AP-1_Unit-IV: Rotating Machinery-Axial Flow Compressors, Axial Flow Turbines

4.1.1: Axial Flow Compressors:

Operating Principle- Axial compressors are used in the majority of the large gas turbine
engines.

 Axial Flow Compressors usually consist of a series of stages

 Each stage comprises of a row of rotor blades followed by a row of stator blades
 The working fluid is initially accelerated by the rotor blades and then decelerated in
the stator blade passages
 In the stator, the kinetic energy is transferred in the rotor is converted to static
pressure
 This process is repeated in several stages to yield the necessary overall pressure ratio
 The compression process consists of a series of diffusions
 The diffusion (conversion of KE into pressure) occurs both in the rotor as well as the
stator
 Due to the motion of the rotor blades, flow will have two velocity components;
absolute and relative velocities.
 The absolute velocity of the fluid is increased in the rotor, whereas the relative
velocity is decreased in, leading to diffusion
 Per stage pressure ratio is limited because a compressor operates in an adverse
pressure gradient environment
 Turbines, on the other hand, operate under favourable pressure gradients
 Several stages of axial flow compressor can be driven by a single turbine stage
 Careful design of compressor blading is essential to minimize the losses as well as to
ensure stable operation
 Some compressors have inlet guide vanes (IGV) that permit the flow entering the
first stage uniform under off-design conditions

The enthalpy addition occurs in the rotating rotors in which, usually, both the kinetic
energy and static pressure are increased. The stator rows remove some of the swirl
velocity, thereby decreasing the kinetic energy and consequently increasing the static
pressure.

The passage cross-sectional area between the stator and rotor blades is made diverging so
as to cause moderate diffusion of the gas flowing in between the blades.

The limit on diffusion in each stage means that a single compressor stage can provide only
a relatively small pressure ratio, hence the need for multi-staging.

Two repeating stages of an Axial Flow Compressor:

It is desirable to keep the axial velocity of the fluid constant throughout the compressor.
As the flow progresses through the compressor stages the density keeps increasing and
therefore the annulus flow area is reduced while designing the compressor. The blade size
of the successive stages keeps decreasing from the low pressure stages to high pressure
stages.
4.1.2: Description of Flow Field-construction:

Flow Analysis: The flow of working fluid through the compressor is inherently three-
dimensional. This complex flow is analysed by dividing the flow in to three two dimensional
fields. The complete flow field is the sum of these less complex two dimensional flow fields.

The two dimensional flow fields are called the through-flow field, the cascade field (or the
blade to blade field), and the secondary flow field.

The Through-flow Field: The through-flow field is concerned with the variation in the fluid
properties in only the radial r and axial z direction. As a result of through-flow analysis, we
obtain the axial, tangential and radial velocities as a function of z and r.
When axial velocity changes between successive stages as the flow proceeds, conservation
of mass requires that a downward flow of fluid occur between stations 1 and 2.

Coordinate System and Through-field flow field representation:

As a result of the flow field, axial velocity along the height of the blade will follow a profile
as shown below:

This change in the axial velocity along the height of the blade, causes the flow to turn
downwards along the axial direction, as shown below:
Cascade Flow Fields: The cascade field considers the flow behavior along stream surfaces
and tangentially through blade rows. (in the direction of z and θ ). The most common
method of obtaining performance data for different blade profiles is to run cascade tests.

A cascade is a stationary array of blades. A flow through cascade is a row of blades

representing the blade ring of the compressor. These blades can be arranged in straight
line or annular, thus representing an actual blade row, these arrangements are known as
“rectilinear cascade” and “annular cascade” respectively. The “annular cascade” is more
towards a real-life situation.

Cascade has porous end walls to remove boundary layer for a two dimensional flow. The
three dimensional flow is reduced to two dimensional plane flow in which variations occur
only in pitch-wise and stream-wise directions only. Radial variations (along blade height) in
the velocity field are therefore excluded.

Measurement usually consists of pressures, velocities and flow angles downstream of the
𝑋
cascade. 𝐶𝑝 distribution is measured and plotted against , the chord-wise distribution.
𝐶
Secondary Flow Fields: The secondary flow field exists because the fluid near the solid
surfaces (in the boundary layer), ie the blade surfaces and passage walls has a lower
velocity than that in the free stream (external to the boundary layer). The pressure
gradients imposed by the free stream will cause the fluid in the boundary layer to flow
from regions of higher pressure to regions of low pressure.

Secondary Flows:
4.1.3: Flow Analysis-Euler’s turbo-machinery equations:

(Mattingly P 537)

In turbo-machinery, power is added to (as in compressors & pumps) or removed (as in

turbines) from the fluid by the rotating components. These rotating components exert
forces on the fluid which change both the energy and the tangential momentum of the
fluid.

Euler’s Pump Equation: Consider an adiabatic flow of fluid in to a compressor or pump, as

shown below:

The fluid in a stream tube enters the control volume at radius 𝑟𝑖 with tangential velocity 𝑣𝑖
and exits at radius 𝑟𝑒 with tangential velocity 𝑣𝑒 . For a compressor or pump with steady
flow, the applied torque 𝜏𝐴 is equal to the change in the angular momentum of the fluid,
which is
𝑚̇
𝜏𝐴 = [𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒 -- 𝑟𝑖 𝑣𝑖 ]
𝑔𝑐
 ̇
𝑚ω
The input power is 𝑊̇𝑐 = ω 𝜏𝐴 = [𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒 -- 𝑟𝑖 𝑣𝑖 ]
𝑔𝑐

This equation is known as Euler’s pump equation.

Application of the first law of thermodynamics to the flow through the control volume gives

𝑊̇𝑐 = 𝑚̇(ℎ𝑡𝑒 --ℎ𝑡𝑖 )

Combining above two equations, we get,

ω
(ℎ𝑡𝑒 --ℎ𝑡𝑖 ) = [𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒 -- 𝑟𝑖 𝑣𝑖 ]
𝑔𝑐

Similarly, for a steady flow turbine, the output torque 𝜏𝑜 is equal to the change in angular
momentum of the fluid, or
𝑚̇
𝜏𝑜 = [𝑟𝑖 𝑣𝑖 -- 𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒 ]
𝑔𝑐

The output power 𝑊̇𝑡 = ω 𝜏𝑜 , or

̇
𝑚ω
𝑊̇𝑡 = [𝑟𝑖 𝑣𝑖 -- 𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒 ]
𝑔𝑐

This equation is often referred to as Euler’s turbine equation. Application of first law of
thermodynamics to the flow through the control volume in a turbine gives,

𝑊̇𝑡 = 𝑚̇[ℎ𝑡𝑖 --ℎ𝑡𝑒 ]

Combining above two equations give,

𝜔
ℎ𝑡𝑖 --ℎ𝑡𝑒 = [𝑟𝑖 𝑣𝑖 -- 𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒 ]
𝑔𝑐

The above equation can also be written as

𝜔
𝐶𝑝 ( 𝑇𝑡𝑖 ‒ 𝑇𝑡𝑒 ) = [𝑟𝑖 𝑣𝑖 -- 𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑒 ]
𝑔𝑐

This equation is also referred to as the Euler turbine equation.

4.1.4: Velocity diagram analysis:

Velocity Triangles & work done on the fluid:

 The analysis is carried out at mean blade height, where the peripheral velocity is U
 The absolute component of flow velocity is denoted by C, and the relative velocity of
flow (with blade speed) is denoted by V.
 The absolute and relative flow velocities will have axial and tangential (whirl)
components which are denoted by subscript a (axial) and w (whirl) respectively.
 α is the blade angle with absolute velocity component and β is the blade angle with
the relative velocity component.

The velocity triangles for one stage, at the entry of rotor and at the exit of the rotor ( ie at
the entry to the stator) is as given below:
The absolute velocity of flow increases through the rotor, that is 𝐶2 >𝐶1 . This is due to work
done on the fluid.

The stator reduces the absolute velocity, converting the kinetic energy in to static pressure
rise (diffusion); therefore there is a drop of absolute velocity in the stator, 𝐶3 < 𝐶2

The blades are designed such that 𝐶1 = 𝐶3 and entry angle 𝛼1 = 𝛼3 .

Work done per stage:

Assuming 𝐶𝑎 =𝐶𝑎1 =𝐶𝑎2 , we see from the velocity triangles

𝑈
= tan 𝛼1 + tan𝛽1 = tan 𝛼2 + tan 𝛽2
𝐶𝑎

The work done on the air per unit mass flow while passing through the rotor is indicated by
the change in angular momentum, ie

Work done, W = U ( 𝐶𝑤2 -- 𝐶𝑤1 ) where 𝐶𝑤1 and 𝐶𝑤2 are the tangential components of fluid
velocity before and after the rotor.

And 𝐶𝑤1 = 𝐶𝑎 tan 𝛼1 and 𝐶𝑤2 = 𝐶𝑎 tan 𝛼2 , therefore,

W = U𝑪𝒂 ( tan 𝜶𝟐 -- tan 𝜶𝟏 ) = U𝑪𝒂 ( tan 𝜷𝟏 -- tan 𝜷𝟐 )

In other words W = U Δ 𝑪𝑾

The input energy will reveal itself in the form of rise in stagnation temperature of the air.

The work done as given above will also be equal to the change in stagnation enthalpy
across the stage.

Stage pressure/temperature rise & Stage efficiency:

The work done on the fluid in a stage will be equal to the change in the stagnation enthalpy
across a stage

𝑊 = 𝑈∆𝐶𝑤 = ℎ02 − ℎ01 = 𝐶𝑝 ( 𝑇02 − 𝑇01 ), 𝑜𝑟

∆𝑇0𝑠 = 𝑇02 − 𝑇01 = 𝑈∆𝐶𝑤 / 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑈𝐶𝑎 (tan 𝛽1 -- tan 𝛽2 )/ 𝐶𝑝

Since no work is done in the stator, 𝑇02 = 𝑇03 , the stage efficiency, 𝜂𝑠𝑡 can be defined as
𝑇03𝑆 𝑇03
𝜂𝑠𝑡 = ( ℎ03𝑠 -- ℎ𝑜1 )/( ℎ03 -- ℎ01 ) = ( 𝑇03𝑠 -- 𝑇01 )/ ( 𝑇03 -- 𝑇01 ) =[ − 1]⁄[ − 1]
𝑇01 𝑇01

𝑻𝟎𝟑𝒔 ∆𝑻𝟎 𝑼∆𝑪𝒘

or = [1 + 𝜼𝒔𝒕 ]= [1 + 𝜼𝒔𝒕 ],
𝑻𝟎𝟏 𝑻𝟎𝟏 𝑪𝒑 𝑻𝟎𝟏

𝑃03 ∆𝑇
or, the stage pressure ratio = [1 + 𝜂𝑠𝑡 0 ]ᵞ⁄ᵞ−1
𝑃01 𝑇01

𝑷𝟎𝟑 𝑼∆𝑪𝒘 ᵞ⁄ᵞ−𝟏

the stage pressure ratio can also be expressed as
𝑷𝟎𝟏
= [𝟏 + 𝜼𝒔𝒕 𝑪 ]
𝒑 𝑻𝟎𝟏

where ∆𝑪𝒘 = 𝑪𝒂 ( tan 𝜶𝟐 -- tan 𝜶𝟏 ) = 𝑪𝒂 (tan 𝜷𝟏 -- tan 𝜷𝟐 )

The input energy ie the work done will reveal itself as rise in stagnation temperature of the
fluid.

High pressure ratio per stage can be obtained by

• High blade speed U – limited by blade stresses

• High axial velocity

 • High fluid deflection (change in whirl velocity component) -- limited by aerodynamic
considerations & adverse pressure gradient

4.1.5: Stage parameters:

4.1.5.1: Stage Efficiency:

The two efficiencies that are used to compare performance of compressors are the stage
efficiency and polytropic efficiency,.

Isentropic Efficiency:

The stage efficiency of a compressor is defined as the ratio of the ideal work per unit mass
to the actual work per unit mass between the same total pressure
(ℎ𝑡3𝑠 ‒ ℎ𝑡1 ) (𝑇 ‒ 𝑇𝑡1 )
𝜂𝑠 = ⁄(ℎ ‒ ℎ ) = 𝑡3𝑖𝑠 ⁄(𝑇 ‒ 𝑇 )
𝑡3 𝑡1 𝑡3 𝑡1

Polytropic Efficiency:

The polytropic efficiency of compressor is defined as the ratio of the ideal work per unit
mass to the actual work per unit mass for a differential pressure change or

Polytropic efficiency (or small stage), 𝑝∞ is defined as the isentropic efficiency of an

elemental stage in the process such that it is constant throughout the whole process.
4.1.5.2: Degree of Reaction:

Degree of Reaction: The degree of reaction is defined as

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑥 = = (ℎ2 --ℎ1 )/( ℎ3 --ℎ1 )
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

For a calorifically perfect gas, the static enthalpy rise is equal to the static temperature rise,

Since variation of 𝐶𝑝 over the relevant temperature range is negligible, the degree of
reaction can also be expressed in terms of temperature rise as

𝑹𝒙 = 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏⁄𝑻𝟑 − 𝑻𝟏

Diffusion takes place both in the rotor as well as the stator and the static pressure rises in
both rotor and stator. Degree of reaction provides a measure of the extent to which the
rotor contributes to the overall pressure rise of the stage.

The degree of reaction is a useful concept in compressor design and it is possible to obtain
a formula for it in terms of the various velocities and angles associated with the stage. This
will be done in most common case, in which it is assumed as (a) the absolute axial velocity
𝐶𝑎 is constant through the stage and (b) the air leaves the stage with the same absolute
velocity with which it enters ie 𝐶3 =𝐶1 .

From the velocity triangles, it can be shown as

𝑪𝒂
𝑹𝒙 = 1 -- (tan 𝜶𝟐 + tan 𝜶𝟏 ) or
𝟐𝑼
𝑪𝒂
𝑹𝒙 = (tan ᵝ𝟏+ tan ᵝ𝟐)
𝟐𝑼
𝟏 𝑪
It can also be shown that 𝑹𝒙 = -- (tan 𝜶𝟏 – tan 𝜶𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟐𝑼

Special Cases of Rx:

When Rx=0; Then βᵝ2 = (−𝛽ᵝ1 ); there is no pressure rise in the rotor, the entire pressure
rise is due to the stator, the rotor merely deflecting the incoming flow; similar to impulse
blading.
When Rx= 0.5; gives 𝛼1 =𝛽2 and 𝛼2 =𝛽1 , the velocity triangles are symmetric, equal pressure
rise in rotor and stator. Also the velocities C1=V2 and C2=V1

In general, it is desirable to have degree of reaction in the vicinity of 0.5.

The entry and exit triangles will be identical, with 𝛼1 = 𝛽2 and 𝛼2 = 𝛽1

4.1.5.3: Diffusion Factor:

Fluid deflection (ᵝ2 --ᵝ1 ) is a parameter that affects the stage pressure rise. Excessive
deflection ie high rate of deflection leads to blade stall. Diffusion factor associates blade
stall with deceleration on the suction side of the aerofoil section. Diffusion factor is
measured on the suction side of the blades, and is expressed as below:

Diffusion Factor 𝐷∗ = (𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 --𝑉2 )/𝑉1 , where 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the ideal surface velocity at the
minimum pressure point and 𝑉2 is the ideal velocity at the trailing edge and 𝑉1 is the
velocity at leading edge.
4.1.5.4: Stage Loading Coefficient: The ratio of stage work to the square of rotor speed is
called the stage loading coefficient.

4.1.5.5: Flow Coefficient: The ratio of the axial velocity to the rotor speed is called the flow
coefficient and is defined as

ф = 𝐶𝑎 /U
The flow coefficient for modern axial flow compressor of aircraft gas turbine engines are in
the range of 0.45-0.55.

The flow coefficient variation will cause changes in the incidence of the flow over the blade

4.1.5.6: Work Done Factor 𝜆 (Loss due to blockage in compressor annulus area): Because
of the adverse pressure gradient in the compressors, the boundary layers along the annulus
walls thicken as the flow progresses. The main effect is to reduce the area available for the
flow below the geometric area of the annulus.

The stage temperature rise is always less than the design value. The reason for this is that
the radial distribution of the axial velocity is not constant across the annulus, but becomes
increasingly peaky as the flow proceeds, settling down to a fixed profile at about the fourth
stage. The change in the axial velocity affects the work absorbing capacity of the stage.
The reduction in the work capacity is accounted for by use of the work done factor λ, which
is less than unity. The actual stage temperature rise is given by
𝜆
∆𝑇0𝑆 = U𝐶𝑎 ( tan ᵝ1 -- tan ᵝ2 )
𝐶𝑝

The mean work done factor will vary across the compressor stages due to the variation in
the axial velocity. The axial velocity distribution along the blade height in the first stage and
the fourth stage is shown below. The variation of mean work done factor across the stages
is also shown.

Axial Velocity Distributions: a) 1st Stage and b) 4th Stage

4.1.5.7: Property Changes across a stage:

Property changes across a typical compressor stage are as follows:

 Total Enthalpy/Total pressure: Energy is added to the flow in the rotor (1-2). The
total enthalpy and total pressure increases in the rotor. No energy is added in the
stator. Therefore, both the total enthalpy and total pressure are constant in the
stator (2-3)
  Absolute velocity: Absolute velocity increases in the rotor. This velocity is converted to
static pressure in the stator. Therefore, the absolute velocity increases in the rotor and
decreases in the stator.

 Static Pressure: Static pressure increases in stator. The rotor also is designed to
provide diffusion resulting in a drop in the relative velocity and increase in the static
pressure.

4.1.6: Flow losses-causes-efficiency, relation to total pressure loss coefficient:

Losses in a compressor blade

Nature of losses in axial compressor:

 Viscous Losses
 3-D effects like tip leakage flows, secondary flows etc
 Shock losses
 Mixing Losses

Total losses in a compressor is the sum of above losses. Estimating the losses is crucial for
designing loss control mechanisms. However, isolating the losses is easy and is often done
through empirical correlations.

Viscous Losses: Three types of viscous losses occur in compressors.

They are profile losses, annulus losses and end wall losses.
Profile losses occur due to the nature of profile of the aerofoil cross-sections and associated
adverse pressure distributions.

Annulus losses are due to growth of boundary layer along the axis. End wall losses occur due to
boundary layer effects in the corner junction between the blade surface and the casing/hub.

3-D losses are attributed to the secondary flows occurring while flow progresses through the
curved blade passages (in between the blades) and tip leakage flows occurring due to flow taking
place from the pressure surface to the suction surface along blade tip.

Shock Losses: Shock losses arise due to flow interaction with shock forming close to
transonic speeds. These losses are observed near the blade tip due to high rotational
speeds. These losses mainly concern transonic compressors.

Mixing Losses: Mixing losses are attributed to the interaction flow from the rotor with
succeeding stator and stator wakes with succeeding rotor. These include wake interaction
with the blades

Among the losses outlined above, the annulus wall region of the compressor accounts for
up to 50% of the total losses. There is a large turbulence production due to mixing in these
zones. The presence of shock waves in the transonic speed range increases the complexity
of design.

Blockage in the Compressor Annulus: Causes reduction of flow area and work output as
the flow progresses in the compressor due to boundary layer growth.

4.2.1: Axial Flow Turbines-Similarities and differences with compressors:

The flow in the compressor has to flow against increasing pressure ie an adverse pressure
gradient. The pressure rise in each stage must be gradual to avoid separation of the flow.
The limit on diffusion in each stage means that a single compressor stage can provide only
a relatively small pressure ratio, hence the need for multi-staging.

The turbine, on the other hand, has an advantageous pressure gradient, converging blade
passages and accelerating flow. That is why a single turbine stage can drive a large number
of compressor stages.

Turbine blades handle gases at much higher temperature than the compressor blades. The
turbine blades operate at much higher thermal stresses and hence very difficult to design.
Turbine blade cooling necessitates making hollow blades so that cooling passages can be
provided.

4.2.2: Computation of stage parameters for ideal and real compressors and turbine of
given cascade blade geometry and initial flow conditions and turbine speed-procedure:

Cascade Aerodynamics:

 A cascade is a stationary array of blades

 Cascade is constructed for measurement of performance similar to the
turbomachinery, especially axial compressors.
 Cascade usually has `porous end walls to remove boundary layer for a two
dimensional flow.
 Radial variations in the velocity field can therefore be excluded.
 Cascade analysis relates the fluid turning angles to blade geometry and measure
losses in the stagnation pressure.
 The cascade is mounted on a turntable so that it’s angular direction relative to the
inlet can be set at different incidence angles.
 Measurement usually consists of pressures, velocities and flow angles downstream
of the cascade. Probe traverse at the trailing edge of the blades facilitate
measurement.
 Static pressure taps measure blade surface static pressure and 𝐶𝑝 .distribution.
Cascade Aerofoil Nomenclature::The ratio of aerofoil chords c to the aerofoil spacing s is
called solidity σ,

σ = 𝑐⁄𝑠

4.3.1: Radial equilibrium-Free Vortex Theory:

 For a realistic design of an axial compressor blade, it is necessary to take into account
the radial variations of the parameters; blade Speed U (which is equal to Ωr), axial
velocity 𝐶𝑎 , tangential velocity 𝐶𝑤 and static pressure.
 It is essential to maintain a reasonably uniform flow at the exit of the compressor
resulting in a uniform radial work output.
 The work output ∆ℎ0 = U∆𝐶𝑤 = Ωr∆𝐶𝑤
 This means that for a given rotational speed, r∆𝐶𝑤 must be a constant.
 One such configuration that satisfies the above is the free vortex design.
 In this approach, the product r𝐶𝑤 is held a constant across the exit of each blade row.
 From the axial velocity and the blade speeds at various radial sections, the velocity
triangle can be completed

In free vortex methodology, the product r∆𝐶𝑤 is kept constant, for a given blade speed Ω.
This will ensure that the specific work is uniform and constant across the blade height, from
hub to tip.

The free vortex velocity diagrams at the hub, mean and tip indicate that change in blade
speed radially, require twisting of the blade from hub to tip. Also along the blade height,
the degree of reaction varies. 𝑅𝑥 is close to 0.5 near the mean height of the blade whereas
it is close to zero near the hub and close to one near the tip.
4.3.2: Limits of achievable performance of compressors and turbines;

Multistage Operation-Off design conditions:

Let us consider the inlet and outlet stations of a multistage compressor as 1 & 2 respectively

𝑃02
The overall pressure ratio of the compressor will be
𝑃01

The compressor outlet pressure 𝑃02 and isentropic efficiency 𝜂𝑐 depend upon several physical
variables
 𝑃02 , 𝜂𝑐 = f [ 𝑚̇ , 𝑃01 , 𝑇01 , γ, Ω, R, v, D ]
The above variables are grouped in to non dimensional parameters,

̇
𝑚√𝑇
𝑃02 01 𝑁
, 𝜂𝑐 = f [ , ], for a given design, assuming
𝑃01 𝑃01 √𝑇01
D, R are fixed

Usually, we use standard day temperature and pressure, in terms of

𝑇01 𝑃01
ᶿ=⌈ and ᵟ=[
𝑇01 𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑦⌉ 𝑃01 ]𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑦

̇
𝑚√𝑇
𝑃02 01 𝑁
Then , 𝜂𝑐 = f [ , ⁄√𝑇 ]
𝑃01 𝑃01 ᵟ 01

Of the above non dimensional parameters, the first one denotes the mass flow rate and the
second the speed. Compressor overall pressure ratio and isentropic efficiency are plotted against
the non dimensional parameters, as below:

̇
𝑚 √𝑇 01 𝑃02
Plot of vs and η for varying speeds 𝑁⁄
𝑃01 ᵟ 𝑃01 √𝑇01

 For a given speed, the range of mass flow for stable operation is very narrow.
  At high rotational speeds, the constant speed lines become very steep, almost
vertical.
 The limitations at either end of speed lines are surging and choking.
 The surge line denotes the locus of unstable operation of the compressor.
 Surge is characterized by violent, periodic oscillations in the flow. Surge may lead to
flame blow-out in the combustion chamber. Surge can lead to substantial damage to
compressors and must be avoided. The operating line of the compressor is therefore
kept slightly away from the surge line, thereby maintaining surge margin.
4.3.2.1: Flow Problems-Surge, separation, rotating stall, wind milling, blade stresses,
temperatures-

Axial flow compressors suffer from two possible modes of unstable operation

 Rotating Stall: Non-axisymmetric, aperiodic

 Surge: axisymmetric, periodic

The limiting pressure rise through an axial compressor row occurs when the adverse
pressure gradient on the blade suction surface becomes so severe that flow separation
occurs. When substantial separation occurs, the entire compressor may surge (that is,
massive flow reversal will occur) or rotating stall may result.

Stalling arises in isolated aerofoils when the angle between the flow direction and the
blade angle becomes excessive.

Rotating stall is the condition where the flow in several blades stalls (becomes almost
stagnant) and the "package" of stalled fluid then rotates around the blade row. The
rotating stall condition is particularly dangerous, because very large vibratory stresses can
occur as the blades enter and depart the stall.

Propagation of rotating stall: Rotating stall begins with a single blade stalling due to high
angle of flow incidence. As the blade stalls, the flow disturbance causes the incidence angle
of the approaching blade increase and angle of incidence of blade ahead reduce. This
causes the incoming blade to stall, un-stalling previously stalled blade. The stall cell thus
moves from blade to blade in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation.
Rotating stall causes alternate loading and unloading of the blades leading to fatigue
failure.

4.3.2 Solutions: Multi-staging, Variable stators, multi-spooling,

Off-Design Working of Compressor:

When the compressor is operating at the design flow coefficient, all stages are operating at
the correct incidence.

It is evident that as the design pressure ratio is increased, the difference in density will
cause stalling of blades.

The mass flow rate through the compressor is limited by choking in various stages. The
choking will occur first in the rear stages under certain conditions and under different
conditions, occurs at front stages.

The geometry of axial flow compressor has decreasing annulus area to keep axial velocity
constant at design condition.

When the speed is reduced from point A to C, the mass flow falls off more rapidly than the
speed (N & U), and the effect is to decrease the axial velocity at the inlet. This causes the
incidence angle of the front stages to increase leading to stalling.

The effect on rear stages will be different. The speed reduction below design speeds, the
temperature rise and pressure rise will be lower than the design value. The density will
reduce, increasing the axial velocity (to compensate for drop in 𝝆 in quantity 𝝆ACa). This
will cause choking of the rear stages.

Thus at low speeds, mass flow rate is limited by the choking of rear stages.

As speeds are increased, the density increase, causing the rear stages to un-choke, but
eventually, the choking will occur at the inlet.

If we consider moving from the design point A to point B on the surge line at the design
speed, the mass flow rate is slightly reduced (although there is a marginal increase in the
pressure ratio), causing axial velocity to reduce. This increases the incidence, leading to
rotor blades stall. This effect is severe on the rear stages. Surge at high speeds is caused by
stalling of rear stages.

Solutions to increase stability of operation during off-design conditions:

Twin Spool Arrangement: Reduction in speed increases the incidence of the front stages,
while decreasing the incidence of rear stages. The incidence could be maintained by
running the rear stages at higher speed than the front stages
These conflicting requirements of speeds could be met by splitting the compressor in to
two or more sections. The common twin spool arrangement allows more stable operation
at off-design conditions.

Variable Geometry Compressor: An alternate approach is to use several rows of variable-

stator at the front of the compressor, permitting pressure ratios of up to 16:1, using a
single spool arrangement.

4.3.3: Similarities & Differences- Axial Flow Compressors and Turbines:

1. The gas flow is accelerated through the turbine while the flow is decelerated through
the compressor.
2. The blade-to-blade passage is convergent in the turbine while the passage is
divergent in the compressor.
3. The gas flow is speeded up in stator nozzle of turbine while the flow is diffused in the
stator of a compressor.
4. The flow faces an adverse pressure gradient in the compressor while the flow
encounters a pressure drop in the turbine.
5. Work is done on the gas by the compressor while work is extracted from the gas in
the turbine.
6. Due to the adverse pressure gradient, the number of stages in the compressor are
higher while the turbine extracts the work, as required to drive the compressor, in
lesser number of stages. Therefore, usually the axial flow compressor has 3-20stages
while the turbine has 1-4stages.
7. The blade height is higher in the compressor than in the turbine.
8. The annulus area in a multi-stage axial flow compressor is decreasing while it is
increasing in the turbine.
9. The per stage temperature is increasing in small increments in compressor while the
per stage temperature reduces by a large decrease in turbine.
10.The compressor operates at a lower temperature (between 500-1000 R) while the
turbine operates at a much higher temperature (1000-3500 R)
11.The flow tends to separate due to adverse pressure gradient in the compressor,
while the turbine flow negotiates a reducing pressure gradient. The turbine
 efficiencies are higher (usually >0.9 ), while compressors operate with efficiencies
between 0.8-0.9.
12.The flow deflections are large in turbine than in the compressor.
13.The stagnation properties of enthalpy, temperature and pressure increase in the
compressor while they decrease in the turbine.

4.3.4. Requirement of gas turbine for aircraft: The gas turbine engine for use in an aircraft
must be compact in size and must weigh as less as possible.

This requirement means that the turbine must extract high energy from a unit mass of fluid
flowing through it. The energy density must be high. In an axial flow turbine, the working
fluid enters and leaves the turbine in an axis parallel to the engine axis. The residual energy
left in the working fluid or gas after leaving the turbine is further expanded in the jet nozzle
to create direct engine thrust.

Working Principle of Axial Flow Turbine: A stage of axial flow turbine consists of a stator
nozzle and a rotor. The flow of gas comes from the combustion chamber with high internal
energy (𝑇01 , 𝑃01 and 𝐶1 ) and is made to pass through the stator where a large part of its
internal energy is converted to kinetic energy.

The transfer of energy occurs in the rotor as the high speed gas flow impinges on the rotor
blade, and as the flow is made to turn while flowing through the passage between the
blades. The turning of the gas produces a change in the momentum of the gas which
creates an impulse force causing the rotation of the rotor.

Axial Flow Turbine Stage:

Turbines using the fundamental principle of impulse force for making the blades rotate are
called impulse turbines. The amount of energy given up by the gas is decided by the energy
level of the incoming gas, and by the amount of turning executed by the gas in the blade
passages. The energy transfer occurs as per the Newton’s laws of Motion, based on the
rate of change of momentum of the gas in the direction of blade rotation.

The development of gas turbines for use in aircraft required even more energy to be
transferred per unit mass flow than is possible with the impulse turbine.

In order to increase the energy density, the flow is also accelerated through the rotor
blades by making the blade passages converging. The gas thus expands and turns while
passing through the rotor. The accelerating gas exiting from the rotor creates a reaction
force as per Newton’s third law increasing the energy transfer. There are therefore two
forces acting on the rotor blades; the impulse force due to turning of the flow, change of
momentum and a reaction force due to acceleration of flow in the rotor.

Based on the principle of energy transfer, we have two types of axial flow turbines.

Impulse Turbines: High energy flow is first accelerated in the stator nozzle and made to
impinge on the rotor blade with high momentum and then made to take a huge turn
through the passage between the rotor blades.

Reaction Turbines: The flow is accelerated in the rotor blades by making a converging
blade passage in addition to the large turning. Jet effect creates a reaction force as per
Newton’s third law.
All the gas turbines used in aircraft are reaction turbines.

4.3.4.1: Velocity Triangles:

The stator nozzle accelerates the flow where the absolute velocity increases. Rotor blades
turn the flow, reducing the absolute velocity, while accelerating the flow by increasing the
relative velocity.

 Gas enters the stator nozzle blades at an angle 𝛼1 with an absolute velocity 𝐶1 . The
absolute velocity 𝐶1 is increased to 𝐶2 in the stator nozzle blades.
 The rotor blades turn the gas reducing the absolute velocity to 𝐶3 leaving the rotor at
an angle 𝛼3 . The change of momentum produces the impulse force.
 The relative velocity 𝑉2 increases to 𝑉3 in the converging passages of the rotor in the
reaction turbines. However, in the impulse turbines 𝑉3 =𝑉2 .
 The rotor blades are designed such that the flow is turned near axial direction for
entering the next stage.
 The first stage stator nozzle blades are designed such that gas leaves the stator with
a local mach number near to unity. 𝑀2 is therefore equal to unity.
𝑉3
 However, gas acceleration in the rotor is such that 𝑉3 is subsonic. ie 𝑀3 = < 1.0.
𝑎3
This condition is necessary to avoid high stresses due to shock formation in rotating
blades.
 The whirl components of absolute and relative velocities have major role in the work
extraction.
 The work done in a gas turbine may be increased by increasing the turbine entry
temperature 𝑇01 .
Velocity triangles for the stage is combined as

The following points are important:

In a single stage turbine, 𝐶1 will be axial, ie 𝛼1 =0 and 𝐶1 =𝐶𝑎1 .

If on the other hand, in case of a multi-stage axial turbine, then 𝐶1 and 𝛼1 are designed to
be equal to 𝐶3 and 𝛼3 so that the same blade shapes can be used for successive stages.
Because the blade speed increases with increase in radius, the shape of velocity triangles
vary from root of the blade to the tip. The above velocity triangles are drawn for a mean
diameter.

The quantity (𝐶𝑤2 +𝐶𝑤3 ) represent a change of whirl (or tangential) component of the
absolute velocity and represents the change of momentum per unit mass flow of the fluid.

The annulus of the turbine is flared to accommodate the decrease in density as the gas
expands through the turbine. This will keep the axial flow velocity 𝐶𝑎 is kept constant
through the turbine.

The isentropic relations as applied to the velocity triangles give the following relations:

For a steady flow energy state,

𝑊𝑠 =𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇0𝑆 , where ∆𝑇0𝑆 is the stagnation temperature drop across the stage. Equating this
to the change of whirl velocity component, we get

𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇0𝑆 = U𝐶𝑎 ( tan 𝛽2 + tan 𝛽3 )

Once the stagnation temperature drop is found from the velocity triangles, we apply
isentropic relations to get the pressure drop across turbine stage.

Blade Loading Factor: The blade loading factor for a turbine stage is defined as
2𝐶𝑎
ψ= (2𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇0𝑆 )/𝑈 2= [tan 𝛽2+ tan 𝛽3]
𝑈

ψ is a design parameter and is also known as temperature drop coefficient.

Degree of reaction is defined in the same way as in the case of axial flow compressor.

Turbine Characteristics:
𝑃02
The characteristic curve is drawn between the pressure ratio (x-axis) and non-
𝑃01
dimensional mass flow rate( 𝑚̇√𝑇02 )/𝑃01 (y axis).
The turbine operating line will show choking after a pressure ratio. The pressure ratio
where the stator nozzle flow choking occurs is the design point.
Every turbine has it’s own characteristic plots obtained through rig testing in addition to
computer simulations.
The mass flow parameter is on Y axis and pressure ratio is on X axis. The mass flow
parameter is normalized with temperature and pressures at inlet. X axis indicates pressure
drop across the turbine.

4.3.2.2: Blade Cooling:

4.4: Operation at off-design speed:

4.5: Range of typical axial flow compressor and turbine parameters:

4.6: Typical blade profiles:

Problem2;

stages required
.