Fibonacci number

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to search

A tiling with squares whose side lengths are successive Fibonacci numbers

In mathematics, the Fibonacci numbers, commonly denoted Fn form a sequence, called the Fibonacci sequence, such that each number is the sum of the two
preceding ones, starting from 0 and 1. That is,[1]

and

for n > 1.

One has F2 = 1. In some books, and particularly in old ones, F0, the "0" is omitted, and the Fibonacci
sequence starts with F1 = F2 = 1.[2][3] The beginning of the sequence is thus:

[4]

The Fibonacci spiral: an approximation of the golden spiralcreated by drawing circular

arcsconnecting the opposite corners of squares in the Fibonacci tiling;[5] this one uses squares of

sizes 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 and 21.

Fibonacci numbers are strongly related to the golden ratio: Binet's formula expresses the nth
Fibonacci number in terms of n and the golden ratio, and implies that the ratio of two consecutive
Fibonacci numbers tends to the golden ratio as n increases.

Fibonacci numbers are named after Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa, later known
as Fibonacci. They appear to have first arisen as early as 200 BC in work by Pingala on
enumerating possible patterns of poetry formed from syllables of two lengths. In his 1202
book Liber Abaci, Fibonacci introduced the sequence to Western European
mathematics,[6] although the sequence had been described earlier in Indian mathematics.[7][8][9]

Fibonacci numbers appear unexpectedly often in mathematics, so much so that there is an

entire journal dedicated to their study, the Fibonacci Quarterly. Applications of Fibonacci
numbers include computer algorithms such as the Fibonacci search technique and the Fibonacci
heap data structure, and graphs called Fibonacci cubes used for interconnecting parallel and
 distributed systems. They also appear in biological settings, such as branching in trees, the
arrangement of leaves on a stem, the fruit sprouts of a pineapple, the flowering of an artichoke,
an uncurling fern and the arrangement of a pine cone's bracts.

Fibonacci numbers are also closely related to Lucas numbers in that they form a

complementary pair of Lucas sequences and . Lucas numbers are also

intimately connected with the golden ratio.

Contents

 1History

 2Applications
o 2.1Music
o 2.2Nature

 3Mathematics
o 3.1Sequence properties
o 3.2Relation to the golden ratio
 3.2.1Closed-form expression
 3.2.2Computation by rounding
 3.2.3Limit of consecutive quotients
 3.2.4Decomposition of powers
o 3.3Matrix form
o 3.4Identification
o 3.5Combinatorial identities
 3.5.1Symbolic method
o 3.6Other identities
 3.6.1Cassini's and Catalan's identities
 3.6.2d'Ocagne's identity
o 3.7Power series
o 3.8Reciprocal sums
o 3.9Primes and divisibility
 3.9.1Divisibility properties
 3.9.2Primality testing
 3.9.3Fibonacci primes
 3.9.4Prime divisors
 3.9.5Periodicity modulo n
o 3.10Right triangles
o 3.11Magnitude
o 3.12Generalizations

 4See also

 5References
o 5.1Works cited

 6External links

History[edit]
See also: Golden ratio § History
 Thirteen ways of arranging long and short syllables in a cadence of length six. Five end with a long

syllable and eight end with a short syllable.

The Fibonacci sequence appears in Indian mathematics in connection with Sanskrit prosody, as
pointed out by Parmanand Singh in 1985.[8][10][11] In the Sanskrit poetic tradition, there was interest
in enumerating all patterns of long (L) syllables of 2 units duration, juxtaposed with short (S)
syllables of 1 unit duration. Counting the different patterns of successive L and S with a given
total duration results in the Fibonacci numbers: the number of patterns of duration m units
is Fm + 1.[9]

Knowledge of the Fibonacci sequence was expressed as early as Pingala (c. 450 BC–200 BC).
Singh cites Pingala's cryptic formula misrau cha ("the two are mixed") and scholars who interpret
it in context as saying that the number of patterns for m beats (Fm+1) is obtained by adding one [S]
to the Fm cases and one [L] to the Fm−1cases. [12] Bharata Muni also expresses knowledge of the
sequence in the Natya Shastra (c. 100 BC–c. 350 AD).[13][7] However, the clearest exposition of
the sequence arises in the work of Virahanka (c. 700 AD), whose own work is lost, but is
available in a quotation by Gopala (c. 1135):[11]

Variations of two earlier meters [is the variation]... For example, for [a meter of length] four,
variations of meters of two [and] three being mixed, five happens. [works out examples 8, 13,
21]... In this way, the process should be followed in all mātrā-vṛttas [prosodic combinations].[a]

Hemachandra (c. 1150) is credited with knowledge of the sequence as well,[7] writing that "the
sum of the last and the one before the last is the number ... of the next mātrā-vṛtta."[15][16]
 A page of Fibonacci's Liber Abacifrom the Biblioteca Nazionale di Firenze showing (in box on

right) the Fibonacci sequence with the position in the sequence labeled in Latin and Roman

numerals and the value in Hindu-Arabic numerals.

The number of rabbit pairs form the Fibonacci sequence

Outside India, the Fibonacci sequence first appears in the book Liber Abaci (1202)
by Fibonacci.[6][17] using it to calculate the growth of rabbit populations.[18][19]Fibonacci considers the
growth of a hypothetical, idealized (biologically unrealistic) rabbit population, assuming that: a
newly born pair of rabbits, one male, one female, are put in a field; rabbits are able to mate at
the age of one month so that at the end of its second month a female can produce another pair
of rabbits; rabbits never die and a mating pair always produces one new pair (one male, one
female) every month from the second month on. Fibonacci posed the puzzle: how many pairs
will there be in one year?

 At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still only 1 pair.
 At the end of the second month the female produces a new pair, so now there are 2 pairs
of rabbits in the field.
 At the end of the third month, the original female produces a second pair, making 3 pairs
in all in the field.
 At the end of the fourth month, the original female has produced yet another new pair, and
the female born two months ago also produces her first pair, making 5 pairs.

At the end of the nth month, the number of pairs of rabbits is equal to the number of new pairs
(that is, the number of pairs in month n − 2) plus the number of pairs alive last month (that
is, n − 1). This is the nth Fibonacci number.[20]

The name "Fibonacci sequence" was first used by the 19th-century number theorist Édouard
Lucas.[21]

Applications[edit]

 The Fibonacci numbers are important in the computational run-time analysis of Euclid's
algorithm to determine the greatest common divisor of two integers: the worst case input
for this algorithm is a pair of consecutive Fibonacci numbers.[22]
 Brasch et al. 2012 show how a generalised Fibonacci sequence also can be connected to
the field of economics.[23] In particular, it is shown how a generalised Fibonacci sequence
enters the control function of finite-horizon dynamic optimisation problems with one state
and one control variable. The procedure is illustrated in an example often referred to as
the Brock–Mirman economic growth model.
 Yuri Matiyasevich was able to show that the Fibonacci numbers can be defined by
a Diophantine equation, which led to his solving Hilbert's tenth problem.[24]
 The Fibonacci numbers are also an example of a complete sequence. This means that
every positive integer can be written as a sum of Fibonacci numbers, where any one
number is used once at most.
 Moreover, every positive integer can be written in a unique way as the sum of one or
more distinct Fibonacci numbers in such a way that the sum does not include any two
consecutive Fibonacci numbers. This is known as Zeckendorf's theorem, and a sum of
Fibonacci numbers that satisfies these conditions is called a Zeckendorf representation.
The Zeckendorf representation of a number can be used to derive its Fibonacci coding.
 Fibonacci numbers are used by some pseudorandom number generators.
 They are also used in planning poker, which is a step in estimating in software
development projects that use the Scrum methodology.
 Fibonacci numbers are used in a polyphase version of the merge sort algorithm in which
an unsorted list is divided into two lists whose lengths correspond to sequential Fibonacci
numbers – by dividing the list so that the two parts have lengths in the approximate
 proportion φ. A tape-drive implementation of the polyphase merge sort was described
in The Art of Computer Programming.
 Fibonacci numbers arise in the analysis of the Fibonacci heap data structure.
 The Fibonacci cube is an undirected graph with a Fibonacci number of nodes that has
been proposed as a network topology for parallel computing.
 A one-dimensional optimization method, called the Fibonacci search technique, uses
Fibonacci numbers.[25]
 The Fibonacci number series is used for optional lossy compression in
the IFF 8SVX audio file format used on Amiga computers. The number
series compands the original audio wave similar to logarithmic methods such as µ-law.[26][27]
 Since the conversion factor 1.609344 for miles to kilometers is close to the golden ratio,
the decomposition of distance in miles into a sum of Fibonacci numbers becomes nearly
the kilometer sum when the Fibonacci numbers are replaced by their successors. This
method amounts to a radix 2 number register in golden ratio base φ being shifted. To
convert from kilometers to miles, shift the register down the Fibonacci sequence instead.[28]
 In optics, when a beam of light shines at an angle through two stacked transparent plates
of different materials of different refractive indexes, it may reflect off three surfaces: the
top, middle, and bottom surfaces of the two plates. The number of different beam paths

that have k reflections, for k > 1, is the th Fibonacci number. (However, when k =
1, there are three reflection paths, not two, one for each of the three surfaces.)[29]
 Mario Merz included the Fibonacci sequence in some of his works beginning in 1970.[30]

Music[edit]
See also: Golden ratio § Music

Joseph Schillinger (1895–1943) developed a system of composition which uses Fibonacci

intervals in some of its melodies; he viewed these as the musical counterpart to the elaborate
harmony evident within nature.[31]

Nature[edit]
Further information: Patterns in nature

See also: Golden ratio § Nature

Yellow chamomile head showing the arrangement in 21 (blue) and 13 (aqua) spirals. Such

arrangements involving consecutive Fibonacci numbers appear in a wide variety of plants.

Fibonacci sequences appear in biological settings,[32] such as branching in trees, arrangement of

leaves on a stem, the fruitlets of a pineapple,[33] the flowering of artichoke, an uncurling fern and
the arrangement of a pine cone,[34] and the family tree of honeybees.[35][36] Kepler pointed out the
presence of the Fibonacci sequence in nature, using it to explain the (golden ratio-related)
pentagonal form of some flowers.[37] Field daisies most often have petals in counts of Fibonacci
numbers.[38] In 1754, Charles Bonnet discovered that the spiral phyllotaxis of plants were
frequently expressed in Fibonacci number series.[39]

Przemysław Prusinkiewicz advanced the idea that real instances can in part be understood as
the expression of certain algebraic constraints on free groups, specifically as
certain Lindenmayer grammars.[40]
 Illustration of Vogel's model for n = 1 ... 500

A model for the pattern of florets in the head of a sunflower was proposed by Helmut
Vogel [de] in 1979.[41] This has the form

where n is the index number of the floret and c is a constant scaling factor; the florets thus
lie on Fermat's spiral. The divergence angle, approximately 137.51°, is the golden angle,
dividing the circle in the golden ratio. Because this ratio is irrational, no floret has a
neighbor at exactly the same angle from the center, so the florets pack efficiently.
Because the rational approximations to the golden ratio are of the form F(j):F(j + 1), the
nearest neighbors of floret number n are those at n ± F(j) for some index j, which depends
on r, the distance from the center. Sunflowers and similar flowers most commonly have
spirals of florets in clockwise and counter-clockwise directions in the amount of adjacent
Fibonacci numbers,[42] typically counted by the outermost range of radii.[43]

Fibonacci numbers also appear in the pedigrees of idealized honeybees, according to the
following rules:

 If an egg is laid by an unmated female, it hatches a male or drone bee.

 If, however, an egg was fertilized by a male, it hatches a female.

Thus, a male bee always has one parent, and a female bee has two. If one traces the
pedigree of any male bee (1 bee), he has 1 parent (1 bee), 2 grandparents, 3 great-
grandparents, 5 great-great-grandparents, and so on. This sequence of numbers of
parents is the Fibonacci sequence. The number of ancestors at each level, Fn, is the
number of female ancestors, which is Fn−1, plus the number of male ancestors, which
is Fn−2.[44] This is under the unrealistic assumption that the ancestors at each level are
otherwise unrelated.
 The number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given

ancestral generation follows the Fibonacci sequence. (After Hutchison, L. "Growing the

Family Tree: The Power of DNA in Reconstructing Family Relationships". [45])

Luke Hutchison noticed that the number of possible ancestors on the human X
chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation also follows the Fibonacci
sequence.[45] A male individual has an X chromosome, which he received from his mother,
and a Y chromosome, which he received from his father. The male counts as the "origin"

of his own X chromosome ( ), and at his parents' generation, his X chromosome

came from a single parent ( ). The male's mother received one X chromosome
from her mother (the son's maternal grandmother), and one from her father (the son's
maternal grandfather), so two grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X

chromosome ( ). The maternal grandfather received his X chromosome from his

mother, and the maternal grandmother received X chromosomes from both of her
parents, so three great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X

chromosome ( ). Five great-great-grandparents contributed to the male

descendant's X chromosome ( ), etc. (Note that this assumes that all ancestors of
a given descendant are independent, but if any genealogy is traced far enough back in
time, ancestors begin to appear on multiple lines of the genealogy, until eventually
a population founder appears on all lines of the genealogy.)

The pathways of tubulins on intracellular microtubules arrange in patterns of 3, 5, 8 and

13.[46]

Mathematics[edit]

The Fibonacci numbers are the sums of the "shallow" diagonals (shown in red) of Pascal's

triangle.

The Fibonacci numbers occur in the sums of "shallow" diagonals in Pascal's

triangle (see binomial coefficient):[47]

These numbers also give the solution to certain enumerative problems.[48] The most
common is that of counting the number of compositions of 1s and 2s which sum to
a given total n: there are Fn+1 ways to do this.

For example, if n = 5, then Fn+1 = F6 = 8 counts the eight compositions summing to

5:

1+1+1+1+1 = 1+1+1+2 = 1+1+2+1 = 1+2+1+1 = 2+1+1+1 = 2+2+1 = 2+1+2 =

1+2+2.

The Fibonacci numbers can be found in different ways among the set
of binary strings, or equivalently, among the subsets of a given set.
  The number of binary strings of length n without consecutive 1s is the
Fibonacci number Fn+2. For example, out of the 16 binary strings of length 4,
there are F6 = 8 without consecutive 1s – they are 0000, 0001, 0010, 0100,
0101, 1000, 1001 and 1010. By symmetry, the number of strings of
length n without consecutive 0s is also Fn+2. Equivalently, Fn+2 is the number
of subsets S ⊂ {1,...,n} without consecutive integers: {i, i+1} ⊄ S for every i.
The symmetric statement is: Fn+2 is the number of subsets S ⊂ {1,...,n}
without two consecutive skipped integers: that is, S = {a1 < ... < ak} with ai+1 ≤
ai + 2.
 The number of binary strings of length n without an odd number of
consecutive 1s is the Fibonacci number Fn+1. For example, out of the 16
binary strings of length 4, there are F5 = 5 without an odd number of
consecutive 1s – they are 0000, 0011, 0110, 1100, 1111. Equivalently, the
number of subsets S ⊂ {1,...,n} without an odd number of consecutive
integers is Fn+1.
 The number of binary strings of length n without an even number of
consecutive 0s or 1s is 2Fn. For example, out of the 16 binary strings of
length 4, there are 2F4 = 6 without an even number of consecutive 0s or 1s –
they are 0001, 0111, 0101, 1000, 1010, 1110. There is an equivalent
statement about subsets.

Sequence properties[edit]
The first 21 Fibonacci numbers Fn for n = 0, 1, 2, ..., 20 are:[49]

F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16 F17 F18 F19 F20

0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 2584 4181 6765

The sequence can also be extended to negative index n using the re-
arranged recurrence relation

which yields the sequence of "negafibonacci" numbers[50] satisfying

Thus the bidirectional sequence is

F−8 F−7 F−6 F−5 F−4 F−3 F−2 F−1 F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8

−21 13 −8 5 −3 2 −1 1 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21

Relation to the golden ratio[edit]

Main article: Golden ratio

Closed-form expression [edit]

Like every sequence defined by a linear recurrence with
constant coefficients, the Fibonacci numbers have
a closed-form solution. It has become known as "Binet's
formula", though it was already known by Abraham de
Moivre and Daniel Bernoulli:[51]

where

is the golden ratio (OEIS: A001622), and

[52]

Since , this formula can also

be written as

To see this,[53] note that φ and ψ are

both solutions of the equations

so the powers
of φ and ψ satisfy the
Fibonacci recursion. In other
words,

and

It follows that for

any
values a and b,
the sequence
defined by

satisfies
the same
recurrenc
e

If a
an
db
ar
e
ch
os
en
so
tha
tU
0 =

0
an
d
U1
=1
the
n
the
res
ulti
ng
se
qu
en
ce
Un
mu
st
be
the
Fib
on
ac
ci
se
qu
en
ce.
Thi
s
is
the
sa
me
as
req
uiri
ng
aa
nd
bs
ati
sfy
the
sy
ste
m
of
eq
uat
ion
s:

w
h
i
c
h

h
a
s

s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

p
r
o
d
u
c
i
n
g

t
h
e

r
e
q
u
i
r
e
d

f
o
r
m
u
l
a
.

T
a
k
i
n
g

t
h
e

s
t
a
r
t
i
n
g

v
a
l
u
e
s

U
0

a
n
d

U
1

t
o

b
e

a
r
b
i
t
r
a
r
y

c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t
s
,

m
o
r
e

g
e
n
e
r
a
l

s
o
l
u
 t
i
o
n

i
s
:

w
h
e
r
e

.
,
gcd(Fn, Fn+1) = gcd(Fn, Fn+2) = gcd(Fn+1, Fn+2) = 1.
2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, ... OEIS: A005478.

[77][78]
lement in a finite field. However, for any particular n, the Pisano period may be found as an instance of cycle detection.

shorter leg of the preceding triangle.

ver the Fibonacci sequence, as we have observed in Section 1.2.8 (from v.1)
4]" p. 100 (3d ed)...

d that Pāṇini lived between 480 and 410 BC

 show

 v

 t

 e

Classes of natural numbers

show

 v

 t

 e

Metallic means

show

 v

 t

 e

Sequences and series

show

 v

 t

 e

Fibonacci


Authority NDL: 00923391
control
 

Number Patterns

Golden Ratio
 Select Language ▼
We may use Cookies
OK

Hide Ads
About Ads

 Home

 Algebra
 Data
 Geometry
 Measure
 Numbers
 Dictionary
 Games
 Puzzles

 Worksheets

Link To UsFacebookTwitterPinterestLinkedIneMail a Friend

Fibonacci Sequence
The Fibonacci Sequence is the series of numbers:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, ...

The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it.

 The 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1)

 The 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+2),
 And the 5 is (2+3),
 and so on!
 Example: the next number in the sequence above is 21+34
= 55

It is that simple!

Here is a longer list:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597, 2584,
4181, 6765, 10946, 17711, 28657, 46368, 75025, 121393, 196418, 317811, ...

Can you figure out the next few numbers?

Makes A Spiral
When we make squares with those widths, we get a nice spiral:

Do you see how the squares fit neatly together?

For example 5 and 8 make 13, 8 and 13 make 21, and so on.

This spiral is found in nature!

See: Nature, The Golden Ratio, and Fibonacci
 The Rule
The Fibonacci Sequence can be written as a "Rule" (see Sequences and Series).

First, the terms are numbered from 0 onwards like this:

n= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ...
xn = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 ...

So term number 6 is called x6 (which equals 8).

Example: the 8th term is

the 7th term plus the 6th term:

x8 = x7 + x6

So we can write the rule:

The Rule is xn = xn-1 + xn-2

where:

 xn is term number "n"

 xn-1 is the previous term (n-1)
 xn-2 is the term before that (n-2)
Example: term 9 is calculated like this:
x9= x9-1 + x9-2
= x8 + x 7
= 21 + 13
= 34

Golden Ratio
And here is a surprise. When we take any two successive (one after the
other) Fibonacci Numbers, their ratio is very close to the Golden Ratio"φ" which
is approximately 1.618034...

In fact, the bigger the pair of Fibonacci Numbers, the closer the approximation.
Let us try a few:

A B B/A
2 3 1.5
3 5 1.666666666...
5 8 1.6
8 13 1.625
... ... ...
144 233 1.618055556...
233 377 1.618025751...
... ... ...

Note: this also works when we pick two random whole numbers to begin the
sequence, such as 192 and 16 (we get the sequence 192, 16, 208, 224, 432,
656, 1088, 1744, 2832, 4576, 7408, 11984, 19392, 31376, ...):

A B B/A
192 16 0.08333333...
16 208 13
208 224 1.07692308...
224 432 1.92857143...
... ... ...
7408 11984 1.61771058...
11984 19392 1.61815754...
... ... ...

It takes longer to get good values, but it shows that not just the Fibonacci
Sequence can do this!

Using The Golden Ratio to Calculate

Fibonacci Numbers
 And even more surprising is that we can calculate any Fibonacci
Number using the Golden Ratio:

The answer always comes out as a whole number, exactly equal to the
addition of the previous two terms.

Example:

When I used a calculator on this (only entering the Golden Ratio to 6 decimal
places) I got the answer 8.00000033. A more accurate calculation would be
closer to 8.

Try it for yourself!

Some Interesting Things

Here is the Fibonacci sequence again:

n= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ...
xn = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 ...

There is an interesting pattern:

 Look at the number x3 = 2. Every 3rd number is a multiple of 2 (2, 8, 34, 144,
610, ...)
 Look at the number x4 = 3. Every 4th number is a multiple of 3 (3, 21, 144,
...)
 Look at the number x5 = 5. Every 5th number is a multiple of 5 (5, 55, 610,
...)

And so on (every nth number is a multiple of xn).

1/89 = 0.011235955056179775...

Notice the first few digits (0,1,1,2,3,5) are the Fibonacci sequence?

In a way they all are, except multiple digit numbers (13, 21, etc) overlap, like
this:

0.0
0.01
0.001
0.0002
0.00003
0.000005
0.0000008
0.00000013
0.000000021
... etc ...
0.011235955056179775... = 1/89

Terms Below Zero

The sequence works below zero also, like this:

n= ... -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ...
xn = ... -8 5 -3 2 -1 1 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 ...

(Prove to yourself that each number is found by adding up the two numbers
before it!)

In fact the sequence below zero has the same numbers as the sequence above
zero, except they follow a +-+- ... pattern. It can be written like this:

x−n = (−1)n+1 xn
Which says that term "-n" is equal to (−1)n+1 times term "n", and the
value (−1)n+1 neatly makes the correct 1,-1,1,-1,... pattern.

History
Fibonacci was not the first to know about the sequence, it was known in India
hundreds of years before!

About Fibonacci The Man

His real name was Leonardo Pisano Bogollo, and he lived between 1170 and
1250 in Italy.

"Fibonacci" was his nickname, which roughly means "Son of Bonacci".

As well as being famous for the Fibonacci Sequence, he helped spread Hindu-
Arabic Numerals (like our present numbers 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) through Europe
in place of Roman Numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, etc). That has saved us all a lot of
trouble! Thank you Leonardo.
Fibonacci Day
Fibonacci Day is November 23rd, as it has the digits "1, 1, 2, 3" which is part of
the sequence. So next Nov 23 let everyone know!

Question 1 Question 2 Question 3 Question 4 Question 5Question 6 Qu

estion 7 Question 8 Question 9 Question 10
Golden RatioNature, Golden Ratio and Fibonacci NumbersNumber Patterns

Search :: Index :: About :: Contact :: Cite This Page :: Privacy

Copyright © 2016 MathsIsFun.com