land

Article
Prioritizing Suitable Locations for Green Stormwater
Infrastructure Based on Social Factors in Philadelphia
Zachary Christman 1, *, Mahbubur Meenar 1 , Lynn Mandarano 2 and Kyle Hearing 2
1 Department of Geography, Planning, and Sustainability, School of Earth and Environment, Rowan
University, Glassboro, NJ 08028, USA; [email protected]
2 Department of Planning and Community Development, Tyler School of Art, Temple University,
Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA; [email protected] (L.M.); [email protected] (K.H.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-856-256-4810




Received: 30 October 2018; Accepted: 22 November 2018; Published: 26 November 2018


Abstract: Municipalities across the United States are prioritizing green stormwater infrastructure
(GSI) projects due to their potential to concurrently optimize the social, economic, and environmental
benefits of the “triple bottom line”. While placement of these features is often based on biophysical
variables regarding the natural and built environments, highly urbanized areas often exhibit either
limited data or minimal variability in these characteristics. Using a case study of Philadelphia and
building on previous work to prioritize GSI features in disadvantaged communities, this study
addresses the dual concerns of the inequitable benefits of distribution and suitable site placement of
GSI using a model to evaluate and integrate social variables to support decision making regarding
GSI implementation. Results of this study indicate locations both suitable and optimal for the
implementation of four types of GSI features: tree trenches, pervious pavement, rain gardens,
and green roofs. Considerations of block-level site placement assets and liabilities are discussed,
with recommendations for use of this analysis for future GSI programs.

Keywords: green stormwater infrastructure (GSI); social equity; site suitability modeling; geographic
information systems; environmental justice; urban planning; Philadelphia

1. Introduction
The ability for vegetation to capture rainfall, mitigating overland sheet flows by promoting
infiltration, reducing stormwater volume through transpiration, and filtering pollution through
biological processes, has been well documented [1–3]. Simultaneously, managing rainfall poses
unique challenges for many older urban areas in North America, which commonly utilize combined
sewer systems (CSS) that manage both sewage and stormwater [4,5]. Intense rainfall events, either high
volume or rapidly occurring, can exceed the capacity of these systems, leading to the diversion of
untreated wastewater into rivers and other water bodies. Unsurprisingly, a growing number of cities
across the United States have sought to leverage vegetation as a cost-effective means of mitigating the
volume of stormwater and are increasingly allocating stormwater management funding to “green” as
opposed to “grey” infrastructure projects [6,7].
Green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) refers to the suite of interventions, comprised of both
natural and artificial materials, that utilize vegetation to slow or store surface water runoff, mitigating
the volume rapidly reaching the CSS. The implementation of GSI depends largely on the intersection
of properties associated with the physical and built environment as well as the priorities of municipal
actors and community members [7,8]. This study specifically seeks to further develop the latter means
of siting GSI through the development of a model for the balancing of social factors with the constraints

Land 2018, 7, 145; doi:10.3390/land7040145 www.mdpi.com/journal/land

Land 2018, 7, 145 2 of 17

of the built environment in prioritizing the implementation of GSI within Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Specifically, answers to three major research questions were sought:

1. What areas are suitable for GSI implementation, based on the physical constraints of the landscape
and the goal of promoting equitable GSI distribution?
2. How can social factors be used to prioritize and rank GSI site selection?
3. How do virtual site observations corroborate modeled site suitability for GSI features?

In addressing the research questions outlined above, this study employs site suitability modeling
based on an analytical hierarchical procedure of expert opinion on the influence of social factors to
site GSI features. The study is built upon previous research done by Mandarano and Meenar [9] that
identified Philadelphia census tracts for future GSI projects, prioritizing tracts with mid- to high-level of
socio-economically disadvantaged residents but with high-level of community capacity. Results of this
study identify locations across those high-priority census tracts for GSI features based on a variety of
social factors. This study addresses gaps in existing procedures by utilizing social factors in urbanized
regions that may have limited data or variability in characteristics of the natural and built environment
commonly used to site green GSI.

2. Siting Green Stormwater Infrastructure

Municipalities across the United States are prioritizing GSI projects due to their “triple bottom
line” benefits (e.g., social, economic, and environmental benefits). Fully realizing the social, economic,
and environmental benefits of GSI necessitates a holistic methodology for siting GSI. The vast majority
of research surrounding the implementation of GSI has largely ignored the social and economic benefits
of GSI, instead choosing to focus principally on the environmental benefits. While this perspective
for evaluating GSI improvements may effectively maximize pollutant reduction and runoff retention,
it may not truly maximize the value of this infrastructure [10–14].
Adoption of an ecosystem services analysis of water supply investments, which seeks to
comprehensively evaluate the environmental impact of infrastructure spending, reveals a grey area in
the valuation of benefits, even before considering more abstract social benefits [15–18]. Attempts to
measure and incorporate the social value of these ecosystem services underscore the difficulty in
ascribing a singular value to any particular infrastructure, and challenges persist with respect to
community education and adoption of any type of intervention [13,15,19]. In a pluralistic society such
as the United States, engaging with and leveraging local institutions such as community groups and
schools may represent a means of engaging with stakeholders over smaller-scale GSI projects [20].
Four major types of GSI interventions, varying in scale, structure, and operation are considered
by this study: tree trenches, rain gardens, pervious pavements, and green roofs [7].
Tree Trenches are GSI elements comprised of a localized gap in the curbside impervious surface,
planted with vegetation to temporarily store stormwater runoff from the street and sidewalk,
enabling infiltration and evapotranspiration to decrease the volume entering the combined sewer
system [6,21]. During major storm events, excess stormwater is directed to an existing stormwater inlet.
Tree trench siting is contingent on the location of underground utilities and the required right-of-way,
in addition to neighborhood physical and social factors discussed below. A tree trench may be as small
as a single square meter along a sidewalk or an area of several dozen square meters along a building
or pedestrian walkway.
Rain Gardens are extensive vegetated depressions that can collect water from surrounding
impervious surfaces, thereby reducing velocity, promoting infiltration and evapotranspiration,
and filtering pollutants from stormwater [7,22]. Connections to existing stormwater inlets manage
excess volume during extreme precipitation events. Rain gardens necessitate an area of open space
beyond the 100-year floodplain. Additionally, maintenance requirements of rain gardens make it
highly desirable to site these features in proximity to institutions, such as schools or community
Land 2018, 7, 145 3 of 17

centers, that may share in their upkeep. Spatial requirements for rain gardens vary from 10s to 1000s
of square meters.
Pervious (or Permeable) Pavement interventions are a suite of design features that slow runoff water
by promoting infiltration at the location that precipitation falls [7,23]. Though not required, pervious
pavement is often accompanied by underground storage in urbanized areas, with connections to
stormwater inlets for events when stormwater volumes exceed capacity. Additionally, the storage of
water in these joint features must be cycled within days to avoid facilitating mosquitoes and other
disease-harboring insects. The most suitable locations for the installation of pervious pavement are
existing surface parking lots, outside the 100-year floodplain.
Green Roof features are additions to flat building roofs that reduce the velocity and volume
of stormwater runoff by creating temporary storage and promoting evapotranspiration [7,24,25].
While newer green roof technology has reduced the structural burden of this type of infrastructure,
thus expanding opportunities for retrofitting older structures, green roofs must feature downspouts
connecting to the municipal wastewater system. Due to the financial and labor costs of installation
and maintenance of these features, institutional capacity is also an important consideration.
Any GSI elements involving infiltration, including tree trenches, rain gardens, and pervious
pavements, are affected by the underlying soil hydrology; however, in the densely built environment
of many older cities, the longstanding disturbance of natural soil deposition limit the utility of
this variable, and scant or unreliable data make this factor difficult to incorporate into models [26].
Similarly, topographic data can be used to site features, as tree trenches may benefit from a relatively
flat topography to avoid inundation, while rain gardens and pervious pavements may be most effective
when sited near slopes that accumulate a greater volume of stormwater [27]. In practice, the limited
variation in slope of some cities, including Philadelphia, mean that this variable (i.e., slope) is similarly
difficult to include in site selection models.
Concurrently, this built environment does exert a localized influence on the siting of GSI features.
The presence of nearby impervious surfaces may support the effectiveness of GSI features promoting
infiltration. In urbanized centers, impervious surface coverage may vary by block or parcel any
change relatively rapidly necessitating the consideration of site-specific conditions [8,28–31]. In most
cases, the engineering practices underlying GSI features necessitate proximity to a stormwater inlet to
manage excess overflow and drainage [29]. Further, locating GSI features within an area served by
a CSS more effectively furthers the ultimate goal of reducing stormwater infiltration and load on the
system in order to reduce overflow events [5]. Finally, it is advisable to locate new GIS features beyond
areas of expected inundations delineated by the US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
100-year-flood map [32].
Beyond the physical requirements of any individual GSI intervention, many factors in the
natural, built, and social environment must be considered in the selection of a suitable site for
implementation [33–35]. Social factors that may be used to promote successful GSI interventions
primarily involve metrics of proximity to institutions or community members who may directly or
indirectly support them. Physical proximity to a partnered institution, such as a school, university,
or recreation center may ease the financial and labor burdens of maintenance. Additionally, community
organizations, such as Neighborhood Advisory Committees (NAC), can engage and educate
residents, while also mustering volunteers for maintenance and promotion of these shared features.
Further, these organizations may also provide long-term support through membership and leadership
cycles. Characteristics of the specific target parcel and block ultimately carry critical importance that
can be incorporated into a decision framework, both in the model and in the final site evaluation and
validation [30]. Land tenure, including commercial or institutional ownership, areal requirements of the
parcel, and local site configuration can enhance or diminish a site’s suitability for GSI placement [29,36].
Though research has identified significant challenges associated with the incorporation of
socioeconomic criteria in the siting of GSI, the need to consider these issues has been clearly
demonstrated, albeit under the broader framework of sustainability [37]. At the same time, the social
Land 2018, 7, 145 4 of 17

value of GSI has been empirically demonstrated; statistically significant decreases in burglaries and
narcotics production and sale were found at multiple scales surrounding GSI in Philadelphia [8].
While crime statistics may be correctly identified as an insufficient proxy for capturing a broader range
of socioeconomic factors, this research highlights the difficulty in quantifying these variables.
By constructing an analytical hierarchy framework for the prioritization of site-specific GSI [13],
a model for maximizing the social and economic benefits of investments in GSI is proposed in this study.
In the built environment, with limited variability or reliability of physical characteristics, social factors
may exert a stronger influence on the successful implementation of GSI interventions, with regard to the
impact of their placement to promote equitable access and impacts, especially among disadvantaged
communities [38–40]. Previous work by Mandarano and Meenar [9] highlighted the inequitable
distribution of GSI features across Philadelphia, due to their association especially with private,
but also public, investment. That study integrated environmental justice and additional community
context variables to identify high priority census tracts for new public-sector GSI implementations,
based on community capacity.

3. Materials and Methods

This project was conducted in Philadelphia—the sixth most populous city of the United
States—with an estimated population of 1.6 million residents [41] and a program to reduce the
impervious surface due to the city’s use of Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) system [6,7,9]. The city is
bordered to the east and south by the Delaware River and Bay and it is bisected by the Schuylkill River,
with minimal topographical variability. Most of the city is covered by the CSS, and the neighborhoods
that abut the rivers are within the FEMA 100-year flood zone. In Philadelphia, the Green City,
Clean Waters program seeks to invest $2.4 billion over 25 years to capture 85% of the stormwater
entering the sewer system [6,7]. Over the next 45 years, this program is expected to increase property
values by $390 million by improving community quality of life and is estimated to prevent 140 fatalities
by mitigating the impact of the urban heat island effect. Additionally, the program will employ
250 people, and improve air quality by absorbing an estimated 1.5 billion pounds of carbon dioxide
annually [6,7]. This “triple bottom line” accounting of benefits was both essential to the program’s
adoption and unique amongst US municipalities [42].
Data for this analysis were obtained through several sources compiled via the OpenDataPhilly
web portal [43]. High priority Census Tract data developed by Mandarano and Meenar [9] were
thresholded to constrain the potential GSI implementation sites. Impervious surface and Combined
Sewer Service Area data were prepared by the Philadelphia Water Department. Current tree plantings
were obtained through the PhillyTreeMap, an implementation of OpenTreeMap built by Azavea with
funding from the United States Department of Agriculture. The 100-year floodplain limits were
prepared by the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Land cover data were produced by the City
of Philadelphia with University of Vermont Spatial Analysis Laboratory. Building Footprint data were
derived from Philadelphia License and Inspections database.
Prioritization and evaluation of suitable GSI implementation sites was conducted in four stages:

1) prior identification of high priority zones to achieve more equitable distribution based on
community context and capacity, developed as part of previous research;
2) restriction of potential implementation sites based on constraints of the built and physical environment;
3) prioritization of potential implementation sites based on proximity to social criteria; and
4) virtual and in situ site evaluation for site feasibility and implementation considerations.

3.1. Prior Identification of High Priority Zones within Philadelphia

Data on high priority zones for future GSI locations in Philadelphia were collected from previous
work by Mandarano and Meenar [9], who developed a strategy for public investment in GSI projects
to achieve a more equitable distribution across the city. By following several methodological steps,
Land 2018, 7, 145 5 of 17

they identified and prioritized US Census Tracts from the 2012 American Community Survey that
included socio-economically disadvantaged populations but experienced high level of community
capacity. First, using GIS-based raster overlay analysis, they identified and ranked disadvantaged
census tracts by using community context variables that captured traditional environmental justice
characteristics as well as other factors of disenfranchised communities, including demographic
identity and rates of poverty, violent crime, vacant properties, single parent households, as well
as a metric of income inequality. Next, they identified and ranked census tracts based on their level of
community capacity. The community capacity variables incorporated measures of community capitals
framework including educational attainment and median income of residents, presence of community
organizations and number of residents who had participated in a civic engagement program, and
the presence of public property and green space. Outputs from both analyses were overlaid to
identify priority census tracts for equitable GSI distribution. Finally, the resulting prioritization
scheme was ordinally ranked into five categories using a natural breaks classification method. In this
study, the top two categories—indicating high levels of capacity and medium to high-levels of
context/disadvantage—were used as a threshold to constrain all types of future GSI implementation.
This process delimited priority zones for GSI implementation, which served to constrain this new
study to further prioritize individual site selection for each type of GSI feature.

3.2. Restriction of Potential Implementation Sites

Locations within high priority GSI implementation zones were then further limited to CSS areas
within the City of Philadelphia.
Tree Trenches: Potential GSI implementation zones for tree trenches were seeded with existing
planting sites maintained by OpenTreeMap, under the rationale that any block that had any existing tree
well or trench would satisfy requirements for sidewalk width, right-of-way, and be free of conflicting
underground infrastructure, like water and electrical services.
Pervious Pavement: Potential GSI implementation zones for pervious pavement were seeded
with existing surface parking lots, isolated from the map of impervious surfaces maintained by the
Philadelphia Water Department, under the rationale that these features would be clear and accessible,
with ongoing access following implementation. Additionally, sites were restricted to those beyond the
limits of the FEMA 100-year floodplains along the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers.
Rain Gardens: Potential GSI implementation zones for rain gardens were seeded with areas that
were grass or bare earth, from the Urban Tree Canopy Assessment produced for Philadelphia by the
University of Vermont Spatial Analysis Laboratory. These areas were further restricted to institutional
land uses, under the rationale that these locations would have improved accessibility and maintenance.
Based on anticipated size requirements of this type of implementation, areas smaller than 10 m2 were
removed, and zones were further restricted by being beyond the FEMA 100-year floodplains.
Green Roofs: Potential GSI implementation zones for green roofs were seeded with the City of
Philadelphia Department of Licenses and Inspections building footprints database, which were further
refined by those of civic and institutional ownership, isolated from the Philadelphia City Planning
Commission, for more facile land use rights and access potential.

3.3. Prioritization of Features and Distances for Site Selection

The suitable sites identified above were prioritized based on their ranked proximity to a variety
of features defined by the built and social environments using a site suitability analysis, as described
below (Site suitability modeling is an analytical process to evaluate and integrate variables expressed
in spatial data, in order to support decision making [44]. Variables regarding local characteristics or
the proximity to a feature may be evaluated in comparison to a threshold value or a range of suitable
values. Preparation of these variables is generally in two forms: constraints, which are binary criteria
that impose strict inclusion or exclusion criteria, and factors, which can be evaluated to enable trade-off
with other variables. Generally speaking, site suitability models incorporate constraints to identify the
Land 2018, 7, 145 6 of 17

set of locations that may be considered for selection, and factors are used to prioritize selection within
the set of all possible locations). The ranking of the influence of each factor on the ensuing selection
was established through an analytical hierarchical weighting procedure based on the expert opinions
of 16 professional planners, scholars, and municipal officials.
Factors chosen to act as indicators, signaling that a location may be a suitable location for GSI
interventions were used through proximity metrics to the institutions or community members who
may directly or indirectly support them, due to the potential to share in the financial and labor
maintenance costs. Partner institutions, like schools, universities, or recreation centers, or community
organizations, like NACs, may support the financial and labor costs of maintenance, educate and
engage neighbors, and gather participants for events and education, especially through membership
and leadership cycles. Linear distances to the nearest features were calculated in ArcMap 10.6 [45]
using the NEAR function. Features for prioritized proximity included:

• Stormwater Inlets, necessary to drain excess water from all GSI features.
• Transit Stops, which act as community gateways. GSI and its accompanying vegetation have
the potential to add vibrancy to the area and promote more than just environmentally sound
stormwater management practices.
• Neighborhood Advisory Committees (NACs) are part of a Division of Housing and Community
Development program whereby NACs lead and engage their neighborhoods in initiatives that
align with the City’s objectives including promoting sustainability, cultivating civic engagement,
and ensuring residents have access to services. Nonprofits in eligible neighborhoods (low- and
moderate-income) can partner with the City through this program; currently, 19 NACs operate
throughout Philadelphia, and indicate a localized measure of neighborhood capacity.
• Schools, as GSI features offer potential educational value, and students exposed to GSI may
learn about how it operates and the environmental implications of improperly managed
stormwater runoff.
• Universities, as large institutions with financial resources and social obligations to pay for GSI on
their campus or help maintain nearby GSI.
• Recreation Centers, which host civic events and programming, offer an opportunity to leverage
the educational value of GSI and may support maintenance using existing staff and volunteers.

Opinions of participating experts was solicited to determine the functional distances from the
features above to the GSI feature implementation site. Each feature has an optimal minimum distance
and functionally limiting maximum distance. The range of each of these values was scaled linearly
from 1 (best) to 0 (worst), with saturation points at each end of the scale beyond the minimum and
maximum distances.
Based on the opinions of participating experts, the relative importance of the distances from each
of the six criteria above were ranked from 1 (minimally influential) to 5 (critically influential), with 3 as
a moderate or average influence. These were then scaled to a percentage of influence based on the sum
of all factors per GSI feature.
The priority weights determined through this process were used in a linear combination to weigh
the influence of all scaled distance factors for GSI site selection.

3.4. Virtual Site Observation and Validation

Sites for GSI implementation identified by the geospatial model outlined above were then
inspected for potential feature installation using a checklist-based field assessment, which validated
the efficacy of the model and identified relevant site-specific characteristics.
Visits were conducted virtually using the Street View service of Google Maps, which provides
a ground-level 360◦ panoramic interface and orthogonal imagery from above to view roof and site
configurations [46]. Locations extracted from the analysis in ArcMap were converted to a KML location
Land 2018, 7, 145 7 of 17

Land 2018, 7, xand

document FORintegrated
PEER REVIEW with the Google Maps platform for evaluation. At each location, factors 7 of 17
commonly considered in the installation of GSI were evaluated by the virtual site assessment, including:
● slope of both the site and surrounding area (slopes in excess of 10 percent are generally
• slope of both the site and surrounding area (slopes in excess of 10 percent are generally excluded);
excluded);
• ● impervious
imperviousarea areaofofthe
theparcels
parcelsandandroadways
roadwayssurrounding
surroundingthethesite,
site,to
to estimate
estimate the
the volume
volume ofof
potential drainage;
potential drainage;
• ● spatial
spatialrequirements
requirements for
for the
the potential
potential GSI
GSI feature;
feature;
• ● proximity
proximitytotoexisting
existingGSI,
GSI,ininorder
order
toto promote
promote equitable
equitable distribution;
distribution; and
and
• ● aesthetic
aestheticconsiderations,
considerations,including
including site
site visibility
visibility and
and potential
potential obstructions.
obstructions.
Thirty-seven virtual
Thirty-seven virtual site
site observations
observations werewere conducted
conducted across
across the
the four
four types
types ofof proposed
proposed GSI
GSI
interventions. For
interventions. Forvalidation
validation of site
of site selection,
selection, all available
all available regionsregions per GSI
per GSI type weretype
merged were merged
(dissolved)
(dissolved)
into a singleinto a single
spatial spatial
feature, which feature,
was usedwhich was usedthe
to constrain to placement
constrain the placement
of the randomof the random
points for site
points A
visits. forminimum
site visits. distance
A minimum of 161distance
m (528offeet,
161 m (528mile,
1/10 feet, or
1/10 mile, or approximately
approximately 1 major
1 major city blockcity
in
block in Philadelphia)
Philadelphia) between
between points was points was to
established established
avoid issuesto of
avoid issuesand
proximity of spatial
proximity and spatial
autocorrelation.
autocorrelation.
This process ensuredThis10process ensured
independent 10 independent
validation points forvalidation points
tree trenches, for tree
pervious trenches,and
pavement, pervious
green
pavement,
roofs. andgardens,
For rain green roofs. For rain gardens,
the minimum distancethe minimum
was halved, distance
but onlywas halved,independent
7 spatially but only 7 spatially
points
independent
were possible points
due to were possible due
the clustering to the
of high clustering
priority of high
locations. priority
Thus, a totallocations. Thus,
of 37 points a total ofthe
comprised 37
points of
extent comprised theobservation
virtual site extent of virtual site observation and validation.
and validation.

4. Results
4. Results

4.1.
4.1. Prior
Prior Identification
Identification of
of High
High Priority
Priority Zones
Zones within
within the
the City
City of
of Philadelphia
Philadelphia
Based
Based on
on the
the selection
selection of
of the
the two
two highest
highest ordinally
ordinally ranked
ranked sets
sets of
of census
census tracts
tracts following
following the
the
analysis by Mandarano and Meenar [9], approximately 13.00 km 2 of the city was isolated for further
analysis by Mandarano and Meenar [9], approximately 13.00 km of the city was isolated for further
2
site
site selection
selection and
and prioritization.
prioritization. These
These areas
areas are
are shown
shown inin shaded
shaded grey
grey in
inFigure
Figure1.1.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. The distribution
distribution of
ofpotential
potentialGSI
GSIimplementation
implementationsites
sitesbybytype
typeofof
feature, across
feature, thethe
across City of
City
Philadelphia.
of Philadelphia.

4.2. Restriction of Potential Implementation Sites

Land 2018, 7, 145 8 of 17
Land 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Based on ofthe
4.2. Restriction constraints
Potential applied to
Implementation the implementation of GSI features, a suite of suitable
Sites
locations were identified. A set of 7850 locations of existing street trees were identified, representing
Basedfor
locations onwhich
the constraints
there wasapplied
adequateto the implementation
sidewalk of GSI interference
width without features, a suite of suitable locations
of underground utility
were identified. A set of 7850 locations of existing street trees were identified,
infrastructure. Individual street tree wells may be linked for tree trenches or that areas representing locations for
along the
which theremay
same block was be
adequate
selectedsidewalk width without
for tree trench interference
installation. Potentialofpervious
underground
pavementutility infrastructure.
implementation
Individual street tree wells may be linked for tree trenches or that areas along the same
sites included 527 parcels identified as suitable surface parking lots, totaling 0.554 square kilometers. block may
be
Areas of grass or bare earth suitable for the installation of rain gardens yielded 1270 included
selected for tree trench installation. Potential pervious pavement implementation sites potential
527 parcels identified as suitable surface parking lots, totaling 0.554 square
implementation sites, totaling 0.225 square kilometers. Building footprints with civic kilometers. Areas of grass
and
or bare earth suitable for the installation of rain gardens yielded 1270 potential implementation
institutional ownership included 833 potential implementation sites for green roofs, totaling 0.324 sites,
totaling 0.225 square
square kilometers. kilometers.
These areas are Building
the blackfootprints
features with civictype
for each andin institutional
Figure 1. ownership included
833 potential implementation sites for green roofs, totaling 0.324 square kilometers. These areas are
4.3. black
the Prioritization
featuresoffor
Features and in
each type Distances
Figure for
1. Site Selection

Priority weights
4.3. Prioritization basedand
of Features on Distances
expert opinion
for Siteare listed in Table 1. These weights were used in the
Selection
linear combination to rank the suitable GSI implementation sites, which are depicted in Figure 2.
Priority weights based on expert opinion are listed in Table 1. These weights were used in the
linear combination to rank of
Table 1. Weighting theproximity
suitable to
GSI implementation
socially sites,and
relevant features which
theirare depicted
functional in Figure 2.
distances.

Tree of proximity
Table 1. Weighting Perviousto socially relevant features and their functional
Distance Range,
distances.
Feature Rain Garden Green Roof
Trench Pavement Min-Max (m [feet])
Pervious Rain Green Distance Range, Min-Max
Sewer
FeatureInlet Tree
12.00%
Trench 41.70% 17.20% 23.50% 0–4.57 [0–15]
Pavement Garden Roof (m [feet])
Transit Stop 16.00% 8.30% 13.80% 5.90% 6.10–15.24 [20–50]
Sewer Inlet 12.00% 41.70% 17.20% 23.50% 0–4.57 [0–15]
School
Transit Stop
20.00%
16.00%
8.30%
8.30%
17.20%
13.80%
23.50%
5.90%
15.24–762 [50–2500]
6.10–15.24 [20–50]
N.A.C.
School 16.00%
20.00% 8.30%
8.30% 17.20%
17.20% 23.50%5.90% 0–457.2
15.24–762 [0–1500]
[50–2500]
N.A.C. 16.00% 8.30% 17.20% 5.90% 15.24–4828.0
0–457.2 [0–1500] [50–
University 20.00% 25.00% 17.20% 23.50%15.24–4828.015840,
University 20.00% 25.00% 17.20% 23.50% 3 miles]
[50–15840, 3 miles]
Rec. Center 16.00% 8.30% 17.20% 17.60% 15.24–304.8 [50–1000]
Rec. Center 16.00% 8.30% 17.20% 17.60% 15.24–304.8 [50–1000]

Figure 2. Ranked prioritization of potential GSI implementation sites by type of feature, across the City
Figure
of 2. Ranked prioritization of potential GSI implementation sites by type of feature, across the
Philadelphia.
City of Philadelphia.
 Land 2018, 7, 145 9 of 17
Land 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

Based
Based onon
thethe weighted
weighted linear
linear combination
combination of siteofprioritization
site prioritization characteristics,
characteristics, a suitability
a suitability score
was calculated for each potential location for GSI implementation. Site scores ranged from 0 (least
score was calculated for each potential location for GSI implementation. Site scores ranged from
suitable)
0 (least to 1 (mosttosuitable).
suitable) Results were
1 (most suitable). categorized
Results into three
were categorized tiers
into by quantile
three classification,
tiers by quantile with
classification,
full results in Figure 2. Scores for sites with the highest suitability ranged from 0.40–0.73 forfor
with full results in Figure 2. Scores for sites with the highest suitability ranged from 0.40–0.73 tree
tree
trenches, 0.65–0.83 for pervious pavement, 0.53–0.81 for green roofs, and 0.34–0.76 for rain gardens.
trenches, 0.65–0.83 for pervious pavement, 0.53–0.81 for green roofs, and 0.34–0.76 for rain gardens.

4.4. Virtual Site Observation and Validation

4.4. Virtual Site Observation and Validation
Of the 37 virtual site observations, 25 (67%) of locations had the available 360◦ imagery dated in
Of the 37 virtual site observations, 25 (67%) of locations had the available 360° imagery dated in
2017, with the remainder in 2016 (5 locations), 2014 (6 locations), and 2009 (1 location). All imagery
2017, with the remainder in 2016 (5 locations), 2014 (6 locations), and 2009 (1 location). All imagery
were accessed in August, 2018. Figure 3 depicts a potential GSI implementation site imagery and the
were accessed in August, 2018. Figure 3 depicts a potential GSI implementation site imagery and the
distribution of sites across the high-priority Census Tracts of the study area.
distribution of sites across the high-priority Census Tracts of the study area.

Figure 3. (a) sample location for potential siting of GSI feature in Google orthographic imagery;
Figure
(b) StreetView 360◦location
3. (a) sample imagery;for(c)potential
locationsiting
of all of GSI feature
validation in Google
points, within orthographic imagery; (b)
previously established high
StreetView 360° imagery; (c) location of all validation points, within previously established high
priority census tracts.
priority census tracts.
At each location, a survey of the types and conditions of properties and streetside infrastructure
wasAtconducted through
each location, a visual
a survey examination
of the types andofconditions
the orthographic and streetside
of properties 360◦ imagery,
and streetside tallied in
infrastructure
a standard
was conducted survey questionnaire
through (Appendix of
a visual examination B).the
Residential
orthographicproperties were visible
and streetside 360°atimagery,
62% of locations,
tallied
in a standard survey questionnaire (Appendix B). Residential properties were visible at properties
with 96% described as moderately- or very- well-kept, on a 4-point Likert scale. Commercial 62% of
were visible
locations, with at 46%
96% ofdescribed
locations, aswith 94% of thoseorat very-
moderately- least moderately
well-kept, well-kept. Industrial
on a 4-point properties
Likert scale.
were visible at only 11% of locations, with 100% at least moderately
Commercial properties were visible at 46% of locations, with 94% of those at least moderatelywell-kept. Other buildings were
present at 78% of locations, with 97% at least moderately well-kept.
well-kept. Industrial properties were visible at only 11% of locations, with 100% at least moderately
Regarding
well-kept. the streetside
Other buildings wereinfrastructure:
present at 78% yards (vegetation
of locations, or 97%
with otherataesthetic implementations)
least moderately well-kept. and
sidewalks
Regarding werethenoted at all sites,
streetside with 89% and
infrastructure: 81%,
yards respectively,
(vegetation or at leastaesthetic
other moderately well-kept, free of
implementations)
and sidewalks were noted at all sites, with 89% and 81%, respectively, at least moderately and
litter, and not in obvious disrepair. Recreation facilities were visible at 22% of locations parking
well-kept,
lotsofwere
free litter,visible
and notat 49% of locations;
in obvious all ofRecreation
disrepair. these features were at
facilities least
were moderately
visible at 22%well-kept.
of locations and
Of the sites virtually observed, only one (3%) had a slope that exceeded
parking lots were visible at 49% of locations; all of these features were at least moderately 2% but less than 5%; for all
well-kept.
other locations, slopes were 0–2%. Sites varied widely regarding the presence
Of the sites virtually observed, only one (3%) had a slope that exceeded 2% but less than 5%; of impervious surfaces,
for
all other locations, slopes were 0–2%. Sites varied widely regarding the presence of impervious
surfaces, which were estimated for the streetside structure, adjacent lots, and institutional lots, and
results are shown below in Table 2.
Land 2018, 7, 145 10 of 17

which were estimated for the streetside structure, adjacent lots, and institutional lots, and results are
shown below in Table 2.

Table 2. Percent impervious surface surrounding high-priority GSI implementation sites.

Percent Impervious
Zone 0–25% 25–50% 50–75% 75–100% Cannot Determine
Streetside structure 0.00% 21.62% 27.03% 51.35% 0.00%
Adjacent lots 5.41% 18.92% 27.03% 48.65% 0.00%
Institutional lots 5.41% 24.32% 8.11% 32.43% 29.73%

In addition to the type of GSI feature indicated by the suitability model, each site was also
evaluated for its suitability for all GSI feature types. The suitability for the indicated GSI feature type
at each location had high correspondence: 100% of the tree trench and pervious pavement sites, 90% of
the green roof sites, and 85.71% of the rain garden sites were deemed suitable for their respective
feature implementations. Overall, it was estimated that 95% of all sites visited for any potential GSI
type had sufficient space in the nearby area for a tree trench GSI feature. For the placement of pervious
pavement, 51% had sufficient space, and for the placement of a rain garden, 35% had sufficient space.
Green roof placement was assessed by the presence of a visible flat roof in an adjacent commercial or
institutional property, and 38% had sufficient space for this GSI feature.
Finally, addressing the question of whether the anticipated GSI use was found to be suitable for
the observed location. In the virtual observation site examination, the potential suitability for each
of the four GSI types was evaluated at every location, to account for potential local site substitution
based on community and design implementation factors. Full results are listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Alignment of anticipated use with observed suitability from virtual field observation.

Observed Suitability (Virtual Field Observation/Validation)

Type of GSI Tree Trench Pervious Pavement Green Roof Rain Garden
Tree trench 100.00% 90.00% 90.00% 100.00%
Pervious pavement 20.00% 100.00% 40.00% 42.86%
Green roof 10.00% 30.00% 90.00% 14.29%
Rain garden 30.00% 20.00% 20.00% 85.71%

5. Discussion
Though the social and economic benefits associated with GSI have been well documented [8,37],
efforts to maximize these benefits have been limited. Building on research identifying census tracts
in Philadelphia with indicators for disadvantage as well as a high community capacity for collective
action [9], this prioritization framework offers a means of maximizing the triple bottom line benefits of
GSI while considering the equity and long-term viability of these investments.
While the focus of municipal agencies may be, understandably, on the environmental impact of the
proposed GSI, these analyses may benefit from the consideration of a broader range of criteria. Potential
advantages include: maximizing the social and economic benefits of GSI; equitably distributing GSI;
distinguishing amongst similar candidate parcels (common in urban areas); and leveraging community
capacity to facilitate the ongoing maintenance of GSI. As municipalities struggle to meet federal
requirements for reducing CSOs, resources are often divided across “green” and “grey” infrastructure
projects [42]. When GSI projects are sited to maximize social and economic benefits, they may be
viewed in more economically favorable terms, which may, in turn, accelerate adoption of sustainable
municipal stormwater management practices.
This study represents a starting point for parties interested in the social and economic benefits
of GSI. Previous work demonstrated the practicality of prioritizing social equity and community
Land 2018, 7, 145 11 of 17

capacity while raising important questions for future research to answer [9]. The framework and
subsequent prioritization developed through this research have immediate relevance for those working
to install GSI throughout Philadelphia in addition to long-term implications for municipalities and
their agencies seeking to maximize the impact of GSI projects. Further research must also address
the benefits and perception thereof by residents and local officials, which can influence the perceived
success and future public support for GSI projects.
Within Philadelphia, validation and local site examination suggests that the process of restricting
potential sites based on the distance-based social features of the site was an effective means of
identifying sites for prioritization. Though it is difficult to even anticipate the effectiveness of the
subsequent priority ranking process, the variability of site rankings resulting from the analysis of
expert opinion suggests that this process effectively distinguished among comparable candidate sites.
Results of this study are significant to the fields of environmental planning and management,
restorative sustainability, and environmental justice, by enhancing methods to identify sites for GSI
implementation in highly urbanized areas and disadvantaged communities. First and foremost,
the findings demonstrate the utility of a site suitability model that employs social factors coupled
with virtual field observations to evaluate siting of GSI projects in Philadelphia. The site suitability
model developed is unique in its approach to identify GSI sites in highly urbanized areas using
physical constraints of the built environment coupled with social factors. A lack of variability or
reliable data limit the utility of environmental data for siting GSI in urban areas that may have limited
undisturbed natural landscapes. In response, this model used built environmental characteristics,
including locations of trees and vacant tree wells, parking lots, grassy areas, and building footprints for
the respective GSI features to be implemented. While proximity to existing stormwater infrastructure
is a conventional criterion used in siting GSI, this study also used expert opinion to identify and rank
other proximity criteria. While the expert opinions were calibrated by the conditions in Philadelphia,
the methodology of incorporating such social factors is transferrable.
The approach to validating the sites generated from the suitability model also facilitates the site
selection process. The use of virtual site observations of the suitability model results demonstrated
that the model generated locations that ranged from 85.71% to 100% suitable for the proposed GSI
project. In addition, it is important to note the sites suitable for tree trenches also were appropriate
locations for other types of GSI projects. The novel use of a virtual approach to field validation offers
the potential for substantial savings in in time and resources.
This study also contributes to strategies to bring nature-based solutions to environmental justice
communities through a two-tiered method to identified locations for GSI projects with the potential to
deliver triple bottom line benefits. Building on previous work that developed a strategy to prioritize
Census tracts for equitable distribution of GSI in Philadelphia [9], this study employed a suitability
model with proximity criteria and weights based on expert opinion. Together, these methods identified
block-level suitable locations with community capacity bolstered by transit stops, NACs, schools,
and recreation centers.
This study is not without limitations. While the principles upon which this site-specific
prioritization framework is built may be broadly transferrable, the physical and social characteristics
meriting consideration may vary significantly. With regards to physical characteristics, slope and
hydrologic soil grouping, variables excluded from analysis in the case of Philadelphia, could prove
critically important if this methodology was to be utilized elsewhere. Similarly, NACs are unique to
Philadelphia, and Universities may not provide a comparable institutional presence in another region
of analysis. Finally, as the form and availability of data influenced the design of this prioritization
framework, it would be expected to influence subsequent applications of the framework across
geographies in different ways, resulting in the consideration of new features of the social and built
environments. It is also important to note that while this framework includes expert opinion to
inform the site selection process at the local level, it does not include direct input from the impacted
community. Ultimately, community preference for and knowledge of the appropriate location and
Land 2018, 7, 145 12 of 17

type of GSIs should be incorporated to further guide implementation and this can be addressed in
a future study.
Longitudinal research, comparing the actual benefits of GSI elements with their prioritization
score would be required to measure the effectiveness of this particular prioritization framework;
however, the complexity of measuring these variables and the temporal scope required to conduct
such an analysis will likely prove prohibitive. Nevertheless, demonstrating the replicability of this
methodology, appropriately adjusted for a new geography, is warranted as a means of validating this
approach to the prioritization of GSI, incorporating features of both the social and built environment.
Such replication would further this model of accounting for the positive externalities of GSI and serve
as a means of furthering its propagation. Further research should incorporate the perceptions of GSI
features by the heterogeneous communities across the urban context and how these features may
promote or compete with community well-being, heritage, and future development.

6. Conclusions
This study demonstrated a framework for siting GSI features in the context of an urbanized area
with limited variability in the characteristics of the natural and built environments commonly used.
Through this analysis, locations for four different types of GSI features were identified within the
high-priority census tracts identified by previous work, which balanced environmental justice and
community capacity factors [9]. This study incorporated the opinions of experts to prioritize and
delimit distances of influence for GSI siting, which were validated and further contextualized using
virtual field observations, with potentially transferrable insights for other urbanized areas that seek to
control stormwater impacts on aging infrastructure.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.M., M.M., and Z.C.; methodology, M.M., K.H., and Z.C.; data
curation, K.H.; analysis, K.H. and Z.C.; validation, Z.C.; writing—original draft preparation, M.M., Z.C., K.H.,
and L.M.; writing—review and editing, Z.C., M.M., K.H., and L.M.; visualization, Z.C. and K.H.
Funding: This research has been supported by a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Science
to Achieve Results (STAR) program under Assistance Agreement No._835557. It has not been formally reviewed
by EPA. The views expressed in this document are solely those of authors and do not necessarily reflect those of
the Agency. EPA does not endorse any products or commercial services mentioned in this publication.
Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge Rowan University students Cassie Shugart, Robert Kearney,
and Donald Morrison for their support in the beginning stage of this project. We thank Philadelphia area GSI
experts for their valuable feedback on the suitability model criteria selection process.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A. Questions asked of Experts regarding Influence and Relative Importance of Factors
Facilitating the Prioritization of Green Stormwater Infrastructure
The following questions were asked in identical form for each of the four types of GSI features
(tree trenches, rain gardens, pervious pavement, and rain gardens):
1. Regarding the distance to the nearest stormwater inlet, what is the minimum optimal distance
(in feet), and is there a range of minimum values that would all be optimal (e.g., a stormwater
inlet closer than 20 feet is ideal and equivalent in terms of cost & efficacy)? (text input)
2. Now, regarding the distance to the nearest stormwater inlet, what is the maximum optimal
distance (in feet) beyond which this factor no longer influences the choice or decision framework
for this GSI element (e.g., a stormwater inlet more than 100 feet away is irrelevant)? (text input)
3. Regarding the distance to the nearest transit stop, what is the minimum optimal distance (in feet),
and is there a range of minimum values that would all be optimal (e.g., a transit stop Proximity
of nearest recreation center
4. Now, regarding the distance to the nearest transit stop, what is the maximum optimal distance
(in feet) beyond which this factor no longer influences the choice or decision framework for this
GSI element (e.g., a transit stop more than 1,000 feet away is irrelevant)?
Land 2018, 7, 145 13 of 17

5. Regarding the distance to the nearest Neighborhood Advisory Committee, what is the minimum
optimal distance (in feet), and is there a range of minimum values that would all be optimal?
6. Now, regarding the distance to the nearest Neighborhood Advisory Committee, what is the
maximum optimal distance (in feet) beyond which this factor no longer influences the choice or
decision framework for this GSI element?
7. Regarding the distance to the nearest school, what is the minimum optimal distance (in feet),
and is there a range of minimum values that would all be optimal?
8. Now, regarding the distance to the nearest school, what is the maximum optimal distance
(in feet) beyond which this factor no longer influences the choice or decision framework for this
GSI element?
9. Regarding the distance to the nearest university, what is the minimum optimal distance (in feet),
and is there a range of minimum values that would all be optimal?
10. Now, regarding the distance to the nearest university, what is the maximum optimal distance
(in feet) beyond which this factor no longer influences the choice or decision framework for this
GSI element?
11. Regarding the distance to the nearest recreation center, what is the minimum optimal distance
(in feet), and is there a range of minimum values that would all be optimal?
12. Now, regarding the distance to the nearest recreation center, what is the maximum optimal
distance (in feet) beyond which this factor no longer influences the choice or decision framework
for this GSI element?
13. In siting a tree trench, how would you rank the relative importance of these factors? (choice matrix

a. Factors

i. Proximity of nearest stormwater inlet

ii. Proximity of nearest transit stop
iii. Proximity of nearest Neighborhood Advisory Committee
iv. Proximity of nearest school
v. Proximity of nearest university
vi. Proximity of nearest recreation center
b. Influence

i. Not at all important

ii. Some importance
iii. Somewhat important
iv. Very important
v. Most important

Appendix B. Green Stormwater Infrastructure site validation and micro-characteristics survey

1. Number of feature (from stratified random sample scheme) (text input)
2. Latitude/Longitude of observed point (text input)
3. Street address of observed point (text input)
4. Date of Google Street View imagery (Month/year)
5. Type of Site under consideration at this location (choice matrix)

a. Tree trench
b. Pervious pavement
c. Rain garden
d. Green roof
Land 2018, 7, 145 14 of 17

6. Slope limitations

a. 0–2%
b. 2–5%
c. 5–10%
d. 10+%
7. Current impervious surface (choice matrix)

a. Types

i. Street-side structure
ii. Adjacent lots
iii. Institutional lots
b. Ranges

i. 0–25%
ii. 25–50%
iii. 50–75%
iv. 75–100%
v. cannot determine
8. Assets of site (checkbox)

a. Site has good visibility from street

b. Institution is visible at this location
9. Asset comments (text input)
10. Liabilities of site (checkbox)

a. Visible trash
b. Visible disrepair of adjacent properties
11. Liability comments (text input)
12. Block characteristics (choice matrix))

a. Types

i. Residential properties
ii. Commercial properties
iii. Industrial properties
iv. Other buildings
v. Yards and surrounding areas
vi. Sidewalks
vii. Recreational facilities
viii. Parking lots
ix. Vacant lots or unused marked space
b. Conditions

i. Not present
ii. Poor/badly deteriorated (extensive damage, neglect)
iii. Fair condition (e.g., peeing paint; needs repair)
iv. Moderately well-kept
v. Very well-kept (no visible problems)
Land 2018, 7, 145 15 of 17

vi. Cannot determine from view

13. Is there sufficient space at this site for (choice matrix)

a. Types

i. Tree trench
ii. Pervious pavement
iii. Green roof
iv. Rain garden
b. Responses

i. Yes
ii. No
iii. Unclear from observation
14. Comments (text input)

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