OROLOGY

THE STUDY OF MOUNTAIN

 Mountain research or montology,
OROLOGY traditionally also known as orology
from Greek oros for “mountain” is the
study of mountains.
Contents:
01 TYPES OF MOUNTAIN

02 PURPOSE OF MOUNTAIN

03 CLIMATE IN THE MOUNTAIN

04 CLOUDS
 • Natural elevation of the
earth’s surface.
• May be narrow at top and
MOUNTAIN broad at the base.
• Mountain Range: The
mountains arranged in a line.
• Some of the mountain
systems contain ranges spread
over hundreds of kilometres.
Italian Statistics Office ISTAT

• If at least 80% of their territory is situated above ≥ 600 m

above sea level.
The United Nations Environmental Programme

• Elevations from 300 to 1000m and local elevation range >

300 m
• Elevations from 1000 to 1500 m and slope ≥ 5° or local
elevation range > 300 m
• Elevations from 1500 to 2500 m and slope ≥ 2°
• Elevations of 2500 m or more.
 How are mountains formed?
• The main landforms are; mountains, plateau and plains.

• There are two processes which lead to formation of different

landforms.

• Internal Process: The earth is continuously moving. The movement

of earth’s surface results in internal process. The internal process
results in a portion of the earth’s surface getting elevated.

• External Process: Continuous wearing down and rebuilding of the

earth’s surface is the result of external process.
• The Earth's crust is made up of 6 huge slabs called Plates,
which fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.

• When two slabs of the earth's crust smash into each other
the land can be pushed upwards, forming mountains.

• Many of the greatest mountain ranges of the world have

formed because of enormous collisions between
continents. Mountains form in different ways.
TYPES OF MOUNTAIN
 ‫‪QURANIC CLASSIFICATION‬‬

‫ﻴﺾ‬‫ِ‬
‫ب‬ ‫د‬
‫ٌ‬ ‫ﺪ‬
‫َ‬ ‫ج‬ ‫ِ‬
‫ال‬ ‫ﺒ‬‫ِ‬
‫ﳉ‬‫ْ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ن‬‫م‬‫ات ُﳐْتلِ ًفا أَلْوا َُا وِ‬
‫ٍ‬ ‫ر‬‫َ‬‫َ‬
‫ﲦ‬ ‫سم ِاء ماء فَأَ ْخرجنَا بِ ِ‬
‫ه‬ ‫ﱠ‬ ‫ال‬ ‫ن‬ ‫أََﱂ تَـر أَ ﱠن ا ﱠ أَنْـز َل ِ‬
‫م‬
‫ٌ‬ ‫َ َ َ َ َ ُ‬ ‫َ‬ ‫َ َ َ َ َ ً َْ‬ ‫ْ َ‬
‫ﻴب ُسو ٌد )فاﻃر‪(27 :‬‬ ‫ف أَلْوا َُا وغَرابِ‬
‫ٌ‬ ‫و ُﲪْر ُﳐْتلِ‬
‫َ َ َ ُ‬ ‫َ ٌ َ‬

‫ف ـت ـنــﻘسﻢ اﳉﺒال إﱃ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ اﻗسام‪:‬‬

‫ﻴﺾ )‪ :(streaks white‬جﺒال رسوبﻴﺔ ﻃﺒﻘﻴﺔ )‪(Sedimentary layers‬‬ ‫ُج َﺪ ٌد بِ ٌ‬
‫ف أَل َْوا َُا )‪ : (Red varying colors‬جﺒال ﻗاﻋﺪﻳﺔ متﺒلورة )‪(Metabolic Base‬‬ ‫ِ‬
‫َو ُﲪْ ٌر ُﳐْتَل ٌ‬
‫سو ٌد )‪ :(Very Black‬جﺒال برﻛانﻴﺔ رﻳﺔ )‪(Fire Volcanic‬‬ ‫ِ‬
‫َوغَ َراب ُ ُ‬
‫ﻴب‬
‫)ﻫﻲ الﱵ تﺸﲑ إلﻴﻬا اﻵﻳﺔ وأخرجﺖ اﻷرض أﺛﻘاﳍا(‬
SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION

There are five basic kinds of mountains:

1. Folded mountains
2. Dome or Residual mountains
3. Fault-block Mountains
4. Volcanic mountains
5. Plateau Mountains
 1. FOLDED MOUNTAINS
FORMATION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS

• Formed in a process called orogeny.

• It takes millions of years.
• When a tectonic plate gets pressure from two sides, and
their edges crumbled.
• Like a piece of paper folds when pushed together.
• Some of its portion becomes elevated and forms the
mountains.
 The upward folds are known as Anticlines.
The downward folds are Synclines.

1. Anticline: Upward fold 2. Syncline: Downward fold

Examples of Fold Mountains:

• Himalayan Mountains in Asia

• The Alps in Europe

• The Andes in South America

• The Rockies in North America

• The Urals in Russia

• Himalayan Mountains were formed when
India crashed into Asia and pushed up the
tallest mountain range on the continents.

• Andes Mountains, in South America were

formed by the collision of the South American
continental plate and the oceanic Pacific plate.
 2. Dome Mountain
• The uplifted area created by rising magma is called a Dome,
because of looking like the top half of a sphere (ball).

• Magma is a hot fluid or semi-fluid material below or within the

earth's crust from which lava and other igneous rock is formed on
cooling. When red-hot magma comes into contact with seawater,
an explosion results.

• The magma cools and forms hardened rock. The rock layers over
the hardened magma are warped upward to form the dome.
 Dome
Mountains
 3. Blocks or Fault-Block Mountains
• When large areas are broken and displaced vertically, Block
Mountains are formed.
• In this case, the uplifted blocks are called Horsts.
• On the other hand, the lowered blocks are called Graben.
Often fault-block Mountains have a steep front side and
a sloping back side.
 Examples of fault-block Mountains include:

• The Sierra Nevada Mountains in North America

• The Harz Mountains in Germany
• Rhine Valley
• Vosges mountain in Europe
 4. VOLCANO MOUNTAIN
• The word ‘Volcano' comes from the island ‘Vulcano’,
which is a volcanic island in Italy.

• The island actually gets its name from the Roman god of
fire Vulcan.

VULCANO ITALY
• Roman mythology says Vulcan
was lived in a volcano. And
was a very skilled blacksmith.
• As well as being the god of
fire, he made many weapons
and forged them using metal
and fire.
• Romans believed that if Vulcan
was made angry, the volcano
would erupt. So they tried their
best to please him and not
anger him.
 Formation of volcanoes
• Between the molten iron core and the thin crust at the
surface, there is a solid body of rock called the mantle.

• High temperature and pressure causes the rock to melt,

and it moves to the surface through the crust, and releases
pent-up gases, volcanoes erupt.

• Magma that has reached the surface is called lava.

Magma - Molten rock beneath Earth's surface.

Parasitic Cone - A small cone-shaped volcano

formed by an accumulation of volcanic debris.

Sill - A flat piece of rock formed when magma

hardens in a crack in a volcano.

Vent - An opening in Earth's surface through

which volcanic materials escape.

Flank - The side of a volcano.

Lava - Molten rock that erupts from a volcano

that solidifies as it cools.
Crater: Mouth of a volcano - surrounds a volcanic
vent.

Conduit: An underground passage magma travels.

Summit - Highest point; apex

Throat - Entrance of a volcano. The part of the

conduit that ejects lava and volcanic ash.

Ash - Fragments of lava or rock smaller than 2 mm in

size that are blasted into the air by volcanic explosions.

Ash Cloud: A cloud of ash formed by volcanic

explosions.
 WHY DO VOLCANOES ERUPT?

• The theory that explains this process is called ‘plate

tectonics’ which means the plates are moving in different
directions and at different speeds. Sometimes they collide
or brush past each other and cause these earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions.
There are three kind of volcanos

1. Active: Is one that has erupted recently, and there is the

possibility that it may erupt again.

2. Dormant: Is one that has not erupted for a long time, however,
it may still erupt in the future.

3. Extinct: Is one which has erupted thousands of years ago, but it

will probably never erupt again.
 THREE TYPES OF VOLCANOES
Composite Volcanoes
• Are steep-sided volcanoes and are made up of lots of layers of volcanic
rocks.
• They usually erupt in an explosive way because the magma in these
volcanoes is quite sticky.
 Cinder Cones
• Cinder cones are circular or oval cones.
• They are made up of small fragments of lava, which are blown into
the air through a single vent.
• When they cool down, they form rock around the vent. They grow
quickly, but are not usually very big.
• They are not usually dangerous either.
 Shield Volcanoes
• Bowl or shield-shaped in the middle.
• When they erupt, the lava is quite runny and it travels long
distances down the side of the volcano before it cools down.
• This lava forms long, gentle slopes that look like a warrior's
shield, which is how they got their name.
• These volcanoes do not often explode.
 VOLCANOS IN THE DIFFERENT
PLANETS

Io is one of Mercury used to Mars has the Triton is Neptune's

Jupiter's moons have volcanoes largest known largest moon.
and has but when the volcano called Instead of lava, the
several active planet's interior Olympus Mons. volcanoes on Triton
volcanoes. cooled down, the It is no longer actually release ice.
volcanoes died. active and will
probably never
erupt again.
5. Plateau Mountains (Erosion Mountains)
• Plateau Mountains are not formed by internal activity. Instead, these
mountains are formed by erosion.

• Plateaus are large flat areas that have been pushed above sea level by
forces within the Earth, or have been formed by layers of lava.

• The dictionary describes these as large areas of ‘high levels’ of flat

land, over 600 meters above sea level.
• Plateau Mountains are often
found near folded mountains.

• Over billions of years, the

rivers can cut deep into a
plateau and make tall
mountains.

• The mountains in New

Zealand are examples of
Plateau Mountains.
PURPOSE OF THE MOUNTAIN
 “And He has affixed into the earth mountains standing firm, lest it should
shake with you; and rivers and roads, that you may guide yourselves.”.

Ibn-Kathir said:
“Mountains standing firm” means that Allah created the earth with its
strong pillars and deeply rooted mountains which stabilize the earth and
prevent it from shaking and disturbing life on Earth.
 Scientific implications in these ayahs:
• To describe the formation of mountain and their stabilizing
function for the Earth Quran used the word “pegging”.

• Modern earth sciences has proven that mountains have deep roots
under the surface of the ground and that these roots are several
times their elevation above the surface of the Earth.

• So the mountains are actually pegs in the earth’s weakest zones to

anchor it firmly in the same way that we use anchors to firmly pin
ships to the ground.
CLIMATE IN THE MOUNTAIN
• Mountain weather conditions can change
dramatically from one hour to the next.

• For example, in just a few minutes a thunder storm

can roll in when the sky was perfectly clear, and in
just a few hours the temperatures can drop from
extremely hot temperatures to temperatures that
are below freezing.
 Why do mountains receive more rainfall?
• The temperature on top of mountains is lower than the
temperature at sea level.

• Winds carry moist air over the land. When air reaches
the mountain, it rises because the mountains are in the
way.

• As the air rises, it cools, and because cool air can carry
less moisture than warm air, there is usually
precipitation (rain).
 Is the climate on mountains the same at the
bottom as at the top?
• No, the climate on a mountain varies depending on what
altitude you are up a mountain.

• At the foothills there may be a tropical climate, whilst the peaks

may be covered in ice. The uppermost level of mountains is
often bare rock and snow.
 Why do we see snow on the top?
• The temperature at the top of mountains is lower than at
the bottom.

• Some mountains reach higher than the clouds. At this

altitude the extreme cold and high winds cause blizzards.
 Why does the temperature become colder?
• This happens because as altitude increases, air becomes
thinner and is less able to absorb and retain heat.

• Air pressure decreases with altitude. As a result of the

reduced air pressure, rising air expands and cools.
What effect do mountains have on surrounding
land?

• Mountains can affect the climate of nearby lands.

• In some areas, mountains block rain, so that one side

of a mountain range may be rainy and the other side
may be a desert.
 Himalayan weather

• The Himalaya obstructs the passage of cold continental air from

the north into India in winter and also forces the south westerly
monsoon winds to give up most of their moisture before
crossing the range northward to Tibet.

• During winter, depressions advance from the west and cause

heavy snowfall, which is greatest over the high mountains and
is greater in the west than the east.
• In January, for example, Mussoorie in the west receives
almost 7.5cm, whereas Darjiling to the east receives less than
2.5cm.

• By the end of May the situation is reversed with south

westerly moisy ‘monsoon’ air moves toward the eastern
Himalayas, where the moisture rising over the steep terrain
cools and condenses to fall as rain or snow.

• The rain and snow cease in September, after which the best
weather in the Himalayas prevails until the beginning of
winter in December.
 MOUNTAINS AS CLOUDS

And you will see the mountains and think them solid, but
they shall pass away as the passing away of the clouds.
The Work of Allah, Who perfected all things, verily He is
Well-Acquainted with what you do) [Surat An-Naml,
verse: 88].
The miracle here appears in two points:

1-The verse refers significantly to the movement of the earth and

its rotation around itself. So the one who looks to the earth from
the outer space, recognizes the movement of the mountains while
the one who lives on earth never feels it.

2-The verse refers to the movement of the earth plates, so

scientists have found that the mountains together with the earth
crust have a continuous slight movement and we don't feel this
movement.
• German scientist Alfred Wegener pointed out in an article
published in 1915:

• The land masses on the Earth were joined together about

500 million years ago, and this large mass, called Pangaea

• The continents, which emerged after the split of

Pangaea, have been constantly moving on the Earth's
surface at a rate of several centimetres per year, and in the
meantime changing the sea to land ratios of the Earth.”
• According to the "Plate Tectonics“ theory, the plates
move on the earth by drifting the continents and the
ocean floor.

• It is calculated that the continental movement is 1 to 5

cm a year. As the plates move like that, changes happen
in the geography of the world. For instance, the Atlantic
Ocean expands every year.
CLOUDS
Cloud is a large collection of very tiny droplets
of water or ice crystals. The droplets are so
small and light that they can float in the air.
How are clouds formed
• When warm air rises water
vapour expands and cools.
• Some of the vapor
condenses onto tiny pieces
of dust that are floating in
the air and forms a tiny
droplet around each dust
particle.
• When billions of these
droplets come together they
become a visible cloud.
 Why are clouds white?

The water droplets or ice crystals on the clouds are large

enough to scatter the light of the VIBGYOR which
combine to produce white light.
 Why do clouds turn gray?
• Clouds are made up of tiny water droplets or ice crystals, usually a
mixture of both.
• The water and ice scatter all light, making clouds appear white.
• If the clouds get thick enough or high enough all the light above
does not make it through, hence the gray or dark look.
• Also, if there are lots of other clouds around, their shadow can add
to the gray or multicolored gray appearance.
 Why do clouds float?
• As long as the cloud and the air that its made of is
warmer than the outside air around it, it floats

How do clouds move?

• Clouds move with the wind. High cirrus clouds are
pushed along by the jet stream, sometimes traveling at
more than 100 miles-per-hour.
• When clouds are part of a thunderstorm they usually
travel at 30 to 40 mph.
Why do clouds form at different heights in the
atmosphere?

• The characteristics of clouds are dictated by the

elements available, including the amount of
water vapour, the temperatures at that height, the
wind, and the interplay of other air masses.
 Clouds Form Due to Mountains
• Some clouds form when air encounters a mountain
range.
• The air will rise and cool, and this cooler air is no longer
able to hold all of the water vapor it was able to hold
when it was warm.
• The extra water vapor begins to condense out of the air
parcel in the form of liquid water droplets and a cloud is
formed.
• The types of clouds that form from encounters with
mountains are stratus clouds and lenticular clouds.
• The image shows
how winds can blow into a
mountain range and then rise
higher in the atmosphere.
• The side of the mountains
where the wind starts is
called the windward side.
• The side of the mountains
where the wind leaves the
area is called the leeward
side.
• Another way that mountains cause cloud formation is
when air rises because the mountain is warmer than the
surrounding air and causes the air to rise.
• Once the air rises, it follows the same process to form
clouds as described above.
• The types of clouds that form in this case
are cumulonimbus and cumulus.
 TYPES OF
THE CLOUDS

HIGHEST
CLOUDS

MID-LEVEL
CLOUDS

LOWEST
CLOUDS
THANKS….