 𝑇𝜌𝑅 + 0 0 𝜋𝑅 2 𝑇𝜌𝑅 𝑅
2 2
, 1 2
= 2
,0 = ,0
𝜋𝑅 𝑇𝜌 + 𝜋(2𝑅) 𝑇𝜌 𝑚 + 𝑚 5𝜋𝑅 𝑇𝜌 5
At R/5 from the centre of bigger disc towards the centre of smaller disc.
2. Two blocks of masses 10 kg and 20 kg are placed on the x-axis. The first mass is
moved on the axis by a distance of 2 cm. By what distance should the second mass
be moved to keep the position of centre of mass unchanged ?
Ans:- Two masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are placed on the X-axis
m1 = 10 kg , m2 = 20kg
The first mass is displaced by a distance of 2 cm
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 10 × 2 + 20𝑥2
∴ 𝑋𝑐𝑚 = =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 30
20 + 20𝑥2
⇒0=
30
⇒ 20 + 20𝑥2 = 0
⇒ 20 = −20𝑥2
⇒ 𝑥2 = −1𝑐𝑚
197
∴ The 2nd mass should be displaced by a distance 1cm towards left so as to kept
the position of centre of mass unchanged.
3. A simple of length 𝒍 is pulled aside to make an angle 𝜽 with the vertical.
Find the magnitude of the torque of the weight 𝒘 of the bob about the point of
suspension. When is the torque zero ?
Ans:-A simple of pendulum of length l is suspended from a rigid support.

A bob of weight W is hanging on the other point.
When the bob is at an angle 𝜃with the vertical, W
then total torque acting on the point of suspension = i = F × r
⇒W r sin 𝜃= W l sin 𝜃
At the lowest point of suspension the torque will be zero as the force acting on the
body passes through the point of suspension.
4. A square plate of mass 120 g and edge 5.0 cm rotates about one of edges. If
it has a uniform angular acceleration of 0.2 rad/𝒔𝟐 , what torque acts on the
plate ?
Ans:-A square plate of mass 120 gm and edge 5 cm rotates about one of the edge.
Let take a small area of the square of width dx and length a which is at a distance x
from the axis of
rotation.
Therefore mass of that small area
m/𝑎2 × a dx(m=mass of the square ; a= side of the plate)
𝑎
𝐼= 0
𝑚/𝑎2 × 𝑎𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚/𝑎 𝑥 3 /3 ]𝑎0
= 𝑚𝑎2 /3
198
Therefore torque produced = I × 𝛼 = 𝑚𝑎2 /3 × 𝛼
= {(120 × 10-3 × 52 × 10-4)/3} 0.2
= 0.2 × 10-4 = 2 × 10-5 N-m.
5. A wheel of moment of inertia 0.10 kg-𝒎𝟐 is rotating about a shaft at an

angular speed of 160 rev/minute. A second wheel is set into rotation at 300
rev/minute and is coupled to the same shaft so that both the wheels finally
rotate with a common angular speed of 200 rev/minute. Find the moment of
inertia of the second wheel.
Ans:-Wheel (1) has
𝐼1 = 0.10 kg-𝑚2 , 𝜔1 = 160 rev/min
Wheel (2) has

𝐼2 = ? ; 𝜔2 = 300 rev/min
Given that after they are coupled, 𝜔= 200 rev/min
Therefore if we take the two wheels to bean isolated system
Total external torque = 0
Therefore, 𝐼1 𝜔1 + 𝐼1 𝜔2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼1 𝜔
⇒0.10 × 160 + 𝐼2 × 300 = (0.10 + 𝐼2 ) × 200
⇒5𝐼2 = 1 – 0.8
⇒𝐼2 = 0.04 kg-𝑚2 .
199
UNIT- VI
GRAVITATION
200
CONCEPTMAP
GRAVITATION
GOVERNED BY MEASURED THROUGH APPLICATIONS
NEWTON’S LAW OF ACCELERATION DUE

GRAVITATION TO GRAVITY (g)
ESCAPE SATELLITE
VELOCITY
MATHEMATICALL VARIES DUE TO

Y MATHEMATICALLY
2𝐺𝑀
V=
𝑅
V= 2𝑔𝑅
ALTIDUDE ROTATION OF
2𝑕
DEPTH
ɠ=g(1- 𝑟 ) EARTH/LATITUDE
ɠ=g(
𝑑 ɠ=g(1-Rꙍ2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝞥)
1 - 𝑅)
CAUSES MOTION OF
PLANETS EXPLAINED BY
KEPLER’S LAW
LAW OF LAW OF AREAL

LAW OF TIME
ELLIPTICAL VELOCITIES
PERIODS
ORBITS 201
GIST
 Kepler's law of planetry motion
(a) Kepler's first law (law of orbit): Every planet revolves around the sun in an
elliptical orbit with the sun is situated at one focus of the ellipse.
(b) Kepler's second law (law of area): The radius vector drawn from the sun to a
planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time , i.e., the areal velocity of
the planet around the sun is constant.
(c) Kepler's third law (law of period): The square of the time period of revolution of a
planet around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of semimajor axis of the
elliptical orbit of the planet around the sun.
 Gravitation is the name given to the force of attraction acting between

any two bodies of the universe.
 Newton's law of gravitation: It states that gravitational force of attraction

acting between two point mass bodies of the universe is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them, i.e., F=Gm 1m2/r2, where G
is the universal gravitational constant.
 Gravitational constant (G): It is equal to the force of attraction acting

between two bodies each of unit mass, whose centres are placed unit
distance apart. Value of G is constant throughout the universe. It is a
scalar quantity. The dimensional formula G =[M-1L3T-2]. In SI unit, the
value of G =6.67X10-11Nm2kg-2.
 Gravity: It is the force of attraction exerted by earth towards its centre

on a body lying on or near the surface of earth. Gravity is the measure
of weight of the body. The weight of a body of mass m=mass X
acceleration due to gravity=mg. The unit of weight of a body will be the
same as those of force.
202
 Acceleration due to gravity (g): It is defined as the acceleration set up
in a body while falling freely under the effect of gravity alone. It is vector
quantity. The value of g changes with height, depth, rotation of earth the
value of g is zero at the centre of the earth. The value of g on the
surface of earth is 9.8 ms-2. The acceleration due to gravity (g) is related
with gravitational constant (G) by the relaion, g=GM/R 2 where M and R
are the mass and radius of the earth.
 Variation of acceleration due to gravity:
(a) Effect of altitude, g’=Gr2/(R+h)2 and g’=g(1-2h/R)
The first is valid when h is comparable with R and the second relation
is valid when h<<R.
The value of g decreases with increase in h.
(b) Effect of depth g’=g(1-d/R)
The acceleration due to gravity decreases with increase in depth d and

becomes zero at the center of earth.
(c) Effect of rotation of earth: g’=g-R ω2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆
The acceleration due to gravity on equator decreases on account of

rotation of earth and increase with the increase in latitude of a place.
 Gravitational field: It is the space around a material body in

which its gravitational pull can be experienced by other bodies.
The strength of gravitational field at a point is the measure of
gravitational intensity at that point. The intensity of gravitational
field of a body at a point in the field is defined as the force
experienced by a body of unit mass placed at that point
provided the presence of unit mass does not disturb the original
gravitational field. The intensity of gravitational field at a point
distance r from the center of the body of mass M is given by
203
E=GM/r2=acceleration due to gravity.
 Gravitational potential: The gravitational potential at a point in

a gravitational field is defined as the amount of work done in
bringing a body of unit mass from infinity to that point without
acceleration. Gravitational potential at a point, V=work done
𝑊 𝐺𝑀
(W)/test mass (m0) = -GM/r. V= = -
𝑚0 𝑟
Gravitational intensity (I) is related to gravitational potential (V)

at a point by the relation, E=-dV/dr
 Gravitational potential energy of a body, at a point in

the gravitational field of another body is defined as the
amount of work done in bringing the given body from
infinity to that point without acceleration.
Gravitational potential energy U=gravitational potential X

𝐺𝑀
mass of body =- X m.
𝑟
 Inertial mass of a body is defined as the force required

to produce unit acceleration in the body.
Gravitational mass of a body is defined as the

gravitational pull experienced by the body in a
gravitational field of unit intensity.
Inertial mass of a body is identical to the gravitational

mass of that body. The main difference is that the
gravitational mass of a body is affected by the presence
of other bodies near it. Whereas the inertial mass of a
body remains unaffected by the presence of other bodies
near it.
 Satellite: A satellite is a body which is revolving

continuously in an orbit around a comparatively much
204
larger body.
(a) Orbital speed of satellite is the speed required to

put the satellite into given orbit around earth.
 Time period of satellite(T): It is the time taken by satellite

to complete one revolution around the earth.
2𝜋 (𝑅+𝑕)3
T=
𝑅 𝑔
 Height of satellite above the earth surface:
−𝐺𝑀𝑚
 Total energy of satellite, E=P.E +K.E=
2(𝑅+𝑕)
Blinding energy of satellite = -E = GM m/(R+h)
 Geostationary satellite: A satellite which revolves around the earth with the
same angular speed in the same direction as is done by the earth around its
axis is called geostationary or geosynchronous satellite. The height of
geostationary satellite is = 36000 km and its orbital velocity = 3.1 km s-1.
 Polar satellite: It is that satellite which revolves in polar orbit around earth ,i.e.
, polar satellite passes through geographical north and south poles of earth
once per orbit.
 Escape speed: The escape speed on earth is defined as the minimum speed
with which a body has to be projected vertically upwards from the surface of
earth( or any other planet ) so that it just crosses the gravitational field of
earth (or of that planet) and never returns on its own. Escape velocity ve is
2𝐺𝑀
given by, ve= = 2𝑔𝑅. For earth, the value of escape speed is
𝑅
11.2kms-1.
 For a point close to the earth’s surface , the escape speed and orbital speed
are related as ve = 2𝑣𝑜
 Weightlessness: It is a situation in which the effective weights of the body

becomes zero.
205
(1 MARKS QUESTIONS)
Q1.When a stone of mass m is falling on the earth of mass M; find the acceleration
of earth if any?
Ans. Force exerted by falling stone on earth, F=mg
𝐹 𝑚𝑔
Acceleration of earth= =
𝑀 𝑀
Q2.Why G is called a universal constant?
Ans.It is so because the value of G is same for all the pairs of the bodies (big or
small) situated anywhere in the universe.
Q3.According to Kepler’s second law the radius vector to a planet from the sun
sweeps out equal area in equal interval of time. The law is a consequence of which
conservation law.
Ans. Law of Conservation of angular momentum.
Q4.What are the factors which determine; Why some bodies in solar system have
atmosphere and others don’t have?
Ans.The ability of a body (planet) to hold the atmosphere depends on

acceleration due to gravity.
Q5.What is the maximum value of gravitational potential energy and where?
Ans.The value of gravitational potential energy is negative and it increases as we

move away from the earth and becomes maximum ( zero) at infinity.
Q6.The gravitational potential energy of a body at a distance r from the center of

earth is U. What is the weight of the body at that point?
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀
Ans. U= =( 𝑟 2 ) r m=g r m= (mg) r
𝑟
206
Q7.A satellite revolving around earth loses height. How will its time period be
changed?
(𝑅+𝑕)3
Ans. Time period of satellite is given by; T=2𝜋 . Therefore, T will decrease,
𝐺𝑀
when h decreases.
Q8.Should the speed of two artificial satellites of the earth having different masses
but the same orbital radius, be the same?
Ans.Yes it is so because the orbital speed of a satellite is independent of the mass

of a satellite. Therefore the speeds of the artificial satellite will be of different masses
but of the same orbital radius will be the same.
Q9.Can a pendulum vibrate in an artificial satellite?
Ans. No, this is because inside the satellite, there is no gravity,i.e., g=0.
As t = 2π 𝑙/𝑔, hence,for g=0, t = ∞ . Thus, the pendulum will not vibrate.
Q10.Why do different planets have different escape speed?
Ans. As, escape speed = 2𝐺𝑀/𝑅 , therefore its valueare different for different
planets which are of different masses and different sizes.
(2 MARKS QUESTIONS)
Q1.Show that weight of all body is zero at Centre of earth?
Ans.The value of acceleration due to gravity at a depth d below the surface of earth
of radius R is given by ɠ=g(1-d/R).At the center of earth, (dept)d=R; so, ɠ =0.The
weight of a body of mass m at the centre of earth =mg’=m x 0=0.
Q2.If a person goes to a height equal to radius of the earth from its surface. What
would be his weight relative to that on the earth.
Ans. At the surface of the earth, weight W=mg=GM m/𝑅 2 .
207
𝐺𝑀 𝑚 𝐺𝑀 𝑚 𝑊′ 𝑅2 1 𝑊
At height h =R, weight W’=mg’= 2
= = = W’=
(𝑅+𝑕) (𝑅+𝑅)2 𝑊 (2𝑅)2 4 4
It means the weight would reduce to one-fourth of the weight on the surface of earth.
Q3.What will be the effect on the time period of a simple pendulum on taking to a
mountain?
Ans. The time period of a pendulum, T=2π 𝑙/𝑔, i.e., T=∝1/ 𝑔.As the value of g is
less at mountain than at plane, hence time period of simple pendulum will be more
at mountain than at plane though the change will be very small.
Q4.A satellite is revolving around the earth, close to the surface of earth with a
kinetic energy E. How much kinetic energy should be given to it so that it escapes
from the surface of earth?
Ans. Let 𝑣0, 𝑣𝑒 be the orbital and escape speeds of the satellite, then 𝑣𝑒 = 2𝑣0, .
1
Energy in the given orbit,𝐸1 = 2 𝑚𝑣02 = 𝐸
1 1
Energy for the escape speed,𝐸2 = 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑒2 = 2 𝑚 2𝑣02 = 2𝐸
Energy required to be supplied =𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 𝐸.
Q5.A tennis ball and a cricket ball are to be projected out of gravitational field of the
earth. Do we need different velocities to achieve so?
Ans. We require the same velocity for the two balls, while projecting them out of the
gravitational field. It is so because, the value of escape velocity does not depend
upon the mass of the body to be projected [i.e.,𝑣𝑒 = 2𝑔𝑅].
Q6.Suppose the gravitational force varies inversely as the nth power of the distance.
Show that the time period of a planet in circular orbit of radius R around the sun will
be proportional to 𝑅 (𝑛+1)/2 .
𝐺𝑀 𝑚 2𝜋
Ans. = 𝑚𝑅( 𝑇 )2
𝑅𝑛
208
2
𝑅 × 4𝜋 2 × 𝑅 𝑛 4𝜋 2 𝑅 (𝑛+1)
𝑇 = =
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
2𝜋
𝑇= . 𝑅 (𝑛+1)/2
𝐺𝑀
𝑇 ∝ 𝑅 (𝑛+1)/2
Q7.Draw graphs showing the variation of acceleration due to gravity with (a)height
above the earth’s surface, (b)depth below the Earth’s surface.
Ans.(a)The variation of g with height h is related by relation g∝1/𝑟 2 where r=R+h.

Thus, the variation of g and r is a parabolic curve.
(b)The variation of g with depth is released by equation g’=g(1-d/R) i.e. g’∝ 𝑅 − 𝑑

.Thus, the variation of g and d is a straight line.
Q8.Why does moon have no atmosphere?
Ans. Moon has no atmosphere because the value of acceleration due to gravity ‘g’
on surface of moon is small. Therefore, the value of escape speed on the surface of
moon is small. The molecules of atmospheric gases on the surface of the moon
have thermal speeds greater than the escape speed. That is why all the molecules
of gases have escaped and there is no atmosphere on moon.
Q9.A rocket is fired with a speed v=2 𝑔𝑅 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 the earth’s surface and directed
upwards. Find its speed in interstellar space.
Ans. Let v be the speed of rocket instellar space.
1 1 1
Using law of conservation of energy, we have2 𝑚(2 𝑔𝑅)2 =2 𝑚𝑣𝑒2 + 2 𝑚𝑣 2
1 1
= 𝑚( 2𝑔𝑅)2 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
𝑣 2 = 4𝑔𝑅 − 2𝑔𝑅
𝑣= 2𝑔𝑅
209
(3 marks questions)
Q1.Explain how knowledge of g helps us to find (i) mass of earth and (ii) mean
density of earth?
Q2.Obtain the expression for orbital velocity, time period, and altitude of a satellite.
Q3.What do you understand by ‘Escape velocity’? Derive an expression for it in

terms of parameters of given planet.
Q4.What do you understand by gravitational field, Intensity of gravitational field.

Prove that gravitational intensity at a point is equal to the acceleration due to gravity
at that point.
Q5.A mass M is broken into two parts of masses𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 . How are 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2
related so that force of gravitational attraction between the two parts is maximum.
Ans. Let 𝑚1 = 𝑚, then 𝑚2 = 𝑀 − 𝑚. Gravitational force of attraction between them

𝐺𝑚 (𝑀−𝑚 )
when placed distance r apart will be = .
𝑟2
Differentiating it w.r.t. m, we get
𝑑𝐹 𝐺 𝑑 𝑑𝑚 𝐺 𝐺
= 2 𝑚 𝑀−𝑚 + 𝑀−𝑚 = 2 𝑚 −1 + 𝑀 − 𝑚 = 2 (𝑀 − 2𝑚)
𝑑𝑚 𝑟 𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑚 𝑟 𝑟
𝑑𝐹
If F is maximum, then𝑑𝑚 = 0 ;
𝐺 𝑀
Then 𝑟 2 𝑀 − 2𝑚 = 0 or M=2m or m= 2
Q6.Two particles of equal mass move in a circle of radius r under the action of their
mutual gravitational attraction. Find the speed of each particle if its mass is m.
210
Ans. The two particles will move on a circular path if they always remain dramatically
opposite so that the gravitation force on one particle due to other is directed along
the radius. Taking into consideration the circulation of one particle we have
𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝑚
= (2𝑟)2 or𝑣 =
𝑟 4𝑟
Q7.The magnitude of gravitational field at distances 𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 from the centre of a

uniform sphere of radius R and mass M are 𝐼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 respectively. Find the ratio of
(𝐼1 /𝐼2 ) if 𝑟1 > 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 < 𝑅.
Ans. When 𝑟1 > 𝑅, the point lies outside the sphere. Then sphere can be considered
to be a point mass body whose whole mass can be supposed to be concentrated at
its Centre. Then gravitational intensity at a point distance 𝑟1 from the Centre of the
sphere will be,𝐼1 = 𝐺𝑀/𝑟12
When 𝑟2 < 𝑅, the point P lies inside the sphere. The unit mass body placed at P, will
4
𝑀 𝜋𝑟23
3
experience gravitational pull due to sphere of radius𝑟2 , whose mass is M’= 4 =
𝜋𝑅 3
3
𝑀𝑟23
.
𝑅3
Therefore, the gravitational intensity at P will be ,
𝐺𝑀𝑟23 1 𝐺𝑀𝑟2
𝐼2 = 3
. 2=
𝑅 𝑟2 𝑅3
𝐼1 𝐺𝑀 𝑅 3 𝑅3
= 2 . = 2
𝐼2 𝑟1 𝐺𝑀𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
Q8.Two bodies of masses 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 are initially at rest at infinite distance apart.
They are then allowed to move towards each other under mutual gravitational
attraction. Find their relative velocity of approach at a separation distance r between
them.
211
Ans. Let 𝑣𝑟 be the relative velocity of approach of two bodies at a distance r apart.
𝑚 1𝑚 2
The reduced mass of the system of two particles is ,𝜇 = .
𝑚 1 +𝑚 2
According to law of conservationof mechanical energy.
Decrease in potential energy = increase in K.E.
𝐺𝑚 1 𝑚 2 1 𝐺𝑚 1 𝑚 2 1 𝑚 1𝑚 2 2𝐺(𝑚 1 +𝑚 2 )
0− − = 𝜇𝑣𝑟2 or = ( )𝑣𝑟2 or 𝑣𝑟 =
𝑟 2 𝑟 2 𝑚 1 +𝑚 2 𝑟
Q9.Since the moon is gravitationally attracted to the earth, why does it not
simply crash on earth?
Ans. The moon is orbiting around the earth in a certain orbit with a certain
period. The centripetal force required for the orbital motion is provided to the
gravitational pull of earth. The moon can crash into the earth if its tangential
velocity is reduced to zero. AS moon has tangential velocity while orbiting
around earth, it simply falls around the earth rather than into it and hence
cannot crash into the earth.
Q10.What are the conditions under which a rocket fired from earth, launches
an artificial satellite of earth?
Ans. Following are the basic conditions: (i) The rocket must take the satellite to
a suitable height above the surface of earth for ease of propulsion.
(ii)From the desired height, the satellite must be projected with a suitable
speed, called orbital speed.
(iii)In the orbital path of satellite, the air resistance should be negligible so that
its speed does not decrease and it does not burn due to the heat produced.
212
(5 marks questions)
Q1.State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Prove second Kepler’s law using
concept of conservation of angular motion.
Q2.State universal law of gravitation. What is the significance of this law. Find the
expression for acceleration due to gravity.
Q3.Explain the variation of acceleration due to gravity with (I)altitude (ii)depth
Q4.Define gravitational potential energy. Derive the expression for gravitational

potential energy. What is the maximum value of gravitational potential energy?
Q5.What is escape speed? Derive the expressions for it. Calculate escape speed for
the Earth.
(TYPICAL PROBLEMS)
Q1.Two particles of equal mass go round a circle of radius R under the action of
their mutual gravitational attraction. Find the speed of each particle.
Ans. The particles will always remain diametrically opposite so that the force on
each particle will be directed along the radius. Consider the motion of one of the
𝐺𝑚 2
particles. The force on the particle is 𝐹 = . If the speed is v, its acceleration is
4𝑅 2
𝑣 2 /𝑅.
Thus by Newton’s Law,
213
𝐺𝑚 2 𝑚𝑣 2
=
4𝑅 2 𝑅
𝐺𝑚
V=
4𝑅
Q2.A particle is fired vertically upward with a speed of 3.8km/s. Find the maximum
height attained by the particle. Radius of earth=6400km and g at the
surface=9.8m/s. Consider only earth’s gravitation.
Ans. At the surface of the earth, the potential energy of the earth-particle system is
𝐺𝑀𝑚
with usual symbol. The kinetic energy is 1/2 m𝑣 2 where𝑣0 = 9.8𝑘𝑚/𝑠. At the
𝑅
maximum height the kinetic energy is zero. If the maximum height reached is H, the
𝐺𝑀𝑚
potential energy of the earth-particle system at this instant is − 𝑅+𝐻 . Using
𝐺𝑀𝑚 1𝑚 𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
conservation of energy ,− + = − 𝑅+𝐻
𝑅 2
Writing GM=g𝑅 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 dividing by m,
𝑣02 −𝑔𝑅2
−𝑔𝑅 + =
2 𝑅+𝐻
𝑅2 𝑣02
=𝑅−
𝑅+𝐻 2𝑔
𝑅2
𝑅+𝐻 = 𝑣02
𝑅−
2𝑔
Putting the value of R,𝑣0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 g on right side,
(6400 𝑘𝑚)2
𝑅+𝐻 = (9.8𝑘𝑚 /𝑠)2
6400 −
2 𝑋 9.8𝑠 −2
= 27300𝑘𝑚
214
H = (27300 - 6400)km =20900km
3.Derive an expression for the gravitational field due to a uniform rod of length L and
mass M at a point on its perpendicular bisector at a distance d from the center.
Ans.A small section of rod is considered at ‘x’ distance mass of the element = (M/L).
dx = dm
𝐺 𝑑𝑚 𝑋1 𝐺(𝑑𝑚) 𝑑 2𝐺𝑀𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸1 = = 2. . =
(𝑑2 + 𝑥 2 ) (𝑑 2 + 𝑥 2 ) (𝑑 2 + 𝑥 2 𝐿(𝑑 2 + 𝑥 2 )( (𝑑2 + 𝑥 2 )
Total gravitational field

𝐿/2 2𝐺𝑚𝑑 𝑑𝑥
E= 0 𝐿(𝑑 2 +𝑥 2 )3/2
Integrating the above equation it can be found that,
2𝐺𝑀
𝐸=
𝑑 𝐿2 + 4𝑑 2
Resultant dE = 2 dE1 sin 𝜃
𝐺(𝑑𝑚) 𝑑 2 × 𝐺𝑀 × 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
=2× × =
(𝑑2 + 𝑥 2 ) (𝑑2 + 𝑥 2 𝐿(𝑑 2 + 𝑥 2 )( (𝑑 2 + 𝑥 2 )
Total gravitational field
𝐿/2 2𝐺𝑚𝑑 𝑑𝑥
E= 0 𝐿(𝑑 2 +𝑥 2 )3/2
Integrating the above equation it can be found that,
215
2𝐺𝑀
𝐸=
𝑑 𝐿2 + 4𝑑2
Q4.A tunnel is dug along a diameter of the earth. Find the force on a particle of mass
m placed in the tunnel at a distance x from the centre.
Ans. Let d be the distance from centre of earth to man ‘m’ then
𝑅2 1
𝐷= 𝑥2 + = ( ) 4𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2
4 2
M be the mass of the earth, M’ the mass of the sphere of radius d/2.
Then M = (4/3) π𝑅 3 𝜌
M’ = (4/3)π𝑑 3 𝜏
𝑀′ 𝑑3
Or =
𝑀 𝑅3
 Gravitational force is m,
𝐺𝑚′𝑚 𝐺𝑑 3 𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑑
𝐹= = =
𝑑2 𝑅3 𝑑2 𝑅3
So, Normal force exerted by the wall = F cos𝜃
𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑑 𝑅 𝐺𝑀𝑚
× =
𝑅3 2𝑑 2𝑅 2
216
Therefore I think normal force does not depend on x.
Q5. (a) Find the radius of the circular orbit of a satellite moving with an angular
speed equal to the angular speed of earth’s rotation.
(b)If the satellite is directly above the north pole at some instant , find the time it
takes to come over equatorial plane. Mass of the earth=6𝑋1024 𝑘𝑔
Ans.(a) Angular speed f earth & the satellite will be same
2𝜋 2𝜋
=
𝑇𝑒 𝑇𝑠
Or
1 1
=
24 𝑋 3600 (𝑅+𝑕)3
2𝜋 𝑔𝑅 2
(𝑅+𝑕)3
Or 12|3600 = 3.14 𝑔𝑅 2
(𝑅+𝑕)2 (12 𝑋 3600 )2

Or =
𝑔𝑅 2 (3.14)2
(6400 +𝑕)3 𝑋 10 9 (12𝑋3600 )2

Or =
9.8𝑋(6400 )2 𝑋10 6 (3.14)2
(6400 +𝑕)3 𝑋10 9

Or = 432 × 104
6272 𝑋10 9
Or (6400 + 𝑕)3 = 6272 × 432 × 104
Or 6400 + 𝑕 = (6272 × 432 × 104 )1/3

1
Or 𝑕 = (6272 × 432 × 104 )3 − 6400
= 42300 𝑚.
(b)Time taken from North Pole to equator = (1/2) t
217
1 (43200 + 6400)3 (497)3 𝑋 106
= 𝑋6.28 = 3.14
2 10 𝑋 (6400)2 𝑋 106 (64)2 𝑋 1011
497 𝑋 497 𝑋 497

= 3.14 = 6 𝑕𝑜𝑢𝑟.
64 𝑋 64 𝑋 105
UNIT - VII
MECHANICS OF SOLID AND FLUID
GIST
 Deforming force:- A force acting on a body which produces change in its
shape of body instead of its state of rest or uniform motion of the body.
 Elasticity:-The property of matter by virtue which it regains its original shape
and size, when the deforming forces are removed is called elasticity.
 Plasticity:- The inability of a body to return to its original shape and size,
when the deforming forces are removed is called plasticity.
 Hooke’s law:- when a wire is loaded within elastic limit, the extension
produced in wire is directly proportional to the load applied.
OR
Within elastic limit stress α strain
Stress = Constant
Strain
 Stress :- Restoring force set up per unit area when deforming force acts on
the body
Stress = Restoring force
Area
S.I Unit of stress = N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
Dimensional formula = MaLbTc
218
Tensile stress(When there is an
Types of stress:- increase in dimension of the body
along the direction of force )
Normal stress
Stress Compression stress(when there is

decrease in dimension )
Tangential stress (When deforming force acts tangential to the

surface of body)
Strain:- The ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension is called strain
It has no unit
Change in Length
Longitudinal strain=
Original Length
Types of strain:-
Change in Volume
Volumetric strain =
Original Volume
ΔL
Sharing Strain = φ = 𝐿 , Where ΔL =displacement of the face
on which force is applied and L is the height of the face
Hooke’s Law:- Within elastic limit, stress α strain

Strss
= Constant (Modulus of Elasticity)
Strain
Moduli of elasticity are of 3 types.
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
(1) Young’s Modulus (Y) =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
(2) Bulk Modulus (K) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
(3) Modulus of rigidity modulus (ƞ) =
𝑆𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
219
 Compressibility : the reciprocal of bulk modulus of a material is called its
compressibility
Compressibility = 1/K
Stress – Strain- diagram
 Proportionality limit(P) – The stress at the limit of proportionality point P is
known as proportionality limit
 Elastic limit - the maximum stress which can be applied to a wire so that on
unloading it return to its original length is called the elastic limit
 Yield point(Y)- The stress, beyond which the length of the wire increase
virtually for no increase in the stress
 Plastic region- the region of stress- strain graph between the elastic limit and
the breaking point is called the plastic region.
 Fracture point or Breaking point(B)- the value of stress corresponding to
which the wire breaks is called breaking point
 Work done in stretching a wire per unit volume/energy sored per unit
volume of specimen
= ½ x stress x strain
 Elastic after effect:- The delay in regaining the original state by a body after
the removal of the deforming force is called elastic after effect.
 Elastic fatigue:- the loss in strength of a material caused due to repeated
alternating strains to which the material is subjected.
 Poisson’s ratio(ϭ) :- The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is called
LateralStrain
Poisons ratio =
LongitudinalStrain
 Relation between Y,K,¶, ϭ

1. Y=3K(1-2 ϭ)
2. Y=2¶(1+ ϭ)
3𝑘−2¶
3. ϭ = 2¶+6k
9
4. = 1/K +3/¶
𝛾
 Applications of elasticity
220
1. Metallic part of machinery is never subjected to a stress beyond the elastic
limit of material.
2. Metallic rope used in cranes to lift heavy weight are decided on the elastic
limit of material
3. In designing beam to support load (in construction of roofs and bridges)
4. Preference of hollow shaft than solid shaft
5. Calculating the maximum height of a mountain
MECHANICS OF FLUID
 Pressure :The force/threat acting per unit area is called pressure

S.I Unit of pressure is N/M2 or Pascal (Pa)
Dimensional formula (ML-1T-2)
 Pascal’s law:- Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted to all part

of the fluid and to the wall of the container.
 Application of Pascal’s law:-
(1) Hydraulic lift, presses etc.
(2) Hydraulic brakes
 Pressure exerted by liquid column:- P = hρg, where h= depth of liquid,
ρ=density , g=accn. dueto gravity.
 Variation of pressure with depth: P = Pa + hρg, where Pa =atmospheric
pressure
 Atmospheric pressure:- The pressure exerted by atmosphere is called
atmospheric pressure.
At sea level, atmospheric pressure= 0.76m of Hg column
Mathematically 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Nm-2
 Archimedes’ principle:- It states that when a body is immersed completely
or partly in a fluid, it loses in weight equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by it.
Mathematically: Apparent weight = True weight – Vρg
221
Where V is volume of fluid displaced, ρ is its density.
 Viscosity:- It is the property of liquid (or gases) due to which a backward
dragging force acts tangentially between two layers of liquid when there is
relative motion between them.
 Newton’s formula for Viscous force:- the viscous force between two liquid
layer each of area A and having a velocity gradient dv/dx is
F = ƞ A (dv/dx) , where ƞ is coefficient of viscosity
 Coefficient of viscosity:- It is define as the tangential viscous force which
maintains a unit velocity gradient between two parallel layers each of unit
area
S.I unit of coefficient of viscosity is poiseuille or pascal-second
 Poiseuille’s equation:- when a liquid of coefficient of viscosity flows through
a tube of length ‘l’ and radius r, then the volume of liquid following out per
second is given
V = πPr4/8ƞl ,
Where P is the difference of pressure between the two ends of the tube.
 Stoke’s law: The backward dragging force acing on a small sphere of radius
r falling with uniform velocity v through a medium of coefficient of viscosity is
given by
F = 6πƞrv
 Terminal velocity:- It is the maximum constant velocity acquired by the body
while falling freely in a viscous medium
The terminal velocity v of a spherical body of radius r anddensity ϭ while
falling freely in a viscous medium of viscosity ¶ , density is given by
𝟐 𝒓𝟐
V = ϭ−𝛒 𝐠
𝒒 ƞ
 Stream line:- It is the path, straight or curved, the tangent at any point to
which given the direction of the flow of liquid at that point
 Tube of flow:- A tube of flow is a bundle of stream lines having the same
velocity of fluid elements over any cross section perpendicular to the direction
of flow
222
 Stream line flow:- the flow of the liquid in which each molecule of the liquid
passing through a point travels along the same path and with the some
velocity as the preceeding molecule passing through the same point
 Laminar flow:- the flow of liquid, in which velocity of the layer varies from
maximum at the axis to minimum for the layer in contact with the wall of the
tube is called laminar flow.
 Turbulent flow:- It is the flow of liquid in which a liquid moves with a velocity
greater than its critical velocity. The motion of the particles of liquid becomes
disorderly or irregular.
 Critical velocity:- It is that velocity of liquid flow, upto which the flow of liquid
is streamlined and above which its flow becomes turbulent. Critical velocity of
a liquid (Vc) flowing through a tube is given by
Vc = Kƞ/ ρ r
Where ρ is the density of liquid following through a tube of radius r and ƞ
the coefficient of viscosity of liquid
 Reynold’s umber:- It is a pure number which determines the nature of flow
of liquid through a pipe
QuantitatiivelyRenold’s number N = ρ D Vc/ ƞ
Where ƞ is coefficient of viscosity of liquid ,ρ is density of liquid D is
the diameter of the tube, Vc is critical velocity
For stream line flow, Reynold’s number <2000
For turbulent flow, Reynold’s number > 3000
For uncertain flow, 2000<Reynold’s number<3000
 Theorem of continuity : If there is no source or sink of the fluid along the

length of the pipe, the mass of the fluid crossing any section of the pipe per
second is always constant
Mathematically a1v1 ρ1 =a2v2 ρ 2
It is called the equation of continuity
223
For in compressible liquid ρ 1= ρ 2 Therefore the equation continuity
becomes
a1v1 =a2v2
Bernoulli’s theorem:- It states that for an in compressible non-viscous liquid
in steady flow, the total energy i.e. pressure energy, potential energy and
kinetic energy remains constant its flow.
𝑃
Mathematically + gh + ½ v2 = Constant
ρ
𝑃 𝑣2
+h+ = Constant
ρg 2𝑔
𝑃 𝑣2
The term , h and are called pressure head, gravitational head and
ρg 2𝑔
velocity head respectively.

 Application of Bernoull’s theorem
(i) Working of Bunsen burner
(ii) Lift of an air foil
(iii) Spinning of ball (Magnus effect)
(iv) Sprayer
(v) Ping pong ball in air jet.
 Toricelli’s theorem/speed of efflux:-It states that the velocity of efflux i.e.

the velocity with which the liquid flows out of an orifice (i.e. a narrow hole) is
equal to that which is freely falling body would acquire in falling through a
vertical distance equal to the depth of orifice below the free surface of liquid.
Quantitatively velocity of efflus
V = 2𝑔𝑕
Venturimeter:- It is a device use to measure the rate of flow of liquid.
Venturimeter consists of a wide tube having a constriction in the middle. If a 1
and a2 are the areas of cross section of the wide end and the threat, p 1 and p2
are the pressure of liquid, then velocity of the liquid entering at the wide end is
given by V1=a2 2(P1-P2) ρ(a12-a22)
224
 Surface tension (T) :- It is the property of a liquid by virtue of which, it
behaves like an elastic stretched membrane with a tendency to contract so as
to occupy a minimum surface area
Mathematically T = F/l
S.I Unit is : Nm-1 Dimensional formula : ML0T -2
Surface Energy: The potential energy per unit area of the surface film is
called the surface energy.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑡 𝑕𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Surface energy =
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Surface tension is numerally equal to surface energy

 Excess of pressure inside a drop and double:- There is excess of pressure
on concave side of a curved surface
1. Excess of pressure inside a liquid drop = 2T/R
2. Excess of pressure inside a liquid bubble = 4T/R
3. Excess of pressure inside an air bubble = 2T/R, Where T is the
surface tension , R = radius of liquid drop
 Angle of contact:- The angle which the tangent to the free surface of the
liquid at the point of contact makes with the wall of the containing vessel, is
called the angle of contact
For liquid having convex meniscus, the angle of contact is obtuse and for
having concave meniscus, the angle of contact is acute.
 Capillary tube:- A tube of very fine bore is called capillary tube
 Capillarity:-The rise or fall of liquid inside a capillary tube when it is dipped in
it is called capillarity
 Ascent formula:- when a capillary tube of radius ‘r’ is dipped in a liquid of
density s and surface tension T, the liquid rises or depresses through a
height,
H= 2Tcosθ /rρ g
225
There will be rise a liquid when angle of contact θ is acute. There will be fall in
liquid when angle of contact θ is obtuse.
Thermal expansion and calorimetry

 Heat- it is a form of energy, which produce in us the sensation of warmth
 Temperature:- The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called
temperature
 Thermometer- It is a device used to measure the temperature of a body
 Scales of temperature:- there are four scales of temperature. Given below is
scales of temp with lower and upper fixed point
Temperature scalesLower fixed point (Melting point office)Upper fixed point
(Boiling point of water)
1. Celsius 00C 1000C
2. Fahrenheit 320F 2120F
3. Reamur 00R 80oR
4. Kelvin 273K 373K
 Relation between the various temperature scales
If C,F, R and K are temperature of a body on Celsius, Fahrenheit , Reumer
and Kelvin scale, then
C/5 = F-32/9 = R/4 = K -273 /5
 Thermal expansion:- all solid expands on heating. There are three types of
expansion.
(1) Liner expansion- When a solid rod of initial length ‘l’ is heated through a
temperature ∆𝑇 then its new length l’ = l( 1+α∆𝑻) , where α is called
coefficient of liner expansion
226
(2) Superficial expansion- when a solid of initial surface area A is heated
through temperature then its new Area is A’= A (1 + β∆𝑻), where β is
coefficient of superficial expansion
(3) Cubical expansion- when a solid of initial volume V is heated through a
temperature ∆𝑇 then its new volume is V’= V ( 1 +ϒ∆𝑻 ) ,where ϒ is
the coefficient of cubical expansion.
 Relation between α ,β and ϒ

α= β/2 =ϒ/3
 In case of liquid ϒr= ϒa+ ϒg
Where ϒr=Coefficient of real expansion of a liquid
ϒa= Coefficient of apparent expansion of liquid
ϒg= Coefficient of cubical expansion of the vessel
Thermal capacity = It is the amount of heat required to raise its temperature
through one degree
 Water equivalent: - It is the mass of water which absorbs or emits the same
amount of heat as is done by the body for the same rise or fall in temperature.
It is represented by W = mc
 Specific heat :- It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
unit mass of substance through unit degree Celsius
C =∆𝑄/𝑚∆𝑇
 Latent heat :- It is define as the quantity of heat required to change the unit
mass of the substance from its one state completely to another state at
constant temperature
Mathematically Q = ML Latent heat of fusion (Lf)
 Types of Latent heat
Latent heat of vaporization (Lv)
 Calorimeter :- Device used for measuring heat

 Principle of calorimetry :- Heat loss by hot body = Heat gain by cold body
 Transfer of heat :- there are three modes by which heat transfer takes place
227
(1) Conduction:- It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one point
to another through a substance in the direction of fall of temperature
without the actual motion of the particles of the substance.
When two opposite faces of a slab, each of cross section A and separated
by a distance d are maintained at temperature T 1 and T2 (T1>T2), then
amount of heat that flows in time t
Q =K A (T1 –T2)t/d Where K is coefficient of thermal conductivity of

the mater
 Coefficient of thermal conductivity:- It may be defined as the quantity of
heat energy that flows in unit time between the opposite faces of a cube of
unit side, the faces being kept at one degree difference of temperature
S.I unit of coefficient of thermal conductivity : J S-1m-1K-1 or W m-1K-1
(2) Convection:- It is the process by which heat is transmitted through a

substance from one point to another due to the bodily motion of the
heated particles of the substance.
(3) Radiation:- It is the process by which heat is transmitted from one place
to another without heating the intervening medium
 Newton’s laws of cooling:- It states that the rate of loss of heat or rate of
cooling of a body is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between the body and the surrounding, provided the temperature difference is
small
Mathematically -dQ/dt = K(T-T0)
 Perfect black body:- It is a body which absorbs heat radiations of all the
wavelengths, which fall on it and emits the full radiation spectrum on being
heated.
228
 Stefan’s law:- It states that the total amount of heat energy radiated per unit
area of a perfect black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature of the substance of the body
Mathematically E α T4
E = Σ T4 Where is called Stefan’s constant
It’s value is 5.67 x 10-8 JS-1m-2k-4
Wein’s displacement law:- According to this law, the wavelength λm of maximum

intensity of emission of black body radiation is inversel y proportional to absolute
temperature (T) of black body.
𝟏
λm α𝑻
λm T = b where b is wien’s constant
Questions with **(mark) are HOTs Question
(1 MARK QUESTIONS)
Q.1 A wire is stretched by a force such that its length becomes double. How will the
Young’s modulus of the wire be affected?
Ans. Young’s modulus remains the same.
Q.2 How does the Young’s modulus change with rise in temperature?
Ans. Young’s modulus of a material decreases with rise in temperature.
Q.3 Which of the three modulus of elasticity – Y, K and η is possible in all the three
states of matter (solid, liquid and gas)?
Ans. Bulk modulus (K)
Q.4 The Young’s modulus of steel is much more than that for rubber. For the same
longitudinal strain, which one will have greater stress?
Ans. Stress= Y X longitudinal strain. So steel will have greater stress.
229
Q.5 which of the two forces – deforming or restoring is responsible for elastic
behavior of substance?
Ans. Restoring force.
Q.6. which mode of transfer of heat is the quickest?
Ans. Radiation.
** Q. 7 A boat carrying a number of large stones is floating in a water tank. What will
happen to the level of water if the stones are unloaded into the water?
Ans. The level of water will fall because the volume of the water displaced by
stones in water will be less than the volume of water displaced when stones
are in the boat.
Q.8. A rain drop of radius r falls in air with a terminal velocity v. What is the terminal
velocity of a rain drop of radius 3r ?
2𝑟 2 𝜎−𝜍 𝑔
Ans. 𝑣= v α r2
9𝜂
𝑣2 𝑟2 2 3𝑟
= → v2= v12=9v1
𝑣1 𝑟1 𝑟
**Q. 9 When air is blown in between two balls suspended close to each other , they
are attracted towards each other. Why?
Ans. On blowing air between the two balls, the air velocity increases, decreasing
pressure. The pressure on the outer side of the ball being more will exert forces
on the balls, so they move towards each other.
Q.10. Why does air bubble in water goes up?
2𝑟 2 (𝜎−𝜍)𝑔
Ans. The terminal velocity,𝑣 = As the density of air 𝜎 is less than density of
9𝜂
water𝜍, the terminal velocity is negative. For this reason air bubbles moves
upward.
230
(2 MARKS QUESTIONS)
Q.11 Steel is more elastic than rubber. Explain.
Ans. Consider two wire, one of steel and another of rubber having equal length L
and cross sectional area A . When subjected to same deforming force F, the
extension produce in steel is lSand in rubber is lR such that lR>lS.
𝐹𝐿 𝐹𝐿
Then 𝑌𝑠 = 𝐴𝑙 and 𝑌𝑟 = 𝐴𝑙
𝑠 𝑟
𝑌𝑠 𝑙
= 𝑙𝑟
𝑌𝑟 𝑠
As 𝑙𝑠 <𝑙𝑟 → 𝑌𝑠 >𝑌𝑟
Hence steel is more elastic.
Q.12. A wire stretches by a certain amount under a load. If the load and radius are
both increased to four times, find the stretch caused in the wire.
Ans. For a wire of radius r stretched under a force F,
𝐹𝐿 𝐹𝐿
Y= 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐿 or l = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑌
Let l’ be the extension when both the load and the radius are increased to four
times,
4𝐹𝑋𝐿 𝐹𝐿 𝑙
Then, l’ = = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑌 =
𝜋(4𝑟)2 𝐿 4
Q. 13. Calculate the percentage increase in the length of a wire of diameter 2mm
stretched by a force of 1kg F. Young’s modulus of the material of wire is 15 X
1010Nm-2.
2
Ans. F = 1 Kg F = 9.8N Y = 15 X 1010Nm-2 r = 2 = 1mm = 10-3m
231
Cross section of wire , πr2 = π X (10-3)2 = π X 10-6m2
𝐹𝐿
Now Y= 𝑎𝑙
𝑙 𝐹 9.8
= 𝑎𝑌 = 𝜋𝑋 10 −6 𝑋 15 𝑋10 10 = 2.1 X 10−5
𝐿
Percentage increase = 2.1 X 10−5 X 100 = 0.0021%
Q. 14. The pressure of a medium is changed from 1.01 X 105 pa to 1.165 X 105 pa
and changed in volume is 10% keeping temperature constant. Find the bulk
modulus of the medium.
Ans. Here Δp = 1.165 X 105 − 1.01 X 105 = 0.155 X 105 pa
𝛥𝑉
= 10 % = 0.1
𝑉
𝛥𝑃 0.155 𝑋10 5
Now K= 𝛥𝑉 = = 1.55 X 105 pa
0.1
𝑉
Q.15. 27 identical drops of water are falling down vertically in air each with a
terminal velocity of 0.15m/s. If they combine to form a single bigger drop,
what will be its terminal velocity?
Ans. Let r = radius of each drop, v = 0.15 m/s
2𝑟2(𝜎−𝜍)𝑔
Now 𝑣 = -------------------------------------(1)
9𝜂
Let R be the radius of the big drop.
Volume of big drop = Volume of 27 small drops
4 4
π𝑅 3 = 27 X 3π𝑟 3
3
R = 3r
Let v1be the terminal velocity of bigger drop
232
2𝑅 2 𝜎−𝜍 𝑔
v1 = ------------------------------------(2)
9𝜂
𝑣1 𝑅2
= = 9
𝑣 𝑟2
v1 = 9v = 9 X 0.15 = 1.35 m/s
Q.16. Water flows through a horizontal pipe line of varying cross section at the rate
of 0.2m3s-1. Calculate the velocity of water at a point where the area of cross
section of the pipe is 0.02m2.
Ans. Rate of flow = av
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
v=
𝑎
Rate of flow = 0.2m3s-1 a = 0.02m2
0.2𝑚 𝑠 𝑠 −1
v= = 10 ms-1
0.02m 2
Q. 17. A cylinder of height 20m is completely filled with water. Find the efflux water
(in m s-1) through a small hole on the side wall of the cylinder near its bottom.
Given g = 10m/s.
AnsHere h = 20m , g = 10 m/s
Velocity of efflux, v = 2𝑔𝑕 = 2 𝑋 10 𝑋 20= 20m/s
**Q.18. At what common temperature would a block of wood and a block of metal
appear equally cold or equally hot when touched?
Ans. When touched an object appear cold if heat flows from our hand to the object.
On the other hand it appears hot, if heat flows from the object towards our
hand. Therefore a block of wood and block of metal will appear equally cold or
equally hot if there is no exchange of heat between hand and the block. So the
233
two blocks will appear equally cold or equally hot if they are at the same
temperature as that of our hands i.e. the temperature of our body.
Q.19. A piece of chalk immersed into water emits bubbles in all directions. Why?
Ans. A piece of chalk has extremely narrow capillaries. As it is immersed in water,

water rises due to capillary action. The air present in the capillaries
in the chalk is forced out by the rising water. As a result bubbles are emitted
from the chalk in all the directions.
(3 MARKS QUESTIONS)
Q. 20. Water at a pressure of 4 X 104 Nm-2 flows at 2ms-1 through a pipe of 0.02m2
cross sectional area which reduces to 0.01m2. What is the pressure in the
smaller cross section of the pipe?
Ans. a1v1 = a2v2

𝑎 1𝑣1 0.02 𝑋 2
𝑣2 = = = 4m/s
𝑣2 0.01
𝑃1 1 𝑃2 1
Again + 𝑣12 = + 𝑣2
𝜎 2 𝜎 2 2
1
𝑃1 = 𝑃2 - ς (𝑣12 - 𝑣22 )
2
𝑃1 = 3.4 X 104Nm-2
Q.21. What is surface tension and surface energy? Derive the relation between
surface tension and surface energy.
Q.22. Derive equation of continuity for steady and irrotational flow of a perfectly
mobile and incompressible fluid. What conclusion is drawn from it?
Q.23 What is Stoke’s law? Derive the relation by the method of dimension.
234
Q.24. A piece of iron of mass 0.1 kg is kept inside a furnace, till it attains the
temperature of the furnace. The hot piece of iron is dropped into a calorimeter
containing 0.24 Kg of water at 20℃. The mixture attains an equilibrium
temperature of 60℃. Find the temperature of the furnace. Given water
equivalent of calorimeter = 0.01 kg and specific heat of iron = 470 J Kg-1 K-1.
Ans. Let 𝜃1 be the temperature of the furnace i.e of the piece of iron.
Heat lost by the piece of iron Q = M1C1 (𝜃1 – 𝜃)
Here M1 = 0.1 Kg C1 = 470 J Kg-1 K-1𝜃 = 60℃
Q = 0.1 X 470 (𝜃1 – 60) = 47 (𝜃1 – 60) ------------------------- (1)
Heat gain by water and the calorimeter , Q = (M2 + w) C2 ( 𝜃 − 𝜃2 )
M2 = 0.24 Kg w = 0.01 Kg 𝜃2 = 20℃C2 = Specific heat of water

= 4200 J Kg-1 K-1
Q = (0.24 + 0.01) x 4200 X (60 – 20) = 42000 -------------------------(2)
From (1) and (2) 47 (𝜃1 – 60) = 42000
𝜃1 = 953.62℃
**Q. 25. Calculate the energy spent in spraying a drop of mercury of 1 cm radius into
106 droplets all of same size. Surface tension of mercury is 35 x 10 -3 Nm-1.
Ans.T = 35 x 10-3 Nm-1 R = 1 cm
Let r be the radius of each small drop, when the original drop is spitted
into 106 small drops.
4 4
Then 106 X 3 𝜋r3 =3 𝜋R3
r = 10-2 R
r = 10-2 X 1 = 10-2 cm
235
Initial surface area of the original drop = 4𝜋R2 = 4𝜋 X 12 = 4𝜋cm2
Final surface area of the 106 small drops = 106 X 4𝜋r2 = 106 X 4𝜋 X ( 10-2)2 =
400 𝜋 cm2
Therefore increase in surface area = 400 𝜋 - 4𝜋 = 396 𝜋cm2 = 396𝜋 X 10-4m2
Therefore energy spent = T X increase in surface area = 35 X 10 -3 X 396𝜋 X 10-4

= 4.354 X 10-3N
Q.26. A liquid takes 10 minutes to cool from 70℃ to 50℃. How much time will it take
to cool from 60℃ to 40℃ ? The temperature of the surrounding is 20℃.
Ans. 1st case 𝜃1 = 700C 𝜃2 = 500C 𝜃0 = 20℃ t = 10 minutes
𝜃1 −𝜃2 𝜃 1+𝜃 2
Using =k( − 𝜃0 ), we get
𝑡 2
20
= k (60 – 20) = 40 k
10
1
K = 20
For 2nd case 𝜃1 = 600C 𝜃2 = 400C 𝜃0 = 20℃ t = ?
𝜃1 −𝜃2 𝜃 1+𝜃 2
Using =k( − 𝜃0 ) , we get
𝑡 2
20 1 3
= 20 (50 – 20) = 2
𝑡
40
t= = 13.33 minutes
3
**Q. 28. A slab of stone of area 0.36m2 and thickness of 0.1m is exposed to the
lower surface of steam at 100℃. A block of ice at 0℃ rest on the upper surface
of the slab. In one hour 4.8 Kg of ice is melted. Calculate the thermal
conductivity of stone.
236
Ans. Here A = 0.36m2 , d = 0.1m , T1 – T2 = 100 – 0 = 100℃ t = 1hr = 3600
sec
Mass of ice melted M = 4.8 Kg
We know Latent heat of ice L = 336 X 103 J Kg-1
Heat required to melt the ice Q = ML = 4.8 X 336 X103 = 1.613 X 106 K
𝐾𝐴(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )𝑡
Now Q =
𝑑
𝐾𝑋 0.36 𝑋 100𝑋 3600

1.613 X 106 =
0.1
K = 1.245 wm-10C-1
(5 MARKSQUESTION)
Q. 28. Define capillarity and angle of contact. Derive an expression for the ascent of
liquid inside a capillary tube where it is dipped in a liquid.
Q. 29. Show that there is always excess of pressure on the concave side of the
meniscus of a liquid. Obtain the expression for the excess of pressure inside (i)
a liquid drop (ii) liquid bubble.
Q. 30. State and prove the Bernoulli’s principle. Give two practical application of it.
Q.31. Define terminal velocity. Show that the terminal velocity v of a sphere of radius
r, density ς falling vertically through a viscous fluid of density 𝛔 and coefficient
of viscosity η is given by
2 𝜎−𝜍 𝑟 2 𝑔
v=
𝜂
Q. 32. State and explain Hooke’s law. A wire is fixed at one end and is subjected to
increasing load at the other end. Draw a curve between stress and strain. With
the help of the curve, explain the term elastic limit, yield point, breaking point
237
and permanent set. How this curve does may be used to distinguish between
ductile and brittle substances.
UNIT-VIII
THERMODYNAMICS
GIST
 Thermal Equilibrium:- Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium
with each other if they have the same temperature.
 Thermo dynamical system:- An assembly of large numbers of particles
having same temperature, pressure etc is called thermo dynamical system.
 Thermodynamic variables :- The variables which determine the
thermodynamic behavior of a system are called thermodynamic variables
 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics: - IT states that if two system A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with a third system C , then the two system A and B are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 Thermodynamic Process :- A thermodynamic process is said to be taking
place , if the thermodynamic variable of the system change with time.
 Types of thermodynamic Process:-
(1) Isothermal process – process taking place at constant temperature.
(2) Adiabatic process – process where there is no exchange of heat.
(3) Isochoric process – process taking place at constant volume
(4) Isobaric process –Process taking place at constant Pressure.
(5) Cyclic process:- Process where the system returns to its original state.
 Equation of state : A relation between pressure, volume and temperature
for a system is called its equation of state .
238
 Indicator diagram (P-V diagram) :- The graphical representation of the
state of a system with the help of two thermodynamical variables is called
indicator diagram of the system.
 Internal energy of a gas :- It is the sum of kinetic energy and the
intermolecular potential energy of the molecules of the gas. Internal energy is
a function of temperature.
 First law of Thermodynamics: - It states that if an amount of heat dQI
added to a system , a part of heat is used in increasing its internal energy
while the remaining part of heat may be used up as the external work done
dW by the system.
Mathematically dQ=dU+dW
dQ=dU+ PdV.
 Work done during expansion / compression of gas:- When the volume of

V2
gas changes from V1 to V2 , the work done is given by W= V1
PdV = Area
under the P -V diagram.
 Thermodynamical operations are
(1) Isothermal process: A thermodynamic process that takes place at constant

temperature is called an isothermal process.
- Equation of state for isothermal process: PV = constant.
- Work done during an isothermal process
V2 V2
Wiso = RT logeV1 = 2.303 RT logeV1
(2) Adiabatic process : A thermodynamic process that takes place in such a

manner that no heat enters or leaves the system is called adiabatic process
 Equation of state for adiabatic process
(i) PV γ = constant (ii) TV γ-1 =constant (iii)
P 𝛾 −1
=constant
T𝛾
239
 Work done during adiabatic change
𝑅 𝑇1−𝑇2
Wadia =
(𝛾−1)
 Reversible process :- It is a process in which the system can be retraced to

its original state by reversing the condiditions.
 Irreversible process:- It is a process in which the system cannot be retraced
to its original state by reversing the conditions.
 Second law of thermodynamics:

 Kelvin’s statement of second law – It is impossible to derive a
continous supply of work by cooling a body to a temperature lower than
that of the coldest of its surrounding.
 Clausius statement of second law – It is impossible for a self –acting
machine unaided by any external agency to transfer heat from a body to
another body at higher temperature.
 Heat Engine – a heat engine is a device for converting heat energy
continuously into a mechanical work.
 Component of heat engine- (i) source of heat (ii) Sink (iii) Working
substance
 Efficiency of heat Engine :-It is defined as the ratio of the external work
obtained to the amount of heat energy absorbed from the heat source.
Mathematically
𝑊 Q1− Q2 Q2
ȵ= = =1-
Q1 Q1 Q1
 Carnot’s heat Engine :- it is an ideal heat Engine which is based on carnot’s

reversible cycle.
Efficiency of Carnot’s heat Engine
Q2 T2
ȵ= 1 - = 1-
Q1 T1
 Refrigerator or Heat pump:- it is heat engine working backward.
240
 Co-efficient of performance: It is the ratio of heat absorbed from cold body
to the work done by the refrigerator.
Q2 Q2 T2
Mathematically β= = =
𝑊 Q1−Q2 T1−T2
All Questions with **(mark) are HOTs Question
Q1 Which Thermodynamical variable is defined by the first law of thermodynamics?
Ans: Internal energy.
Q2.What is the amount of work done in the Cyclic process? 1
Ans:It is numerically equal to the area of the cyclic process.
Q3 Out of the parameters- temperature, pressure, work and volume, which

parameter does not
Characterize the thermodynamics state of matter? 1
Ans: Work
Q4 What is the nature of P-V diagram for isobaric and isochoric process? 1
Ans: The P-V diagram for an isobaric process is a straight line parrel to the volume
axis while that
For an isochoric process is a straight line parallel to pressure axis.
Q5 On what factors does the efficiency of Carnot engine depends? 1
Ans: Temperature of the source of heat and sink.

241
** Q6 Can we increase the temperature of gas without supplying heat to it? 1
Ans: Yes, the temperature of gas can be by compressing the gas under Adiabatic
condition.
Q7 Why does the gas get heated on compression? 1
Ans: Because the work done in compressing the gas increases the internal energy
of the gas.
Q8 Which thermodynamic variable is defined by Zeroth law of thermodynamics?

1
Ans: Temperature
Q9 Can the whole of work be converted into heat? 1
Ans: Yes, through friction.
Q10 In a Carnot engine, temperature of the sink is increased. What will happen to
its efficiency? 1
T2
Ans: We know ƞ = 1 –
T1
On increasing the temperature of the sink (T2), the efficiency of the Carnot
engine will decrease
**Q11 If hot air rises , why is it cooler at the top of mountain than near the sea
level ? 2
Ans: Since atmospheric pressure decreases with height, pressure at the top of the
mountain is lesser. When the hot air rises up,it suffer adiabatic expansion at the top
of the mountain.For an adiabatic change,first law of thermodynamics may be
express as
dU + dW =0 (dQ = 0)
dW = -dU
Therefore work done by the air in rising up (dW =+ve ) result in decrease in the
internal
Energy of the air (dU = -ve) and hence a fall in the temperature.
242
Q12 What happen to the internal energy of a gas during (i) isothermal expansion
(ii) adiabatic Expansion? 2
Ans: In isothermal expansion ,temperature remains constant.Therefore internal

energy which is a function of temperature will remain constant.
(ii)for adiabatic change dQ = 0 and hence first law of thermodynamics

becomes
0 = dU + dW
dW = - dU
During expansion, work is done by the gas i.e. dW is positive. Hence ,dU
must be negative.
Thus ,in an adiabatic expansion , the internal energy of the system will decrease.
Q13.Air pressure in a car increases during driving. Explain Why? 2
Ans: During driving as a result of the friction between the tyre and road ,the
temperature of
The tyre and the air inside it increases. Since volume of the tyre does not change,
due to increase in temperature ,pressure of the increases (due to pressure law ).
Q14 The efficiency of a heat engine cannot be 100%. Explain why ? 2
T2
Ans: The efficiency of heat engine ƞ=1– The efficiency will be 100% or 1, if
T1
T2 = 0 K.
Since the temperature of 0 K cannot be reached,a heat engine cannot have 100%
efficiency.
Q15 In an effort to cool a kitchen during summer, the refrigerator door is left
open and the kitchen door and windows are closed. Will it make the room cooler ?
Ans: The refrigerator draws some heat from the air in front of it. The compressor
has to do some
Mechanical work to draw heat from the air at lower temperature. The heat drawn
from theair together with the work done by the compressor in drawing it, is
rejected by the refrigerator with the help of the radiator provided at the back to the
air. IT follows that in each cycle, the amount of heat rejected to the air at the back of
243
the refrigerator will be greater than that is drawn from the air in front of it.Therefore
temperature of the room will increase and make hotter.
Q16 Why cannot the Carnot’s engine be realised in practice?
Ans: Because of the following reasons
(i) The main difficulty is that the cylinder should come in contact with the
source,sink and stand again and again over a complete cycle which is
very difficult to achieve in practice.
(ii) The working substance should be an ideal gas however no gas fulfils
the ideal gas behaviour.
(iii) A cylinder with a perfectly frictionless piston cannot be realised
Q17 A slab of ice at 273K and at atmospheric pressure melt.(a) What is the nature of
work done on
The ice water system by the atmosphere?(b)What happen to the internal energy of
the ice- Water system?
Ans: (a) The volume of the ice decreases on melting. Hence the work done by the
atmosphere on The ice – water system is positive in nature.
(b) Since heat is absorbed by the ice during melting, the internal energy of the ice-
water system increases.
Q18 Why is the conversion of heat into work not possible without a sink at lower
temperature? 2
Ans:For converting heat energy into work continuosly, a part of the heat energy
absorbed from the source has to be rejected.The heat energy can be rejected only if
there is a body whose
Temperature is less than that of the source.This body at lower temperature is called
sink.
** Q19 Can water be boiled without heating ? 2
Ans:Yes, water can be boil without heating. This is done by increasing the pressure
on the surface of water inside a closed insulated vessel. By doing so, the boiling
point of the water decreases to the room temperature and hence starts boiling.
244
Q20 What are the limitations of the first law of thermodynamics ? 2
Ans: The limitations are --- (i) It does not tells us the directions of heat transfer
(ii) it does not tell us how much of the heat is converted into work.
(iii)it does not tell us under what conditions heat is converted into work.
**Q21 Calculate the fall in temperature when a gas initially at 720C is expanded
suddenly to eight times its original volume. Given γ= 5/3. 3
Ans: Let V1 = x cc V2 =8x cc
T1 =273+72 =345 K ¥ = 5/3 , T2 = ?

¥-1
Using the relation T1 V1 = T2 V2¥-1
¥-1
Therefore T2 = T1 (V1/V2)
=345x(1/8)2/3
Taking log of both sides, we get
Log T2 = log 345 – 2/3 log 8
=2.5378 – 2/3(0.9031)
= 2.5378 -0.6020 = 1.9358
Or T2 =86.26 K
Therefore the fall in temperature = 345 -86.26 258.74 K
Q22 A Carnot engine whose source temperature is at 400K takes 100 Kcal of
heat at this temperature in each cycle and gives 70 Kcal to the sink. Calculate (i) the
temperature of the sink
(ii) the efficiency of the engine.
Ans: Here T1 =400K , Q1 = 100 Kcal , Q2 = 70 Kcal
T2= ? ,¶ = ?
(i) Q1/Q2 = T1/T2

Or T2 = (Q2/Q1)T1
245
Or T2 =70/100 x400
Or T2= 280 K
(ii) ƞ= 1- T2/T1
= 1 – 280/400
= 1- 0.7 = 0.3
Or % of ƞ= 0.3 x100 =30 %
Q23 If at 50oC and 75 cm of mercury pressure, a definite mass of gas is

compressed (i)slowly
(iii) suddenly, then what will be the final pressure and temperature of the
gas in each case, if the final volume is one fourth of the initial
volume? Given γ = 1.5
Ans:(I) When the gas is compressed slowly, the change is isothermal.
Therefore P2 V2 =P1 V1
P2 = P1V1/V2
=(75x V1/V 1 )x4 = 300 cm of mercury
Temperature remains constant at 50oC
(ii)When the gas is compressed suddenly,the change is adiabatic
As per P2V2γ = P1 V1γ
P2 = P1(V1/V2)γ
= 75 x (4)1.5 =600 cm of Hg
Also T2 V2¥-1 = T1 V1¥-1
T2 = T1 (V1/V2)¥-1 = 323x(4)(1.5- 1) = 646K
=646-273 =373 oC
Q24 Two engines A and B have their sources at 400K and 350 K and sink at350K
and 300K
Respectively. Which engine is more efficient and by how much? 3
Ans: For engine A T1 =400K , T2 = 350 K
246
Efficiency ƞA =1 –T2/T1
=1-350/400 =1/8
% of ƞA = 1/8 X100 = 12.5%
For Engine B T1 = 350 K , T2 = 300 K
Efficiency ƞB= 1 – T2/T1
= 1- 300/350 =1/7
% of ƞB =1/7 x100 =14.3%
Since ƞB>ƞA so engine A is much more efficient than engine B by (14.3% -

12.5% ) = 1.8%
** Q25 Assuming a domestic refrigerator as a reversible heat engine working

between melting point
Of ice and the room temperature at 27oC, calculate the energy in joule that must be
supplied to freeze 1Kg of water at 0oC. 3
Ans: Here T1 = 27+273 =300K , T2 =0 +273 = 273
Mass of water to be freezed , M = 1 Kg = 1000g
Amount of heat that should be removed to freeze the water
Q2 = ML =1000X 80 cal
= 1000X80 X4.2 =3.36 x 105 J
Now Q1 = (T1/T2 )X Q2 = (300/273)X3.36x105 = 3.692 x105 J
Therefore energy supplied to freeze the water
W =Q1 – Q2 = 3.693x105 - 3.36 x105
= 3.32 x105 J
247
** Q26 A refrigerator freezes 5Kg of water at 0oC into ice at 0oc in a time interval of
20 minutes. Assume that the room temperature is 20oC, calculate the minimum
power needed to accomplish it.
Ans : Amount of heat required to convert water into ice at 0 oC,
Q2 =mL =(5Kg)x(80)Kcal/Kg
= 400 Kcal
Now T1 =20oC =273+20 = 293K
T2 = 0oc 0+273 =273 K
We know that Q2/W = T2/(T1 – T2 )
Or W = Q2 x (T1 – T2)/T2
= 400x(293- 273 )/273
= 29.3 Kcal = 29.3x4.2 x103J
=123x103 J
Time t = 20 min =20x60 =1200s
Power needed P = W/t =123x103/1200
=102.5 W
**Q27 The temperature T1 and T2 of two heat reserviour in an ideal carnot engine
are 1500oC and
500oC. Which of this increasing the temperature T1 by 100oC or decreasing

T2 by 100oC would result in greater improvement of the efficiency of the engine?
Ans: Using ¶ =1 –T2/T1 =(T1- T2)/T1
(1)increasing T1 by 100oC ¶1 = (1600 -500)/(1600 + 273 )
248
= 1100/1873 = 59 %
(ii) Decreasing T2 by 1000C ¶2 = 1500 –(500-100)/(1500 +273 )
=1100/1773 = 67%
Therefore decreasing T2 by 100oC results in greater improvement of efficiency.
Q28 State the first law of thermodynamics and discussed the application of this law
to the boiling process. 3
Q29 What is thermodynamic system ? Prove that work done by thermodynamic

system is equal to the area under P-V diagram. 3
30 Prove that Cp -Cv = R , for an ideal gas . 3
Q31 What is isothermal process / State two essential conditions for such a process
to takes place. Show analytically that the work by one mole of an ideal gas during
volume expansion from V1 V2 at temperature T is given by
W = RT logeV2/V1 5
Q32 Define an adiabatic process. State two essential conditions for such a process
to takes place.Derive an expression for adiabatic process to takes place. 5
Q33 Discuss the four steps of Carnot’s cycle and show that the efficiency is given
by ¶ = 1 - T2/ T1, Where T1 and T2 are the temperature of the source and
sink respectively. 5
Q34 Describe the working of refrigerator as heat pump. Derive the expression of its
coefficient of performance.If the door of a refrigerator is kept open for a long time
,will it make the room warm or cool ? 5
Q35 What is the need of introducing the second law of thermodynamics ? State
the Kelvin –Planck and Claussius statement of second law of thermodynamics and
show that both the statement are equivalent. 5
249
.
UNIT-IX
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
Concept Map
Kinetic Theory of gases
3𝑝 3RT 3PV
1. Vrms= 3. Vrms= =
𝜌 M M
3
2. E= 2 RT 4. V α 𝑇
Law of Equipartion of Energy
1 1 Mean free Path

mvx 2 = mvy 2 1
2 2
λ=
1 1 1 2 nπd2
= m𝑣2= 2 = k B T P=
3
𝑃𝐶 2
2 2
250
GIST
Boyle’s Law: At constant temperature volume of given mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure.
Charle’s Law: At constant pressure volume of a given mass of gas is directly

proportional to its absolute temperature.
*For 1° rise in temp.
𝑡
Vt = Vo(1 + 273.15 )
Gay Lussac’sLaw:At constant volume,pressure of a given mass of gas is directly

proportional to its absolute temp.
𝑃
= constant.
𝑇
𝑡
For 10C rise in temperature Pt= Po(1 + 273.15 )
Ideal Gas Equation: for n mole of gas
PV=nRT,
for 1 mole , PV=RT
Universal gas constant: R = 8.31 J mol-1K-1
𝑅
Boltzmann constant:kB = where kB = Boltzmann constant,𝑵𝑨 = Avogadro’s
𝑁𝐴
251
no.
Ideal gas: A gas which obeys gas law strictly is an ideal or perfect gas. The
molecules of such a gas are of point size and there is no force of attraction between
them.
Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases
1. All gases consist of molecules which are rigid, elastic spheres identical in all
respect for a given gas.
2. The size of a molecule is negligible as compared with the average distance

between two molecules.
3. During the random motion, the molecules collide with one another and
with the wall of the vessel. The collisions are almost instantaneous.
4. The molecular density remains uniform throughout the gas.
5. The collisions are perfectly elastic in nature and there are no forces of
attraction or repulsion between them.
Pressure exerted by gas:
Where: n=no. of molecules per unit volume.
m=mass of each molecule.

252
=mean of square speed.
V = Volume
M = mass of gas
Average Kinetic energy of a gas: If M is molecular mass and V is molecular volume

and m is mass of each molecule. Then
1. Mean K.E per mole of a gas,
2. Mean K.E per molecule of a gas,
1 1
E= mv 2 = k BT
2 2
3. K.E of 1gram of gas,
1 3 RT
mv 2 = M0 gram molecular weight
2 2 M0
Avogadro Law: Equal volumeof all gases under similar condition of temp. and
pressure contain equal number of molecules.
Avogadro Number:
NA =6.0225 x 1023mol-1
Graham’s Law of diffusion:
r = rate of diffusion
253
= density
Delton’s law of partial pressure: Total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-

reacting gases occupying a given volume is equal to the sum of partial pressures
which gas would exert if it alone occupied the same volume atgiven temp.
v1 +v2 +v3 +…+vn

Average Speed :-v =
n
8𝑘 𝑏 𝑇 8RT
v= =
𝜋𝑚 𝜋𝑀0
Root mean square:
Most probable speed:
Relation between :v, vrms &vmp
Therefore:
Degree of freedom:
254
f = 3N-k
where , f = no. of degree of freedom.
N = no. of of atoms in a molecule. k = no. of independent relation between the

atoms.
1. Monoatomic gas – 2 degree of freedom.
2. Diatomic gas – 5 degree of freedom.
Law of equipartion of energy: For any thermodynamical system in thermal

equilibrium, the energy of the system is equally divided amongst its various degree
of freedom and energy associated with each degree of freedom corresponding to
1
each molecule is KB T , where K B is the Boltzmann’s constant and T is
2
absolute temperature.
 The law of equipartition of energy holds good for all degrees of freedom
whether translational , rotational or vibrational.
 A monoatomic gas molecule has only translational kinetic energy
Et =1/2mVx2 + 1/2mVy2 + 1/2mVz2 = 3/2KBT
So a monoatomic gas molecule has only three (translational) degrees of

freedom.
 In addition to translational kinetic energy, a diatomic molecule has two

rotational
Kinetic energies
Et +Er = 1/2mVx2 + 1/2mVy2 + 1/2mVz2 + 1/2IYW y2 + 1/2IzW z2
Here the line joining the two atoms has been taken as x-axis about which there is
no rotation. So, the degree of freedom of a diatomic molecule is 5, it does not
vibrate.
255
At very high temperature, vibration is also activated due to which two extra degree
of freedom emerge from vibrational energy. Hence at very high temperature degree
of freedom of diatomic molecule is seven.
*(Each translational and rotational degree of freedom corresponds to one mole of

absorption of energy and has energy 1/2kBT).
Internal Energies & specific heats of monoatomic, diatomic& polyatomic

gases:
1. If ‘f’ is degree of freedom then for a gas of polyatomic molecules energy

associated with 1 mole of gas,
f Cp 2
𝐶𝑝 = 1 + 𝑅, γ = =1+
2 Cv f
2. For a monoatomic gas f=3,
5
𝐶𝑝 = R, 𝛾 = 1.66
2
3. For a diatomic gas with no vibrational mode f=5, so
7
𝐶𝑝 = R, 𝛾 = 1.4
2
4. For a diatomic gas with vibrational mode f=7, so
256
9
Cp = R , 𝛾 = 1.28
2
Meanfree path: It is the average distance covered by a molecule between two

successive collisions. It is given by,
1
𝜆= 2(𝑛𝜋 𝑑 2 )
Where,n is no. density and ‘d’ is diameter of the molecule.
Brownian Equation :-The zig-zag motion of gas molecules is Brownian motion

which occurs due to random collision of molecules.
(1 Marks Question)
1. What type of motion is associated with the molecules of a gas?
Ans:- Brownian motion.
2. On which factors does the average kinetic energy of gas molecules depend?
Ans:- The average K.E. of a gas molecule depends only on the absolute temperature of
the gas and is directly proportional to it.
3. Why do the gases at low temperature and high pressure, show large deviations from
ideal behaviour?
Ans:- At low temperature and high pressure , the intermolecular attractions become
appreciable. So, the volume occupied by the gas molecules cannot be neglected in
comparison to the volume of the gas. Hence the real gases show large from ideal gas
behaviour.
4. Following fig. shows the variation of the product PV with respect to the pressure (P)
of given masses of three gases, A,B,C. The temperature is kept constant. State with
proper arguments which of these gases is ideal.
257
Ans:- Gas ‘C’ is ideal because PV is constant for it. That is gas ‘C’ obeys Boyle’s law
at all pressures.
5. When a gas is heated, its temperature increases. Explain it on the basis of

kinetic theory of gases.
Ans:- When a gas is heated, the root mean square velocity of its molecules
increases. As Vrms  T so temperature of the gas increases.
6. The ratio of vapour densities of two gases at the same temperature is 8:9.
Compare the rms. velocity of their molecules?
(Vrms)1 M2 2 9
Ans :-     3: 2 2
(Vrms)2 M1 1 8
7. Cooking gas containers are kept in a lorry moving with uniform speed. What will
be the effect on temperature of the gas molecules?
Ans:- As the lorry is moving with a uniform speed, there will be no change in the
translational motion or K.E. of the gas molecules. Hence the temperature of the gas
will remain same.
8. What is the mean translational kinetic energy of a perfect gas molecule at

temperature T?
Ans:- A perfect gas molecule has only translational K.E.
258
E = 3/2 kBT
9. Name two factors on which the degrees of freedom of a gas depend?
Ans:- (i) Atomicity of the gas molecule.
(ii) Shape of the molecule.
(iii) Temperature of gas.
10. Define absolute zero, according to kinetic interpretation of temperature?
Ans:- Absolute zero is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases.
(2 Marks question)
1. Write the relation between the pressure and kinetic energy per unit volume of a
gas. Water solidifies into ice at 273 K. What happens to the K.E. of water
molecules?
Ans:- P = 2/3 E. The K.E. of water molecules gas partly converted into the binding
energy of the ice.
2. The absolute temperature of a gas is increased 4 times its original value. What
will be the change in r.m.s. velocity of its molecules?
Ans:-Vrms  T
V’rms  4T
V’rms/ Vrms = 2
V’rms= 2Vrms
Change in rms velocity of molecules = V’rms - Vrms
= Vrms
3.What will be the ratio of the root mean square speeds of the molecules of an ideal
gas at 270K and 30K?
259
T 270
Ans :-Vrms/ V’rms = = =3:1
T' 30
4.A mixture of Helium and Hydrogen gas is filled in a vessel at 30 degree Celsius.
Compare the root mean square velocities of the molecules of these gases at this
temperature.
(atomic weight of Hydrogen is 4)
2
Ans :- (Vrms)He/(Vrms)H2 = {(MH2)/(MHe)}1/2 = =1:2 2
4
5.The velocities of three molecules are 3V,4V and 5V.Determine the root mean
square velocity.
50
Ans:-Vrms = V  4.08V
3
6.Write the equation of state for 16g of O2.
Ans :- No. of moles in 32g of O2 = 1
No. of moles in 16g of O2 = 1/9 x 16 = ½
As pv = nRT and n=1/2
1
So, PV= RT
2
7.Should the specific heat of monoatomic gas be less than, equal to or greater than
that of a diatomic gas at room temperature? Justify your answer.
Ans :- Specific heat of a gas at constant volume is equal to f/2R.
For monoatomic gases f = 3 so Cv= 3/2 R.
For diatomic gases f = 5 so Cv = 5/2 R.
Hence the specific heat for monoatomic gas is less than that for a diatomic gas.
8. A gas in a closed vessel is at the pressure Po. If the masses of all the molecules
be made half and their speeds be made double, then find the resultant pressure?
260
1 𝑚𝑁 1 𝑚𝑁
Ans:- Po = 𝑉2 = (2𝑉)2 = 2P0
3 𝑉 3 2𝑉
9. A box contains equal number of molecules of hydrogen and oxygen. If there is a

fine hole in the box, which gas will leak rapidly? Why?
1
Ans :-Vrms∝
𝑀0
Hence hydrogen gas will leak more rapidly because of its smaller molecular mass.
10. When a gas filled in a closed vessel is heated through 10C, its pressure
increases by 0.4 %. What is the initial temperature of the gas?
Ans:- P` = P = 0.4/100. P, T` = T + 1
By Gay Lussac’s law P/T = (P + 0.4/100.P)/T + 1,
P+.004P P(1.004)
=
T+1 T+1
T+1= (1.004)T
1=.004T
T=250K
(3 Marks Questions)
1. Show that rms velocity of O2 is 2 times that of SO2. Atomic wt. of Sulphur is 32
and that of oxygen is 16.
𝟏
VO 64
2
Ans. V∝ . = = 2
𝑴 VSO 32
2
Or v𝑂2 = 2 SO2.
2. Calculate the temperature at which rms velocity of SO2 is the same as that of
Oxygen at27℃.
261
3𝑅𝑇 3𝑅 × 300
Ans. For O2, Vrms= =
𝑀 32
3𝑅𝑇 3𝑅 × 𝑇
For SO2, Vrms = =
𝑀0 64
3𝑅𝑇 3𝑅 ×300
As V0 = V ∴ =
64 32
𝑇 = 600t = 600 – 273 = 327℃.
3. Calculate the total no. of degrees of freedom possessed by the molecules in

1cm3 of H2 gas at NTP
Ans. No. of H2 Molecules in 22.4 liters or 22400 cm3 at NTP =6.02 × 1023 .
6.02 × 10 23
∴ No. of H2 Molecules in 1 cm3 at NTP = = 2.6875 × 1019 .
22400
No. of degrees of freedom associated with each H2 (a diatomic) molecule = 5

∴ Total no. of degree of freedom associated with 1cm3 gas
= 2.6875 × 1019 × 5 = 1.3475 × 1020.
4. Derive Boyle’s law on the basis of Kinetic Theory of Gases.

5. Derive Charles’s law on the basis of Kinetic Theory of Gases.
6. State Dalton’s law of partial pressures. Deduce it from Kinetic Theory of Gases.
7. Using the expression for pressure exerted by a gas, deduce Avogadro’s law and
Graham’s law of diffusion.
8. State the number of degree of freedom possessed by a monoatomic molecule in
space. Also give the expression for total energy possessed by it at a given
temperature. Hence give the total energy of the atom at 300 K.
9. At what temperature is the root mean square speed of an atom in an argon gas
cylinder equal to the rms speed of helium gas atom at− 20℃? Atomic mass of
argon = 39.9 u and that of helium = 4.0 u.
Ans. Root mean square speed for argon at temperature T

3𝑅𝑇 3𝑅𝑇
V= =
𝑀 39.9
Root mean square speed for helium at temp. 20℃is
3𝑅 × 253
𝑉=
4
262
3𝑅𝑇 3𝑅 × 253
As V = 𝑉 so we have =
39.9 4
𝑇 253 253 ×39.9

= = or T =
39.9 4 4
T = 2523.7 K
10. From a certain apparatus the diffusion rate of Hydrogen has an average
value of 28.7 cm3 s-1; the diffusion of another gas under the same conditions is
measured to have an average rate of 7.2cm3s-1. Identify the gas.
Ans. From Graham’s law of diffusion,
𝑟1 𝑀1
=
𝑟2 𝑀2
𝑟1 2 28.7 2
M2 = M1 = ×2
𝑟2 7.2
= 31.78 ≈ 32
Thus the unknown gas is Oxygen.
(Long Questions)
𝟏
11. Prove that the pressure exerted by a gas is P = ρc2 where ρ is the
𝟑
density and c is the root mean square velocity.
12. What are the basic assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases? On their
basis derive an expression for the pressure exerted by an ideal gas.
263
UNIT- X
Oscillations and Waves
264
GIST
 Periodic Motion: A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a
regular interval of time.
 Oscillatory Motion: A motion in which a body moves back and forth repeatedly
about a fixed point.
 Periodic function: A function that repeats its value at regular intervals of its
argument is called periodic function. The following sine and cosine functions are
periodic with period T.
2𝜋𝑡 2𝜋𝑡
f(t) = sin and g(t) = cos
𝑇 𝑇
These are called Harmonic Functions.

Note :- All Harmonic functions are periodic but all periodic functions are
not harmonic.
One of the simplest periodic functions is given by
f(t) = A cosωt [ω = 2π/T]
If the argument of this function ωtis increased by an integral multiple of 2π radians,

the value of the function remains the same. The function f(t) is then periodic and its
period, T is given by
2π
T=
ω
Thus the function f(t) is periodic with period T
f(t) = f(t +T)
Linear combination of sine and cosine functions
f(t) = A sin ωt + B cosωt
A periodic function with same period T is given as
265
A = D cosø and B = D sin ø
∴f(t) = D sin (ωt + ø)
𝑥
∴ D = 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 and ø = tan−1 𝑎
 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): A particle is said to execute SHM if it moves

to and fro about a mean position under the action of a restoring force which is
directly proportional to its displacement from mean position and is always
directed towards mean position.
Restoring Force ∝ Displacement
F∝𝑥
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
Where ‘k’ is force constant.
 Amplitude: Maximum displacement of oscillating particle from its mean position.
xMax = ± 𝐴
 Time Period: Time taken to complete one oscillation.
1
 Frequency: = 𝑇 . Unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 𝑠 −1
2π
 Angular Frequency: ω = = 2πν
T
S.I unit ω = rad 𝑠 −1

 Phase:
1. The Phase of Vibrating particle at any instant gives the state of the particle
as regards its position and the direction of motion at that instant.
It is denoted by ø.
2. Initial phase or epoch: The phase of particle corresponding to time t = 0.
It is denoted by ø.
 Displacement in SHM :
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + ø0)
Where, 𝑥 = Displacement,
A = Amplitude
ωt= Angular Frequency
266
ø0 = Initial Phase.
Case 1: When Particle is at mean position x = 0
v = −𝜔 𝐴2 − 02 = −𝜔𝐴
2𝜋
vmax = 𝜔𝐴 = 𝐴
𝑇
Case 2: When Particle is at extreme position x = ±𝐴

v = −𝜔 𝐴2 − 𝐴2 = 0
Acceleration
Case 3: When particle is at mean position x = 0,
acceleration = −𝜔2 (0) = 0.
Case 4: When particle is at extreme position then
𝑥 = 𝐴 acceleration = −𝜔2 𝐴
 Formula Used :
1. 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos⁡
(𝜔𝑡 +ø0)
𝑑𝑥
2. v = = −𝜔 𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 , vmax = ωA.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
3. 𝑎= = ω2𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 +ø0)
𝑑𝑡
= −𝜔2 𝑥
amax= ω2A
4. Restoring force F = −𝑘𝑥 = −mω2𝑥
𝑘
Where 𝑘 = force constant &ω2 = 𝑚
5. Angular freq. ω = 2𝜋𝜈 = 2𝜋 𝑇
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒙
6. Time Period T = 2π = 2π
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂
𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒎
7. Time Period T = 2π = 2π
𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒌
8. P.E at displacement ‘y’ from mean position

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
EP = ky2= mω2y2= mω2A2 sin2ωt
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
267
9. K.E. at displacement ‘y’ from the mean position
𝟏 𝟏
EK =𝟐k(𝐴2 − 𝑦 2 ) =𝟐mω2(A2 – y2)
𝟏
= 𝟐mω2A2cos2ωt
10. Total Energy at any point

𝟏 𝟏
ET = 𝟐kA2 = 𝟐mω2A2 = 2π2mA2ν2
11. Spring Factor K = F/y

12. Period Of oscillation of a mass ‘m’ suspended from a massless spring of force
constant ‘k’
𝒎
T = 2π 𝒌
For two springs of spring factors k1 and k2 connected in parallel effective spring
factor
𝒎
k = k1 + k2 ∴ T=2π 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐
13.For two springs connected in series, effective spring factor ‘k’ is given as
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
= + Or 𝒌=
𝒌 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟏 +𝒌𝟐
𝒎(𝒌𝟏 +𝒌𝟐 )
T=2𝝅
𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐
Note:- When length of a spring is made ‘n’ times its spring factor
𝟏
becomes 𝐧 times and hence time period increases 𝐧 times.
14. When spring is cut into ‘n’ equal pieces, spring factor of each part
becomes‘nk’.
𝒎
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅
𝒏𝒌
15. Oscillation of simple pendulum
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 𝒍 𝒈
𝟏 𝒈
𝝂= 𝒍
𝟐𝝅
16. For a liquid of density ρ contained in a U-tube up to height ‘h’
268
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 𝒉 𝒈
17. For a body dropped in a tunnel along the diameter of earth
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 𝑹 𝒈, where R = Radius of earth
18. Resonance: If the frequency of driving force is equal to the natural frequency
of the oscillator itself, the amplitude of oscillation is very large then such
oscillations are called resonant oscillations and phenomenon is called
resonance.
Waves
Angular wave number: It is phase change per unit distance.
2
i.e. k  , S.I unit of k is radian per meter.

Relation between velocity, frequency and wavelength is given as :- V  

Velocity of Transverse wave:-
(i)In solid molecules having modulus of rigidity ‘  ’ and density ‘ρ’ is

V 

T
(ii)In string for mass per unit length ’m’ and tension ‘T’ is V 
m
Velocity of longitudinal wave:-
Y
(i) in solid V  , Y= young’s modulus

K
(ii) in liquid V  , K= bulk modulus

269
K
(iii) in gases V  , K= bulk modulus

According to Newton’s formula: When sound travels in gas then changes take place
P
in the medium are isothermal in nature. V 

According to Laplace: When sound travels in gas then changes take place in the
medium are adiabatic in nature.
P Cp
V  ‘Where  
 Cv
Factors effecting velocity of sound :-
(i) Pressure – No effect

1 V1 1
(ii) Density – V or 
 V2 2
Temp- V
V1 T1
(iii) T or 
V2 T2
Effect of humidity :– sound travels faster in moist air
(iv) Effect of wind –velocity of sound increasing along the direction of wind.
Wave equation:– if wave is travelling along + x-axis
2
(i) Y=A sin ( t  kx ), Where, k 

t x
(ii) Y=A sin 2 (  )
T 
2
(iii) Y=A sin (vt-x)
T
If wave is travelling along –ve x- axis
2
(iv) Y=A sin ( t  kx ) ,Where , k 

t x
(v) Y=A sin 2 (  )
T 
2
(vi) Y=A sin (vt+x)
T
270
Phase and phase difference
Phase is the argument of the sine or cosine function representing the wave.
 t x
  2   
T  
2
Relation between phase difference (  ) and time interval ( t ) is    t
T
2
Relation between phase difference ( p ) and path difference ( x ) is    x

Equation of stationary wave:-
 t x
(1) Y1 =a sin 2    (incident wave)
T  
 t x
Y1 = ± a sin 2    (reflected wave)
T  
Stationary wave formed
Y = Y1+Y2 =  2a cos 2x sin

2t
 T
 3
(2) For (+ve) sign antinodes are at x= 0, , , ……
2 2
 3 5
And nodes at x= , , .....
4 4 4
 3 5
(3) For (-ve) sign antinodes are at x= , , .....
4 4 4
 3
Nodes at x= 0, , , ……
2 2

(4)Distance between two successive nodes or antinodes are and that between
2

nodes and nearest antinodes is .
4
(5) Nodes-point of zero displacement-
Antinodes- point of maximum displacement-
271
N
N N
A A A
N
N = Nodes
A = Antinodes
Mode of vibration of strings:-
p T
a)   Where ,T= Tension
2L m
M= mass per unit length
 = frequency, V=velocity of second, p = 1, 2, 3, …
b) When stretched string vibrates in P loops  p= p T

 p
2L m
c) For string of diameter D and density ρ

1 𝑇
𝜈= 𝐿𝐷 𝜋𝜌
1
d) Law of length 𝜈 ∝ 𝐿 , 𝜈𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
ORGANPIPES
1. In an organ pipe closed at one end only odd harmonics are present
 1= V (fundamental)
4L
 2= 3 (third harmonic or first overtone)
 3= 5
 n= (2n-1) 
2. In an open organ pipe at both ends both odd and even harmonics are present.
 ' 1= V =  ' (first harmonic)
2L
 ' 2= 2 ’ (second harmonic or first overtone)
272
 ' 3= 3 ’
 ' n= (2n-1)  ’
3. Resonance tube: If L1 and L2 are the first and second resonance length with a
tuning fork of frequency ‘  ’then the speed of sound. v = 4ν(𝐿1 + 0.3𝐷)
Where ,D=internal diameter of resonance tube

v = 2ν(𝐿2 − 𝐿2 )
L 2  L1
End correction=0.3D=
2
Beats formation
1. Beat frequency = No. of beats per second = Difference in frequency of two
sources.
b = 𝜈1 − 𝜈2
2. 𝜈2 = 𝜈1 ± 𝑏
3. If the prong of tuning fork is filed, its frequency increases. If the prong of a
tuning fork is loaded with a little way, its frequency decreases. These facts
can be used to decide about + or – sign in the above equation.
Doppler effect in sound
1. If V, Vo, Vs, and Vm are the velocity of sound , observes, source and medium
respectively, then the apparent frequency
V  Vm  Vo
1  
V  Vm  Vs
2. If the medium is at rest (vm= o),then
V  Vo
' 
V  Vs
3. All the velocity are taken positive with source to observer (S  O) direction
and negative in the opposite (O  S) direction
273
(Questions)
(1 marks questions)
1. Which of the following relationships between the acceleration ‘a’ and the
displacement ‘x’ of a particle involve simple harmonic motion?
(a) a=0.7x (b) a=-200x2 (c) a = -10x (d) a=100x3
Ans: - (c) reprent SHM.
2. Can a motion be periodic and not oscillatory?
Ans: - Yes, for example, uniform circular motion is periodic but not oscillatory.
3. Can a motion be periodic and not simple harmonic? If your answer is yes, give
an example and if not, explain why?
Ans:- Yes, when a ball is doped from a height on a perfectly elastic surface ,the
motion is oscillatory but not simple harmonic as restoring force F=mg=constant and
not F  -x, which is an essential condition for S.H.M.
4. A girl is swinging in the sitting position. How will the period of the swing change if
she stands up?
Ans:-The girl and the swing together constitute a pendulum of time period
l
T  2
g
As the girl stands up her centre of gravity is raised. The distance between the point
of suspension and the centre of gravity decreases i.e. length ‘l’ decreases .Hence
the time period ‘T’ decreases.
5. The maximum velocity of a particle, executing S.H.M with amplitude of 7mm is

4.4 m/s. What is the period of oscillation?
2 2A 2  22  .007
Ans: - Vmax= A  A , T   0.01s
T Vmax 7  4.4
6. Why the longitudinal wave are also called pressure waves?
274
Ans: - Longitudinal wave travel in a medium as series of alternate compressions and
rare fractions i.e. they travel as variations in pressure and hence are called pressure
waves.
7. How does the frequency of a tuning fork change, when the temperature is
increased?
Ans: -As the temperature is increased, the length of the prong of a tuning fork
increased .This increased the wavelength of a stationary waves set up in the tuning
fork. As frequency,
1
 
 , So the frequency of tuning fork decreases.
8. An organ pipe emits a fundamental node of a frequency 128Hz. On blowing into

it more strongly it produces the first overtone of the frequency 384Hz. What is the
type of pipe –Closed or Open?
Ans: - The organ pipe must be closed organ pipe, because the frequency the first
overtone is three times the fundamental frequency.
9. All harmonic are overtones but all overtones are not harmonic. How?
Ans: -The overtones with frequencies which are integral multiple of the fundamental
frequency are called harmonics. Hence all harmonic are overtones. But overtones
which are non-integrals multiples of the fundamental frequency are not harmonics.
10. What is the factor on which pitch of a sound depends?
Ans: - The pitch of a sound depends on its frequency.
(2 Marks questions)
1. At what points is the energy entirely kinetic and potential in S.H.M? What is the
total distance travelled by a body executing S.H.M in a time equal to its time
period, if its amplitude is A?
275
Ans. The energy is entirely kinetic at mean position i.e. at y=0. The energy is
entirely potential at extreme positions i.e.
𝑦 = ±𝐴
Total distance travelled in time period T = 2A + 2A = 4A.
2. A simple pendulum consisting of an inextensible length ‘l’ and mass ‘m’ is

oscillating in a stationary lift. The lift then accelerates upwards with a constant
acceleration of 4.5 m/s2. Write expression for the time period of simple pendulum
in two cases. Does the time period increase, decrease or remain the same, when
lift is accelerated upwards?
𝑙
Ans. When the lift is stationary, T = 2π 𝑔
When the lift accelerates upwards with an acceleration of 4.5 m/s 2

𝑙
T ́ = 2𝜋 𝑔+45
Therefore, the time period decreases when the lift accelerates upwards.
3. Does the function y = sin2ωt represent a periodic or a S.H.M? What is period of

motion?
Ans. Displacement y = sin2ωt

𝑑𝑦
Velocity v = = 2sin ωt × cosωt × ω
𝑑𝑡
v = ω sin 2ωt
𝑑𝑣
Acceleration a = = ω×cos 2ωt × 2ω
𝑑𝑡
a = 2 ω2cos 2ωt.
As the acceleration is not proportional to displacement y, the given function
does not represent SHM. It represents a periodic motion of angular frequency 2ω.
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
∴ Time Period T = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 2𝜔 = 𝜔
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞 .
4. All trigonometric functions are periodic, but only sine or cosine functions are used
to define SHM. Why?
Ans.All trigonometric functions are periodic. The sine and cosine functions can
take value between -1 to +1 only. So they can be used to represent a bounded
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motion like SHM. But the functions such as tangent, cotangent, secant and
cosecant can take value between 0 and ∞ (both negative and positive). So these
functions cannot be used to represent bounded motion like SHM.
𝑑2𝑥
5. A simple Harmonic Motion is represented by +αx = 0. What is its time period?
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑥
Ans. 𝑑𝑡 2 = − αx Or a = − αx
𝑥 𝑥 2𝜋
T = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 =
𝑎 𝛼𝑥 𝛼
𝟐𝝅
T= 𝜶
6. The Length of a simple pendulum executing SHM is increased by 2.1%. What is

the percentage increase in the time period of the pendulum of increased length?
𝑙
Ans. Time Period, T = 2𝜋 i.e. T ∝ 𝑙.
𝑔
The percentage increase in time period is given by

∆𝑇 1 ∆𝑙
× 100 = × 100 (for small variation)
𝑇 2 𝑙
1
= × 2.1%
2
= 1.05%
7. A simple Harmonic motion has an amplitude A and time period T. What is the
time taken to travel from x = A to x = A/2.
Ans. Displacement from mean position = A – 𝐴 2 =𝐴 2.

When the motion starts from the positive extreme position, y = A cosωt.
𝐴 2𝜋
∴ = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡.
2 𝑇
2𝜋 𝜋
cos 𝑇 𝑡 = ½ = cos 3
2𝜋 𝜋
or 𝑡=
𝑇 3
∴t=𝑇 6
8. An open organ pipe produces a note of frequency 5/2 Hz at 15 0C, calculate the
length of pipe. Velocity of sound at 00C is 335 m/s.
Ans.Velocity of sound at 150C
V=V0+0.61xt =335+0.61x15 =344.15 m/s. (Thermal coefficient

of velocity of sound wave is .61/0C)
277
Fundamental frequency of an organ pipe
V V 344.15
 , L   0.336m
4L 4 4  512
9. An incident wave is represented by Y(x, t)=20sin(2x-4t).Write the expression for

reflected wave
(i) From a rigid boundary
(ii) From an open boundary.
Ans.(i) The wave reflected from a rigid boundary is
Y (x, t) = -20sin (2x+4t)
(i)The wave reflected from an open boundary is
Y (x, t) = 20sin (2x+4t)
Explain why
(i) in a sound wave a displacement node is a pressure antinode and vice- versa
(ii) The shape of pulse gets- distorted during propagation in a dispersive

medium.
Ans. (i) At a displacement node the variations of pressure is maximum. Hence

displacement node is the a pressure antinode and vice-versa.
(ii)When a pulse passes through a dispersive medium the wavelength of wave

changes.
So, the shape of pulse changes i.e. it gets distorted.
(3 Marks Questions)
1. The speed of longitudinal wave `V` in a given medium of density ρ is given by the
formula, use this formula to explain why the speed of sound in air.
(a) is independent at pressure
(b) increases with temperature and
(c) increases with humidity
2. Write any three characteristics of stationary waves.
278
Ans. (i) in stationary waves, the disturbance does not advance forward. The
conditions of crest and trough merely appear and disappear in fixed position to be
followed by opposite condition after every half time period. (ii) The distance between
two successive nodes or antinodes is equal to half the wavelength. (iii) The
amplitude varies gradually from zero at the nodes to the maximum at the antinodes.
3. Show that the speed of sound in air increased by .61m/s for every 1 0 C rise of
temperature.
Ans. V T
Vt t  273

Vo 0  273
t 1/2
Vt= V0 (1  ) = V0 ( 1  1 . t )
273 2 273
V  t
Vt = V 0 +
546
At, 00C speed of sound in air is 332 m/s.
 Vt– V0 = 332  t
546
When t= 10C ,Vt– V0 = 0.61m/s.
4. Find the ratio of velocity of sound in hydrogen gas Ƴ  7 to that in helium gas
5
Ƴ 5 at the same temperature. Given that molecular weight of hydrogen and
3
helium are 2 and 4 respectively.
RT
Ans. V 
M
At constant temperature,
𝑉𝐻 𝛾 𝐻 𝑀𝐻 715 4
= = 5 .2 = 1.68.
𝑉𝐻𝑒 𝛾 𝐻𝑒 𝑀𝐻𝑒 3
5. The equation of a plane progressive wave is, 𝑦 = 10𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝜋 𝑡 − 0.005𝑥 where y &
x are in cm & t in second. Calculate the amplitude, frequency, wavelength &
velocity of the wave.
Ans. Given, y = 10𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝜋 𝑡 − 0.005𝑥 ………….. (1)
279
𝑡 𝑥
Standard equation for harmonic wave is, 𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛2𝜋(𝑇 − 𝜆 )…………… (2)
1 1
Comparing eqn (1) & (2), 𝐴 = 10, = 1, = 0.005
𝑡 𝜆
(i) Amplitude A = 10cm

1
(ii) Frequency 𝜈 = 𝑇 = 1𝐻𝑧
1
(iii) Wavelength 𝜆 = 0.005 = 200𝑐𝑚
(iv) Velocity v = 𝜈 𝜆 = 1 x 200 = 200cm/s

6. Write displacement equation respecting the following condition obtained in SHM.
Amplitude = 0.01m
Frequency = 600Hz
𝜋
Initial phase = 6
Ans. Y = A Sin (2π𝜈𝑡 + 𝜙𝑜 )
𝜋
= 0.01 Sin (1200𝜋𝑡 + 6 )
7. The amplitude of oscillations of two similar pendulums similar in all respect are
2cm & 5cm respectively. Find the ratio of their energies of oscillations.
𝐸 𝐴 2 2
Ans.𝐸1 = (𝐴1 )2 = = 4: 25
2 2 3
8. What is the condition to be satisfied by a mathematical relation between time

and displacement to describe a periodic motion?
Ans. A periodic motion repeats after a definite time interval T. So,
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑦 𝑡 + 2𝑇 𝑒𝑡𝑐.
9. A spring of force constant 1200N/m is mounted horizontal table. A mass of 3Kg is

attached to the free end of the spring, pulled sideways to a distance of 2.0cm and
released.
(i) What is the frequency of oscillation of the mass?
280
(ii) What is the maximum acceleration of the mass?
(iii) What is the maximum speed of the mass?
Ans.Herek = 1200N/m, m = 3Kg, A = 2cm = 2×0.01m
1 𝐾 1 1 1200
(i) 𝜈 = 2𝜋 = 2 × 3.14 = 3.2𝑠 −1
𝑚 3
𝐾 1200
(ii) 𝜔= = = 20𝑠 −1
𝑚 3
Maximum acceleration = 𝜔2 𝐴 = (20)2 ×2 × 10−2 = 8𝑚/𝑠 2
(iii) Maximum speed = 𝜔𝐴 = 20 × 2 × 10−2 = 0.40𝑚/𝑠
10. Which of the following function of time represent, (a) simple harmonic (b)
periodic but not SHM and (c) non periodic ?
𝜋
(i) Sin𝜔t- Cos𝜔t (ii) 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 𝜔𝑡 (−𝜔2 𝑡 2 )
(iii) 3𝐶𝑜𝑠( 2 − 2𝜔𝑡)(iv)exp⁡
𝜋
Ans. (i) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = 2𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 2 ) , so the function is in SHM.
1
(ii) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛3 𝜔𝑡 = 4 (3𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛3𝜔𝑡) , represent two separate SHM
motion but their combination does not represent SHM.
𝜋 𝜋
(iii) 𝑥 𝑡 = 3𝐶𝑜𝑠 − 2𝜔𝑡 = 3𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝜔𝑡 − 4 ) , represent SHM.
4
(iv) exp −𝜔2 𝑡 2 = 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐.
(5 Marks Questions)
1. (a) A light wave is reflected from a mirror. The incident & reflected wave
superimpose to form stationary waves. But no nodes & antinodes are seen, why?
(b) A standing wave is represented by y=2ASinKxCoswt.If one of the component

wave is 𝑦1 = 𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐾𝑥 , what is the equation of the second component wave?
281
Ans. (a) As is known, the distance between two successive nodes or two successive
𝜆
antinodes is2. The wavelength of visible light is of the order of 10−7 𝑚. As such as a
small distance cannot be detected by the eye or by a ordinary optical instrument.

Therefore, nodes and antinodes are not seen.
(b) As, 2𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐵 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴 − 𝐵
𝑦 = 2𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐾𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
= 𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
According to superposition principle,
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦1 = 𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐾𝑥 = −𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
𝑦2 = 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 2𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐾𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
= 𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
= 𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡 − 2𝐴𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝐾𝑥)
2. Discuss Newton’s formula for velocity of sound in air. What correction was made
to it by Laplace and why?
Ans.According to Newton the change in pressure & volume in air is an isothermal

𝑝
process. Therefore he calculated, 𝑣= on substituting the require value he
𝜌
found, the velocity of sound was not in close agreement with the observation value.
Then Laplace pointed out the error in Newton’s formula. According to Laplace the
change in pressure and volume is an adiabatic process. So he calculated the value
Ƴ𝑟
of sound as, 𝑣 = on putting require value he found velocity of sound as 332m/s
𝜌
very closed to observed theory.
3. (a) What are beats? Prove that the number of beats per second is equal to the
difference between the frequencies of the two superimposing wave.
282
(b) Draw fundamental nodes of vibration of stationary wave in (i) closed pipe, (ii)
in an open pipe.
4. Discuss the formation of harmonics in a stretched string. Show that in case of a

stretched string the first four harmonics are in the ratio 1:2:3:4.
5. Explain Doppler’s effect of sound. Derive an expression for the apparent

frequency where the source and observer are moving in the same direction with
velocity Vs and Vo respectively, with source following the observer.
𝑣−𝑣𝑜
[Ans. = 𝜈 | = ∗ 𝜈]
𝑣−𝑣𝑠
6. For a travelling harmonic wave, 𝑦 = 2𝐶𝑜𝑠(10𝑡 − 0.008𝑥 + 0.35) where x & y are in
cm and t in second. What is the phase difference between oscillatory motions at two
𝜆 3𝜆
points separated by a distance of (i) 4cm (ii) 0.5m (iii) 2 𝑖𝑣 ?
4
Ans.𝑦 = 2𝐶𝑜𝑠 10𝑡 − 0.008𝑥 + 0.35 … … … . (𝑖)
2𝜋𝑡 2𝜋𝑥
We know, 𝑦 = 𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠 − + 𝜙 … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑇 𝜆
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
From (i) & (ii), = 0.008, 𝜆 = 0,008 𝑐𝑚 = 0.80 𝑚.
𝜆
2𝜋 2𝜋
Phase difference, Δ𝜙 = ∗ 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑕 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = ∗ Δ𝑥.
𝜆 𝜆
2𝜋
(i) When Δ𝑥 = 4𝑐𝑚 , Δ𝜙 = 2𝜋 ∗ 0.80 ∗ 4 = 3.2𝑟𝑎𝑑 .
2𝜋
(ii) WhenΔ𝑥 = 0.5𝑚, Δ𝜙 = 2𝜋 ∗ 0.80 ∗ 0.5 = 0.40𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆
(iii) When Δ𝑥 = 2 , Δ𝜙 = ∗ 2 = 𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝜆
3𝜆 2𝜋 3𝜆 3𝜋
(iv) WhenΔ𝑥 = , Δ𝜙 = ∗ = 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
4 𝜆 4 2
7. (i) A steel rod 100 cm long is clamped at its middle. The fundamental frequency
of longitudinal vibrations of the rod is given to be 2.53 kHz. What is the speed of
sound in steel?
(ii) A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end. Which harmonic mode of the pipe is
283
resonantly exited by a 430 Hz source? Will this same source be in resonance
with the pipe if both ends are open? (Speed of sound = 340 m/s).
Ans. (i) For the fundamental mode,
λ = 2 L = 2 x 100 = 200 cm = 2m.
Frequency ν = 2.53 kHz = 2530 Hz
Speed of sound, v = νλ = 2530 x 2 = 5060 m/s
=5.06 km/s
(ii) Length of pipe L= 20 cm = 0.2 m
Speed of sound v= 340 m/s
Fundamental frequency of closed organ pipe
340
ν = v/4L = = 425 Hz sw can be excited
4×0.2
Fundamental frequency of open organ pipe
v 340
ν’ = 2𝐿 = 2×0.2 = 850 Hz
Hence source of frequency 430 Hz will not be in resonance with open organ
pipe.
8. A train stands at a platform blowing a whistle of frequency 400 Hz in still air.

(i) What is the frequency of the whistle heard by a man running
(a)Towards the engine 10 m/s.
(b) Away from the engine at 10 m/s?
(ii) What is the speed of sound in each case?
(iii) What is the wavelength of sound received by the running man in each
case?
Take speed of sound in still air = 340 m/s.
Ans.(i) (a) When the man runs towards the engine
284
V0 = -10 m/s, v1= 0
v- v 340+10 350
ν' = v - v0 x ν = x 400 = 340 x 400 = 411.8
s 340−0
(b) When the man runs away from the engine
V0 = + 10 m/s, vs = 0
v-v 340−10 330

ν’’ = v - v0 x ν = x 400 = 340 x 400 = 388.2 Hz
𝑠 340−0
(ii) (a) When the man runs towards the engine , relative velocity of sound
v’ = v + v0 = 340 + 10 = 350 m/s
(b) When the man runs away from the engine, relative velocity of
sound
v’ = v – v0 = 340 – 10 = 330 m/s .
(iii) The wavelength of sound is not affected by the motion of the listener.
Its value is
v
λ = ν = 340/400 = 0.85m
9. What is a spring factor? Derive the expression for resultant spring constant when
two springs having constants k1 and k2are connected in (i) parallel and (ii) in
series.
10. Show that for a particle in linear S.H.M., the average kinetic energy over a period
of oscillation is equal to the average potential energy over the same period. At
what distance from the mean position is the kinetic energy in simple harmonic
oscillator equal potential energy?
285
VALUE BASED QUESTION
1. An old woman crossing the road was holding a money purse. She was not able to walk .A
pick pocket snatches away her purse. A school student of class X having seen this incident
tries to help that old lady. He informs the police Inspector who stands nearby. The
Inspector collects the money purse from the pickpocket and hand it over to the old lady.
(a)What values do you find in the school student?
(b)Also the police inspector in a jeep is chasing the pickpocket on a straight road. The jeep is
going at its maximum speed ‘v’. The pickpocket rides on the motorcycle of a waiting friend
when the jeep is at a distance‘d’ away.And the motorcycle starts with a constant
acceleration ‘a’. Show that the pickpocket will be caught if v≥√2ad.
Ans: (a) The student is sympathetic towards others, helping, and applies his
presence
of mind insolving the problems, knows how to use public services.
(b) s= ½ at2, the distance covered by the this time interval =s + d = vt
t= v ±√ v2-2adThe pickpocketterwill be caught if t is real ad positive

a This will be possible if v2≥ 2ad or, v≥ 2ad.
2. Sita a student of class XII was suffering from malaria. The area is full of mosquitoes. She
was not having mosquito net. Her friend Geeta has an extra net. She gave it to Sita.Also
she took Gita to a Doctor, got her medicines. After a week Sita became normal
(a) Comment upon the qualities of Sita.
(b) The mosquito net over a 7 m X 4mbed is 3m high. The net has a hole at one corner
of the bed through which a mosquito enters the net. It flies and sits at the
diagonally opposite upper corner of the net(i) Find the magnitude of the
displacement of the mosquito (ii)Taking the hole as the origin, the length of the bed
as the X-axis, its width as the Y-axis and vertically up as the Z-axis, with the
components of the displacement vector.
Ans: (a) Sitahas a caring attitude, and concern for others.
286
(b)(i)√74m i.e.,{ (√72+42+32) } (ii)The components of the vector are 7m,4m, and
3m
3. Krishna went for sight-seeing to a nearby river along with his physics teacher. He
noticed that the wind was blowing from the side and the sailboat still continued to
move forward. He was surprised. He asked his physics teacher the explanation of
this situation. The teacher having noticed his interest explained the concept through
a small example. The physics of sailing is very interesting in that sailboats do not
need the wind to push from behind in order to move. The wind can blow from the
side and the sailboat can still move forward.
The answer lies in the well-known principle of aerodynamic lift. Imagine you are a
passenger in a car as it's moving along, and you place your right hand out the
window. If you tilt your hand in the clockwise sense your hand will be pushed
backwards and up. This is due to the force of the air which has a sideways component
and upwards component (therefore your hand is pushed backwards and up).
(a) What values could you find in Krishna?
(b) Also explain what Magnus effect is.
Ans: (a) Krishna is very interested in learning the subject; also he is interested in
knowing how science helps in understanding the day to day experiences, observant,
has courage to ask questions.
(b) Refer NCERT TEXT BOOK.
4. Having found his mother suffering from fever Venkat tookher tothe doctor for
treatment.While checking the status, the doctor used a thermometer to know the
temperature of the body. He kept the thermometer in the mouth of the patient and noted
the reading as 102◦ F. Doctor gave the necessary medicines. After coming home,Venkat
asked his mother, whois ascience teacher , why mercury is used in a thermometer when
there are so many liquids. Then his mother explained the reason.
(a) Comment upon the values of the mother.
(b)A newly designed thermometer has its lower fixed point and upper fixed point marked at
5◦and 95◦ respectively. Compute the temperature on this scale corresponding to 50◦C
287
Ans: (a) Mother has interest in educating her son and explained that Mercury has got the
following properties for being used in thermometers
(i) The expansion of Mercury is fairly regular and uniform.
(ii) It is opaque and shining, hence can be easily seen through the glass tube.
(iii) Mercury is a good conductor of heat ad has low thermal capacity,
(iv) Mercury does not wet the sides of the glass tube in which it is filled.
(b) Let Ө be the temperature on the scale corresponding to 50◦C, then
( Ө -5)/(95-5) =(C- 0)/(100-0) =C/100 or Ө = 50◦
Thus, the required temperature on the scale of the designed thermometer is 50◦.
5. Having seen a big stone falling from the top of a tower Ravi pulled his friend Kiran away.
The stone hit Ravi slightly and he got hurt. But he was saved from a major accident.
(a)What made Ravi act in such a way.
(b)From the top of a tower 100 m in height, a ball is dropped and at the same time another
ball is projected vertically upwards from the ground with a velocity of 25 m/s.Find when and
where the two balls meet. Take g = 9.8 m/sec2.
Ans: (a) More observation, presence of mind& Concern (ii) In the first case h = ½gt2
(b) For the second case 100-h = 25 t - ½gt2 where h is the height at which the two stones
meet.
i.e., 100-h = 25t- h; 25t = 100; or t= 100/25 = 4 sec. ; h=78.4m
6. A monkey is sitting on a tree.Rahim seeing the Monkey brought some fruits
and gave them to the Monkey, and ran into the house immediately. On hearing the
sound produced when Rahim was running the monkey was scared and climbed the
nearby tree.
(a) What values of Rahim inspired you?
(b)A monkey of mass 40 Kg climbs on a rope which can stand a maximum tension of 600 N .
In which of the following cases will the rope will break. The monkey
(I) Climbs up with an acceleration of 6 m/s2

(II)
Climbs down with an acceleration of 4 m/s2
(III) Climbs up with a uniform speed of 5 m/s
(IV) Falls down the rope nearly under gravity?
(Take g= 10 m/s2) (Ignore the mass of the rope)
288
(a) Ans: (a1) Rahim loves animals and feeds them, don’t frighten animals with
(b)(I) The tension developed in the string when the monkey climbs up with an
accelerationof 6 m/s2 is given by T = m(g + a) = 40 (10 + 6) =640 N
(II) The tension developed when the monkey climbs down with an acceleration of 4m/s2
Is given by T = m (g-a) = 40(10-4) = 40 x 6 = 240 N
(III)When the monkey climbs with a uniform speed of 5m/s acceleration is zero and
the tension in the string is T = mg 40 x 10 = 400 N
(IV)As the monkey falls down the rope nearly under gravity, the tension in the
string is given by, T = m(g-a) = m(g-g) 0
Since the string can withstand a maximum tension of 600 N, hence the rope will
break only in the first case (I)
7. Radha found the wheel getting detached from her uncle’s car . She took it to workshop
andgot it repaired. She informed her uncle, who is a mechanical engineer, about this
matter.
(a) What according to you the values displayed by Radha?
(b)A thin wheel can stay up-right on its rim for a considerable length of time when rolled
with a considerable velocity, while it falls from its upright position at the
slightest disturbance, when stationery. Explain.
Ans: (a) Radha takes care of things and has concern for others.Practical in finding the solutions
to problems.
(b)When the wheel is rolling, the angular momentum is conserved. However, due
to frictional force, it continues to decrease. Thus, the wheel can stay upright on its
rim only for a certain interval of time. In the stationary position, the wheel falls due
to unstable equilibrium.
8. Suresh noticed a big Granite Rock in his locality. He thought that if they worked upon it
they
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couldearn money. He took permission from theGovernment, completed all the formalities .He
brokethe Rock using a bomb. The rock was made into slices .They established a
Granite industry. Many of the people in the surroundings started to earn and live comfortably.
(a) What values of Suresh impress you?
(b)A bomb is thrown in a horizontal direction with a velocity of 50 m/s. It explodes into two
parts of masses 6 Kg and 3 Kg. the heavier fragment continues to move in the horizontal
direction with a velocity of 80 m/s .Calculate the velocity of the lighter fragment.
Ans: (a) Suresh knows how to utilize the natural resources, has got concern forothers. Also
he knows how to complete all legal formalities before taking up any work.
(b) According to law of conservation of momentum
Total momentum of fragments = Momentum of the Bob
m1v1 +m2v2 = MV
6X80 + 3X v2 =9 X 50; v2 = -10 m/s
9. Rakesh withthe intention to win in the interschool sports practiced high jump every day for about
a month. He participated and won I position in the interschool sports.
(a) Comment upon the values Rakesh possesses.
(b) Whydoes anathlete run some steps before taking a jump?
Ans: (a) Rakesh has determination, he Plans and executes his plan accordingly.
(b) An Athlete runs some steps before taking a jump to gain some initial momentum,
which helps him to jump more?
10. A sports teacher was training the children for march-past. On their way they
come across a bridge .Then the physical education teacher stopped the children from
marching on the bridge.
(a) Comment upon the values of sports teacher.
b) Also explain what is meant by Resonance.
Ans: (a) The sports teacher is responsible, cares not only for public property but also children.
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(b) When the frequency of marching coincides with the natural frequency of oscillation
of the bridge then the bridge oscillates with maximum amplitude to such an extent that the
bridgemay even collapse. This condition is called “Resonance’’.
11.Suraj went to Big Bazaar to purchase certain goods .There he has noticed an old
lady struggling with her shopping. Immediately he showed herthelift
and explainedto her how it carries the load from one floor to the next. Even then the
Old lady was not convinced..Then suraj took her in the lift and showed her how to operate it..
That old lady was very happy.
(a)What values doesSurajpossess?
(b)An elevator can carry a maximum load of 1800 kg is moving up with a constant speed
of 2 m/s , The frictional force opposing the motion is 4000 N. Determine the
minimum power delivered by the motor to the elevator in watts as well as in horse power.
Ans: (a) Suraj issympathetic and also has the attitudeof helpingothers. He has patience
(b)The downward force on the elevator is F= mg + Ff = (1800 X 10) + 4000 = 22000N
The motor must supply enough power to balance this force.
Hence P = F.V = 22000 X 2 = 44000W = 59 hp
12.Jagat and Ram are working in the same company.Jagat has noticed that Ram is
suffering from Cancer. Ram is not aware of this.WhenJagat asks him to go for a checkup, Ram
refuses .He gets convinced how even when he realizes it is very important to get checkup done
once a year.
(a) What according to you, are the values displayed by Jagat in helping Ram
(b) A hospital uses an ultrasonic scanner to locate tumors in a tissue. What is the wavelength of
sound in the tissue in which the speed of sound in the tissue in which the speed of sound is 1.7
km/s? The operating frequency of the scanner is 4.2 MHz
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(Ans: (a,) his concern for his friend, also he has the knowledge of medical facilities available
(b) λ = v/ν; = 1700/4.2 x 106m; thatis λ = 4.05 x 10 -4 m)
13. Preeti a student of class XI was reading the newspaper, The Headlines in the News paper
wereabout the earth quake thathad taken place in Assam on the previous day. She was very
depressed seeing the loss to life and property.. She approached her physics teacher
and got the information about how earth quake occurs.
(a) What can you say about the inquisitiveness of Preeti?
(b)Earth quake generates sound waves inside the earth. Unlike a gas, the earth can experience both
transverse(S) and longitudinal (P) sound waves. Typically the speed of S wave is about 4 km/s, and
that of P wave is 8km/s. A seismograph records P and S waves from an earthquake. The first P wave
arrives 4 min before the fires S wave. Assuming the waves travel in straight line, how far away does
the earthquake occur?
(a)She has concern for society and is sympathetic towards others
b)(Vs = d/ts; vp = d/tp; vsts = vptp;4ts = 8tp;ts = 2tp; ts-tp= 4min = 240sec;tp=240s;ts=480s;d = 1920km)
14. Agroup of students went to a place on excursion. While boating on sea water, the students
identified a submerged Torpedo shaped structure. The boys debated among themselves on what
they saw. A student by name Sharath considering it as a threat informed the police. Thepolice took
necessary steps to protect the country from the enemy submarine.Sharath was rewarded.
(a) What can you say about the qualities exhibited by Sharath?
(b) A SONAR system fixed in a submarine operates at a frequency 40 kHz. An enemy submarine
moves towards the SONAR with a speed of 360 km/hr. What is the frequency of sound reflected by
the submarine? Take the speed of sound in water to be 1450m/s.
Ans: (a) Navigator is a responsible citizen, he is duty minded, having presence of mind
(b)Apparent frequency received by an enemy submarine,ν’ = {(v + v0)/v}ν=
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= {(1450 + 100)/1450} x 40 x 103Hz = 4,276 x 10 4Hz. This frequency is reflected by the enemy
submarine (source) and is observed by SONAR (now observer)
In this case Apparentfrequency ν’’ = {v/ (v-vs.)} X ν = *1450/(1450-100)]X 4.276 X 10 4Hz = 45.9 kHz.
15.) The Physics Teacher of class XI has assigned the work of finding the resultant spring constant
when two springs of spring constant s k1, k2 are joined in series. Two students Sabita and
Shirin.Sabita made a theoretical study aswellas verified experimentally. Whereas Shirin could not
complete the work. When the teacher enquiredthe next day Sabita could give the answer. Whereas
Shirin couldnot.
(a)Comment upon the qualities of Sabita.
(b) Two springs are joined in series and connected to a mass m as shown in fig. If spring constants
are k1 and k2, calculate the period of oscillation of mass m.
Ans: (a) Sabita is Sincere and hard working and having scientific temper
(b)[k = k1k2/(k1+k2)]; T = 2π√m(k1+k2)/k1k2
16. Adarsh a student of class XI has found the factors on which the time period of oscillation of a
pendulum depends and arrived at the expression T = ( constant ) X (l/g)⅟2 . He wants to know how
the length of the pendulum gets affected on the surface of the moon for the same pendulum and
arrived at the conclusion that it is l/6.(a) What values does Adarshpossesses?.
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(b)The length of a seconds’ pendulum on the surface of the earth is 1m What will be the length on
the surface of the moon?
(a) Adarsh is hardworking, thinks logically,having scientific temper , able to find solutions with
patience. (b) Since’l‘is proportional to’g ‘ the length of the pendulum on the surface of the moon will
be 1/6m
17.(a)Ravi has to attend to an interview . He was not well. He took the help of his friend Raghavan.
On the way office Ravi felt giddy, He vomited on his dress. Raghavan washed his shirt. He made Ravi
to drink enough amount of water. In spite of doing ,a foul smell was coming from the shirt. Then
Raghavan purchased a scent bottle from the nearby cosmetics shop and applied on Ravi. Ravi
attended the interview, Performed well .Finally he was selected.
(a)What values do you find in Raghavan?
(b)The velocity of air molecules is nearly 500m/s. But the smell of scent spreads very slowly, Why?
Ans: (a) He has presence of mind, serves others in need.
(b) This is because the air molecules can travel only along a zigzag path due to frequent collisions.
Consequently, the displacement per unit time is considerably small.
18(a).Ratannoticed that his grandfather to be suffering from fever. He took him to the doctor The
doctor gave him some pills .When the pills were used he sweated much, after some time became
normal.Rahim enquired the Doctor about how his grandfather became normal.
(a)According to you what values are possessed by Ratan?
(b)A child running a temperature of 101°Fis given an Antipyriawhich causes an increase in the rte of
evaporation of the body. If the fever is brought down to 98°F in 20 mts, what is the amount of heat
lost by the body? . The mass of the child is 30 kg.
Ans: (a) Ratan is responsible and he has concern for others, inquisitiveness in gaining the knowledge
(b) Heat lost by the body = mst = 30kg X 1000cal/kg/°C X 1.67 °C = 50100cal [(where loss in tem =
(101-98)°C =3 x 5/9 °F = 1.67°C.]
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19. Vineet saw his uncle planting seeds in the land. His uncle does not know methods of growing
plants. Then he decided to make his uncle aware of this. He explained the importance of ploughing
the land before planting the seeds. Uncle is convinced with his ideas. He planted accordingly.
Theplants grownsuccessfully.
(a) What can you say about Vineet?
(b) What is the utility of ploughing a field? Does it help the soil to retain moisture?
Ans: (a) Vineet has good knowledge of agriculture. He is very much interested in putting his ideas
into practice, uses his knowledge to convince his uncle.
(b) When the field is ploughed, the capillaries are broken. So water cannot rise to the surface and
the soil is able to retain its moisture.
20. Padma‘s little sister was crying. Then she took a piece of camphor and put it in water. By seeing
the camphor piece dancing on the surface of water, the little one stopped crying.
(a) What can you say about the qualities of Padma?
(b)Why do small pieces of camphor dance on the surface of water?
Ans (a) Padma is responsible, helps her mother in looking after her younger sister.
(b) When camphor is dissolved in water, the surface tension of water is reduced. Since camphor has
irregular shape therefore it may dissolve more at one end than at the other end. This produces an
unbalanced force due to which it moves .When it reaches a different region, the same process is
repeated.
21.A physics teacher explained about conservation of Angular momentum in the class .After the
completion of her explanation she want to test how far how far the students are able to understand
the topic. In the process she selected two students by name Babita and Ram. Both could explain the
topic with examples..
(a) What qualitiesof them impress you?
(b) A physics teacher sits on a stool that is free to rotate nearly without friction about a vertical axis
.Her outstretched hands each hold a large mass so that the rotational inertia is 12kgm2.By pulling
her arms close to her body she is able to reduce her rotational inertia to 6 kg m2. If her student
starts spinning at 0.5 rad/s, what is her speed after she draws her arms in?
Ans: (a) Both were doing group study, discussing together they have given answers.
(b) In the absence of external torque, her angular momentum stays constant so that Iω =I’ω’
i.e.’ = Iω/I’ =(12 x 0.5)/6 =1 rad/s; When her rotational inertia halves, her angular velocity doubles.
295
22. Suresh was struggling to understand the Kepler’s second law of planetary motion. Then his
friend Raman who came to him explained how the planet moves around the sun obeying Kepler’s
law of planetary motion.
(a) Comment upon the values of Raman.
(b) State and the Keplers‘laws of planetary motion.
(Ans: ( a) Raman shares his knowledge with his friends and wants to improve his knowledge in the
subject, has concern towards his friends.
(b) Refer NCERT Text book)
23.(a) Savita was surprised to see oil spreading on to the surface of water and asked her mother to
explain why oil spreads on to the surface of water. Her mother explained her daughter the reason
behind it. By going through the explanation she thought oflearning more about the other scientific
phenomenon also. What qualities do you can find in Savita?
(b) Oil spreads over the surface of water whereas water does not spread over the surface of oil.
Why?
(Ans: (a) she has inquisitiveness;she wants know the scientific reason behind the phenomena.
(b)The surface tension of the water is more than that of oil, therefore when oil is poured over
water, the greater value of surface tension of water, pulls the oil in all directions. On the other hand,
when water is poured over oil, it does not spread over it because surface tension of oil is less than
that of water.
24.) Ram and his friend Ramesh while going to the school on a motorcycle noticed that
abidgehadcollapsed. Immediately they went to their physics teacher and enquired about the
reasons for falling of the bridge. After knowing the reasons that very interesting they have decided
to pursue their career as civil engineers and vowed to construct 100 % quality dams and bridges.
(a) Comment upon the values possessed by them.
(b) Name the property that helps in constructing bridges. Also define the property.
(Ans :(a) Sympathy, determination, and concern for society, honesty and integrity (b) Elasticityand
for definition refer NCERT Text Book)
25.(a) A small hair piece has fallen into the eye of Suresh. It caused itching sensation in the eye of
Sureshseeingthat Hari, who is a friend of Suresh, took him to the eye specialist. The Doctor
removed it. Suresh expressed his gratitude to Hari.Comment upon the values of Hari.
(b) A student measure the thickness of a human hair by looking at it through a microscope of
magnification 100.He makes 20 observations and finds that the average width of the hair in the
field of view of the microscope is 3.5mm. What is the estimate on the thickness of hair?
(Ans: (a) Hari has presence of mind, acaring attitude towards his friend, & Concern towards others.
(b) the estimated thickness of hair = 3.5/100 = 0.035mm)
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के न्द्रीय विद्यालय संगठन

KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

1. Mass of an electron (Me) = 9.1x10-31kg.

2. Surface area of a sphere = 4πr2 = πD2

Fundamental Trigonometric relations

Sin(A+B) = SinACosB + CosASinB

Cos 2A = 2Cos2A – 1=1- 2Sin2A = Cos2A – Sin2A

Sin (A+B) + Sin(A-B) = 2 SinACosB

< Cos2 θ> = ½

d{f x g x } f x dg (x) g x df (x)

The relative strengths of these forces are

(a) Fundamental quantities (b) Derived quantities.

(a) MKS (b) CGS (c) FPS (d) SI

 The equation which expresses a physical quantity in terms of the fundamental

(b) To check the correctness of a given physical relation.

 Significant figures: - The significant figures are normally those digits in a

For counting of the significant figure rule are as:

(i) All non- zero digits are significant figure.

 In addition or subtraction, the result should be reported to the same

The error is communicated in different mathematical operations as detailed below:

(i) For x = (a ± b), Δx = ± ( Δa + Δb)

Ans : Electromagnetic force acts between on all electrically charged particles.

Ans . Slap x speed = power

Or slap = power/speed = [MLT-2]

Ans : Energy = Work done = Force x length

Q6. Can a quantity has dimensions but still has no units?

Q7. Justify L +L = L and L – L =L.

Ans: When we add or subtract a length from length we get length, So L +L =L

Ans : yes, like strain.

Ans: percentage error = 2 %

Ans. Speed or velocity.

Short answer type questions (2 marks)

H = I2Rt joule , If the maximum error in the measurement of current,

Ans: % error in heat dissipated is ±6 %.

dimensions [ ML2 T-2].

Q3. In Vander Wall’s equation ( P + a/V2)( V – b ) = RT, Determine the dimensions

Ans : [a] = [ML5 T-2] and [b] = [ M0L3T0].

Ans : unit of a is meter and unit of b is m/sec2.

significant figures in a measured quantity?

sum of their individual relative errors.

Ans : For x = a/b , Δx/x = ± ( Δa/a + Δb/b)

Ans: (A) gravitational constant = [M-1 L3 T-2],

C) Coefficient of viscosity = [ ML-1 T-1]

D) Surface tension = [ ML0T-2]

Ans : (i) Gravitational force (ii) Electromagnetic force

(iii) nuclear force (iv) Weak force

The relative strengths of these forces are

Ans : 1N = 105 Dyne.

Ans: Mass = (Force X Time)/Velocity

Short answer type questions (3marks)

Q4. A physical quantity X is given by X = A 2B3/CD , If the percentage errors of

observation and % error.

Guess where to put the missing c.

has a magnitude 4.2 α-1 β-2 ϒ2 in terms of the new units.

induction respectively, what are the dimensions of Y in MKS system?

Q10. In an experiment, on the measurement of g using a simple pendulum the time

with accuracy of 0.5%. Calculate the percentage error in the value of g.

Ans. R=CP-CV = (12.280.2) - (3.970.3) = (8.310.5) units

% Error in R = (R/R) X 100 = {(CP + CV)/(CP-CV)}X100 = (0.5/8.31)X100