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UNIT-5:
AUTOMATED ASSSEMBLY SYSTEMS

Automated Assembly Systems

Assembly involves the joining together of two or more separate parts to form new
entity which may be assembly or subassembly.
Automated assembly refers to the use of mechanized and automated devices to
perform the various functions in an assembly line or cell.

Automated assembly system performs a sequence of automated operations to

combine multiple components in to a single entity which can be a final product or
sub assembly.
Automated assembly technology should be considered when the following
condition exists.

High product demand

Stable product design

The assembly consists of no more than a limited number of components.

The product is designed for automated assembly.

Automated assembly system involves less investment compared to transfer lines

because
1. Work part produced are smaller in size compared to transfer lines.
2. Assembly operations do not have the large mechanical forces and power
requirement
3. Size is very less compared to transfer lines.

DESIGNS FOR AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY

Recommendations and principles that can be applied in product design to facilitate
automated assembly

 Reduce the amount of assembly required: This principle can be realized during
design by combining functions within the same part that were previously
accomplished by separate components in the product. The use of plastic molded
parts to substitute for sheet metal parts is an example of this principle. A more
complex geometry molded into a plastic part might replace several metal parts.

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Although the plastic part may seem to be more costly, the savings-in assembly
time probably justify the substitution in many cases.

 Use modular design: In automated assembly, increasing the number of separate

assembly steps that are done by a single automated system will result in an
increase in the downtime of the system. To reduce this effect, Riley suggests
that the design of the product be modular, with perhaps each module requiring
a maximum of 12 or 13 parts to be assembled on a single assembly system. Also,
the subassembly should be designed around a base part to which other
components are added.

 Reduce the number of fasteners required: Instead of using separate screws and
nuts, and similar fasteners, design the fastening mechanism into the component
design using snap fits and similar features. Also, design the product modules
so that several components are fastened simultaneously rather than each
component fastened separately.

 Reduce the need for multiple components to lie handled at once: The preferred
practice in automated assembly machine design is to separate the operations at
different stations rather than to handle and fasten multiple components
simultaneously at the same workstation. (It should be noted that robotics
technology is causing a rethinking of this practice since robots can be
programmed to perform more complex assembly tasks than a single station in a
mechanized assembly system.

 Limit the required directions of access: This principle simply means that the
number of directions in which new components are added to the existing
subassembly should be minimized. If all of the components can be added
vertically from above, this is the ideal situation. Obviously, the design of the
subassembly module determines this.

 Require high quality in components: High performance of the automated

assembly system requires consistently good quality of the components that are
added at each workstation. Poor-quality components cause jams in the
feeding and assembly mechanisms which cause downtime in the automated
system.

 Implement hopperability: This is a term that is used to identify the ease with
which a given component can be fed and oriented reliably for delivery from
the parts hopper to the assembly workhead.

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TYPES OF AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS

Based on the type of work transfer system that is used in the assembly system:
• Continuous transfer system
• Synchronous transfer system
• Asynchronous transfer system
• Stationary base part system

The first three types involve the same methods of workpart transport described in
automated flow line. In the stationary base part system, the base part to which the
other components are added is placed in a fixed location, where it remains during the
assembly work.

Based on physical configuration:

• Dial-type assembly machine
• In-line assembly machine
• Carousel assembly system
• Single-station assembly machine

The dial-type machine, the base partare indexed around a circular table or dial. The
workstations are stationary and usually located around the outside periphery of the
dial. The parts ride on the rotating table and arc registered or positioned, in turn, at each
station a new component is added to base part. This type of equipment is often
referred to as an indexing machine or dial index machine and the configuration is shown
in Figure 1 and example of six station rotary shown in figure 2.

Figure 1 Rotary configuration

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Figure 2 Example of 6 station rotary configuration for assembly

In-line type configuration

The in-line configuration assembly system consists of a sequence of workstations in a
more-or-less straight-line arrangement as shown in figure 3. An example of an in-line
transfer machine used for metal-cutting operations is illustrated in Figure 4. The in-line
assembly machine consists of a series of automatic workstations located along an in-line
transfer system. It is the automated version of the manual assembly line. Continuous,
synchronous, or asynchronous transfer systems can be used with the in-line
configuration.

Figure 3 In-line configuration for assembly system

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Figure 4 Example of 20 stations In-line configuration

Segmented In-line type

The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or more straight-line arrangement
which are usually perpendicular to each other with L-Shaped or U-shaped or
Rectangular shaped as shown in figure 5-7. The flow of work can take a few 90°
turns, either for workpieces reorientation, factory layout limitations, or other reasons,
and still qualify as a straight-line configuration.

Figure 5 L-shaped configuration

Figure 6 U-shaped configuration

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Figure 7 Rectangular-shaped configuration

Carousel assembly system

It represents a hybrid between the circular flow of work provided by the dial assembly
machine and straight work flow of the in-line. It is as shown in the figure 8

Figure 8 configuration of a carrousel assembly system

Single- station assembly machine

In the single-station assembly machine, the assembly operations are performed at a single
location (stationary base part system) as shown in figure 9. The typical operation involves
the placement of the base part at the workstation where various components are added to
the base. The components are delivered to the station by feeding mechanisms, and one or
more workheads perform the various assembly and fastening operations.

Figure 9 single-station assembly machine

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PARTS FEEDING DEVICES

In each of the configurations described above, a means of delivering the components to
the assembly workhead must be designed. In this section we discuss these devices
and their operation.

Elements of the parts delivery system

The hardware system that delivers components to the workhead in an automated
assembly system typically consists of the following elements as shown in figure 10:

Figure 10 elements of part delivery system

 Hopper: This is the container into which the components are loaded at the
workstation. A separate hopper is used for each component type. The
components are usually loaded into the hopper in bulk. This means that the parts
are randomly oriented initially in the hopper.

 Parts feeder: This is a mechanism that removes the components from the
hopper one at a time for delivery to the assembly workhead. The hopper and parts
feeder are often combined into one operating mechanism. The vibratory bowl
feeder, pictured in Figure 11, is a very common example of the hopper-feeder
combination.

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Figure 11 vibratory bowl feeder

 Selector and/or orienteer: These elements of the delivery system establish the
proper orientation of the components for the assembly workhead. A selector is a
device that acts as a filter, permitting only parts that are in the correct orientation
to pass through. Components that are not properly oriented are rejected back into
the hopper. An orientor is a device that allows properly oriented pans to pass
through but provides a reorientation of components that are not properly oriented
initially. Several selector and orientor schemes are illustrated in Figure 12.
Selector and orientor devices are often combined and incorporated into one
hopper-feeder system.

Figure 12 selector (a) and orientor (b)

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 Feed track: The preceding elements of the delivery system are usually located
some distance from the assembly workhead. A feed track is used to transfer the
components from the hopper and parts feeder to the location of the assembly
workhead, maintaining proper orientation of the parts during the transfer. There
are two general categories of feed tracks: gravity and powered. The gravity feed
track is most common. In this type the hopper and parts feeder are located at an
elevation that is above the elevation of the workhead. The force of gravity is used
to deliver the components to the workhead. The powered feed track uses vibratory
action, air pressure, or other means to force the parts to travel along the feed track
toward the assembly workhead.

 Escapement and placement device: The purpose of the escapement device is to

remove components from the feed track at time intervals that are consistent with
the cycle time of the assembly workhead. The placement device physically places
the component in the correct location at the workstation for the assembly operation
by the workhead. Several types of escapement and placement devices are shown in
Figure 13.

Figure 13 various escapement and placement devices

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Quantitative analysis of the delivery system operation

The parts feeding mechanism is capable of removing parts from the hopper at a certain
rate f . These parts are assumed to be in random orientation initially, and must be
presented to the selector or orientor to establish the correct orientation. In the case of
the selector, a certain proportion of the parts will be correctly oriented initially and
these will be allowed to pass through. The remaining proportion, which is incorrectly
oriented, will be rejected back into the hopper. In the case of the orientor, the parts
that are incorrectly oriented will be reoriented, resulting ideally in a 100% rate of parts
passing through the orientor device. In many delivery system designs, the functions of
the selector and the orientor will be combined. Let us define θ to be the proportion of
components that pass through the setector-orientor process and are correctly oriented
for delivery into the feed track. Hence the effective rate of delivery of components
from the hopper into the feed track will be f θ . The remaining proportion, (1- f θ ),
will be recirculated back into the hopper.

Assuming that the delivery rate of components f θ is greater than the cycle rate Rc of
the assembly machine, a means of limiting the size of the queue in the feed track must
be established. This is generally accomplished by placing a sensor (e.g., limit switch,
optical sensor, etc.) near the top of the feed track, which is used to turn off the feeding
mechanism when the feed track is full. This sensor is referred to as the high-level
sensor, and its location defines the active length Lf2 of the feed track. If the length of a
component in the feed track is Lc, the number of parts that can be held in the feed track is
nf2 = Lf2/Lc. The length of the components must be measured from a point on a given
component to the corresponding point on the next component in the queue to allow for
possible overlap of parts. The value of nf2 is the capacity of the feed track.

Another sensor is placed along the feed track at some distance from the first sensor and
is used to restart the feeding mechanism-again. Defining the location of this low-
level sensor as Lfl, the number of components in the feed track at this point is nf1 =
Lf1/Lc.

The rate at which the quantity of parts in the buffer will be reduced when the high-level
sensor is actuated = Rc, where Re is the theoretical cycle rate of the assembly
machine. On average, the rate at which the quantity of parts will increase upon
actuation of the low-level sensor is f θ - R C However, the rate of increase will
not be uniform due lo the random nature of the feeder-selector operation.

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Accordingly, the value of nf1l musl be made large enough to virtually eliminate the
probability of a stockout after the low-level sensor has turned on the feeder.

Figure 14 elements of the parts delivery system at an assembly workstation

Lf2
RC → Cycle rate of Assembly System nf2 = → Number of component in feed track
LC
LC → Length of component Lf1
nf 1 = →Number of components at low
level sensors
LC
Lf2 → Length of feed track (High level
sensors
Lf1 → Length of low level sensors
f→ The rate at which parts are removed from hopper

θ→ Proportionate of components that passes through

selector-orientor

f θ → Effective rate of delivery of components

ANALYSIS OF MULTISTATION ASSEMBLY MACHINES
f θ −RC →

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In this section we examine the operation and performance of automated assembly

machines that have several workstations and use a synchronous transfer system.
The types include the dial indexing machine, many in-line assembly systems, and
certain carousel systems. The measures of performance are production rate,
uptime efficiency, and cost. The analysis of an automated assembly machine with
multiple stations shares much in common with the upper-bound approach used for
metal machining transfer lines. Some modifications in the analysis must be made to
account for the fact that components are being added at the various workstations in
the assembly system. The general operation of the assembly system is pictured in
Figure 15. In developing the equations that govern the operation of the system, we
shall follow the general approach suggested by Boothroyd and Redford.

Figure 15 Multistation assembly line

We assume that the typical operation occurring at a workstation of an assembly

machine is one in which a component is added or joined in some fashion to an
existing assembly. The existing assembly consists of a base part plus the
components assembled to it at previous stations. The base part is launched onto the
line either at or before the first workstation. The components that are added must
be clean, uniform in size and shape, of high quality, and consistently oriented.
When the feed mechanism and assembly workhead attempt to join a component
that does not meet these specifications, the station can jam. When this occurs, it
can result in the shutdown of the entire machine until the fault is corrected. Thus,
in addition to the other mechanical and electrical failures that interrupt the
operation of a flow line, the problem of defective components is one that
specifically plagues the operation of an automatic assembly machine. This is the
problem we propose to deal with.

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The assembly machine as a game of chance

Defective parts are a fact of manufacturing life. Defects occur with a certain
fraction defective rate, q. In the operation of an assembly workstation, q can be
considered as the probability that the next component is defective. When an
attempt is made to feed and assemble a defective component, the defect might or
might not cause the station to jam. Let m equal the probability that a defect will
result in the malfunction and stoppage of the workstation. Since the values of q and
m may be different for different stations, we subscript these terms as qi and mi,
where i — 1, 2, ...n the number of stations on the assembly machine.

Considering what happens at a particular workstation, station i, there are three

possible events that might occur when the feed mechanism attempts to feed the
component and the assembly device attempts to join it to the existing assembly:
1. The component is defective and causes a station jam,
2. The component is defective but does not cause a station jam.
3. The component is not defective.

The probability of the first event is the product of the fraction defective rate for the
station, qi, multiplied by the probability that a defect will cause the station to stop,
mi,. the probability that a part will jam at station i. For an assembly machine,
Pi = mi qi

The second possible event, when the component is defective but does not cause a
station jam, has a probability given by

Pi = (1 − mi ) qi

With this outcome, a bad part is joined to the existing assembly, perhaps rendering
the entire assembly defective.

The third possibility is obviously the most desirable. The probability that the com-
ponent is not defective is equal to the proportion of good parts

Pi = (1 − qi )

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The probabilities of the three possible events must sum to unity.

mi qi + (1 − mi ) qi + (1 − qi ) = 1

To determine the complete distribution of possible outcomes that can occur on an n-

station assembly machine, we can multiply the terms of above Equation together
for all stations:
n

∏ m q + (1 − m ) q + (1 − q ) = 1
i =1
i i i i i

mi qi
In the special case of Eq., where all are equal and all are equal, then equation
becomes
n
 m q + (1 − m ) q + (1 − q )  = 1

Measures of performance
Fortunately, we are not required to calculate every term to make use of the concept
of assembly machine operation provided by above Equations. One of the
characteristics of performance that we might want to know is the proportion of
assemblies that contain one or more defective components. Two of the three terms
in above Equation represent events that result in the addition of good components
at a given station. The first term is mi qi . which indicates a line stop but also
means that a defective component has not been added to the assembly. The other
term is (1 − qi ) , which means that a good component has been added at the station.
The sum of these two terms represents the probability that a defective component
will not be added at station i. Multiplying these probabilities for all stations, we
get the proportion of acceptable product coming off the line, Pap
n
Pap = ∏  m q + (1 − q )
i =1
i i i

In the special case where all mi equal and all Qi are equal, then equation
are
becomes

n
Pa p =  m i q i + (1 − q i ) 

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If this is the proportion of assemblies with no defective components, the proportion

of assemblies that contain at least one defect is given by
n
Pqp = 1 − ∏  mi qi + (1 − qi ) 
i =1
In the special case where all mi are equal and all Qi are equal, then equation
becomes

n
, Pqp = 1 −  mi qi + (1 − qi ) 

In addition to the proportions of good and bad assemblies as measures of perfor-

mance for an assembly machine, we are also interested in the machine's production
rate, proportions of uptime and downtime, and average cost per unit produced.
To calculate production rate we must first determine the frequency of downtime
occurrences per cycle, f. If each station jam results in a machine downtime
occurrence, f can be found by taking the expected number of station jams per cycle.

n n
F = ∑ Pi = ∑ mi qi
i =1 i =1
In the special case where all mi are equal and all Qi are equal, then equation
becomes
F = nm q
Average production time per assembly is therefore given by
n
TP = TC + ∑ mi qiTD
i =1

Tc = ideal cycle time

Td = average downtime per occurrence

In the special case where all mi are equal and all Qi are equal, then equation
becomes

TP = TC + nm q TD

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The rate of production of acceptable product is given by equation

1
RP =
TP
n

∏ m q + (1 − q )
i =1
i i i
Pap
Rap = =
TP Tp

In the special case where all mi are equal and all Qi are equal, then equation
becomes
n

Rap =
( mq + (1 − q ) )
TP
The line efficiency is calculated as the ratio of ideal cycle time to average production
time.

TC TC
E= =
TP TC + nm q TD

The proportion of downtime, D, is the average downtime per cycle divided by the
average production time is given by

nm q TD nm q TD
D= =
TP TC + nm q TD

The cost per assembly produced, is given by

Cm + CL × TP + Ct Cm + CL × TP + Ct
C pc = n
=
( mq + (1 − q ) ) Pap

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1. A 10 station in-line assembly machine has a 6-s ideal cycle time. The base part is
automatically loaded prior to the first station. The fraction defect rate at each of 10 stations
is equal to 0.01 and the probability that a defect will jam is 0.5. when jam occurs, the
average down time is 2 minutes. Determine the average production rate, the yield of good
assemblies, and the uptime efficiency of the assembly machine.

The average production cycle time = TP = TC + nm q TD

TP = 0.1 + 10 × 0.5 × 0.01× 2.0 = 0.2 min

1 1
RP = = = 5 × 60 = 300 assemblies / Hr
TP 0.2

The yield of good products

n
Pap =  mi qi + (1 − qi ) 

10
Pap = 0.5 × 0.01 + (1 − 0.01)  = 0.9511
Uptime efficiency

TC 0.1
E= = = 0.50 = 50%
TP 0.2

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7.5 ANALYSIS OF A SINGLE-STATION ASSEMBLY MACHINE

The single-station assembly machine can be pictured as shown in Figure 16. We
assume a single workhead, with several components feeding into the station to be
assembled. Let us use n to represent the number of distinct assembly elements that
are performed on the machine. Each element has an element time, Tei, where i =
1,2,..., n. The ideal cycle time for the single-station assembly machine is the sum of
the individual element times of the assembly operations to be performed on the
machine, plus the handling time to load the base part into position and unload the
completed assembly. We can express this ideal cycle time as

Figure 16 Single station assembly machine

where Th is the handling time,

n
TC = Th + ∑i=1
T ei

Many of the assembly elements involve the addition of a component to the existing
subassembly. As in our analysis of the multiple-station assembly system, each
component type has a certain fraction defect rate, qi and there is a certain probability
that a defective component will jam the workstation, mi When a jam occurs, the
assembly machine stops, and it takes an average Td to clear the jam and restart the
system. The inclusion of downtime resulting from jams in the machine cycle time
gives.
Average production time per assembly is therefore given by
n
TP = TC + ∑ mi qiTD
i =1

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Tc = ideal cycle time

Td = average downtime per occurrence

In the special case where all mi are equal and all Qi are equal, then equation
becomes
TP = TC + nm q TD
The rate of production of acceptable product is given by equation
1
RP =
TP
n

∏ m q + (1 − q ) 
i =1
i i i
Pap
Rap = =
TP Tp

In the special case where all mi are equal and all Qi are equal, then equation
becomes
n

Rap =
( mq + (1 − q ) )
TP
The line efficiency is calculated as the ratio of ideal cycle time to average production
time.

TC TC
E= =
TP TC + nm q TD

The proportion of downtime, D, is the average downtime per cycle divided by the
average production time is given by

nm q TD nm q TD
D= =
TP TC + nm q TD

The cost per assembly produced, is given by

Cm + CL × TP + Ct Cm + CL × TP + Ct
C pc = n
=
( mq + (1 − q ) ) Pap

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AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE SYSTEMS

An automated or automatic guided vehicle system (AGVS) is a materials handling
system that uses independently operated, self-propelled vehicles that are guided along
defined pathways in the floor. The vehicles are powered by means of on-board batteries
that allow operation for several hours (8 to 16 hours is typical) between recharging.
The definition of the pathways is generally accomplished using wires embedded in the
floor or reflective paint on the floor surface. Guidance is achieved by sensors on the
vehicles that can follow the guide wires or paint.

Automated guided vehicles (AGVs) increase efficiency and reduce costs by helping
to automate a manufacturing facility or warehouse.

AGVS can carry loads or tow objects behind them in trailers to which they can
autonomously attach. The trailers can be used to move raw materials or finished
product. The AGV can also store objects on a bed. The objects can be placed on a
set of motorized rollers (conveyor) and then pushed off by reversing them. Some
AGVs use forklifts to lift objects for storage. AGVs are employed in nearly every
industry, including, pulp, paper, metals, newspaper, and general manufacturing.
Transporting materials such as food, linen or medicine in hospitals is also done.

There are a number of different types of AGVS all of which operate according to the
preceding description. The types can be classified as follows:
 Driverless trains: This type consists of a towing vehicle (which is the AGV) that
pulls one or more trailers to form a train. It was the first type of AGVS to be
introduced and is still popular. It is useful in applications where heavy payloads
must be moved large distances in warehouses or factories with intermediate
pickup and drop-off points along the route. Figure 17 illustrates the driverless-
train AGVS.

Figure 17 Driverless trains

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 AGVS pallet trucks: Automated guided pallet trucks are used to move palletized
loads along predetermined routes. In the typical application the vehicle is
backed into the loaded pallet by a human worker who steers the truck and uses
its forks to elevate the load slightly. Then the worker drives the pallet truck to
the guidepatn, programs its destination, and the vehicle proceeds automatically to
the destination for unloading. The capacity of an AGVS pallet truck ranges up to
6000 Ib, and some trucks are capable of handling two pallets rather than one. A
more recent introduction related to the pallet truck is the forklift AGV. This
vehicle can achieve significant vertical movement of its forks to reach loads on
shelves. Figure18 illustrates this vehicle type.

Figure 19 AGV pallet trucks

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 AGVS unit load carriers. This type of AGVS is used to move unit loads from
one station to another station. They are often equipped for automatic loading and
unloading by means of powered rollers, moving belts, mechanized lift platforms,
or other devices. The unit load carrier is pictured in Figure 20. Variations of the unit
load carrier include light-load AGVs and assembly line AGVs. The light-load
AGV is a relatively small vehicle with a corresponding iight load capacity
(typically 500 Ib or less). It does not require the same large aisle width as the
conventional AGV. Light-load guided vehicles are designed to move small toads
(single parts, small baskets or tote pans of parts, etc.) through plants of limited size
engaged in light manufacturing. The assembly line AGVS is designed to carry a
partially completed subassembly through a sequence of assembly workstations to
build the product.

Figure 21 AGV unit load carrier

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Vehicle guidance and routing

There are several functions that must be performed to operate any automated
guided vehicle system successfully. These functions are:
1, Vehicle guidance and routing
2, Traffic control and safety
3, System management

We describe these functions in this and the following two subsections.

The term guidance system refers to the method by which the AGVS pathways are
defined and the vehicle control systems that follow the pathways. As indicated above,
there are two principal methods currently in use lo define the pathways along the floor:
embedded guide wires and paint strips. Of the two types, the guide wire system is
the more common in warehouse and factory applications.

In the guide wire method the wires are usually embedded in a small channel cut into
the surface of the floor. The channel is typically about 1/8 in. wide and 1/2 in. deep.
After the guide wires are installed, the channel slot is filled so as to eliminate the
discontinuity in the floor surface as shown in figure 22. An alternative but less
permanent way to install the guide wires is to tape them to the floor. A frequency
generator provides the guidance signal carried in the wire. The signal is of relatively
low voltage (less than 40 V), low current (less than 400 mA), and has a frequency in
the range 1 to 15 kHz. This signal level creates a magnetic field along the pathway
that is followed by sensors on-board each vehicle. The operation of a typical system is
illustrated in Figure 22 Two sensors (coils) are mounted on the vehicle on either side of
the guide wire. When the vehicle is moving along a course such that the guide wire is
directly between the two coils, the intensity of the magnetic field measured by each
coil will be equal. If the vehicle strays to one side or the other, or if the guide wire
path curves, the magnetic field intensity at the two sensors will be different. This
difference is used to control the steering motor, which makes the required changes in
vehicle direction to equalize the two sensor signals, thereby tracking the defined
pathway.

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Figure 22 wire guided AGV

When paint strips are used to define the vehicle pathways, the vehicle possesses an
optical sensor system that is capable of tracking the paint. The strips can be taped,
sprayed, or painted on the floor. One system uses a l-in.-wide paint strip containing
fluorescent particles that reflect an ultraviolet (UV) light source on the vehicle. An on-
board sensor detects the reflected light in the strip and controls the steering
mechanism to follow it. The paint guidance system is useful in environments where
electrical noise would render the guide wire system unreliable or when the installation
of guide wires in the floor surface would not be appropriate. One problem with the
paint strip guidance method is that the paint strip must be maintained (kept clean and
unscratched).

A safety feature used in the operation of most guidance systems is automatic stopping of
the vehicle in the event that it accidentally strays more than a few inches (typically 2
to 6 in.) from the guide path. This automatic-stopping feature prevents the vehicle
from running wild in the building. Alternatively, in the event that the vehicle is off
the guide path (e.g., for manual loading of a pallet truck), it is capable of locking
onto the guide wire or paint strip if moved within the same few inches of it. The
distance is referred to as the vehicle's acquisition distance.

The use of microprocessor controls on-board the vehicles has led to the development of
a feature called dead reckoning. This term refers to the capability of the vehicle to
travel along a route that does not follow the defined pathway in the floor. The micro-
processor computes the number of wheel rotations and the operation of the steering
motor required to move along the desired path. Dead reckoning might be employed
by the vehicle to cross a steel plate in the factory floor (where guide wires cannot be

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installed), or to depart from the guide path for positioning at a load/unload station. At
the completion of the dead-reckoning maneuver, the vehicle is programmed to return
to within (he acquisition distance of the guide path to resume normal guidance
control.

Routing in an AGVS is concerned with the problem of selecting among alternative

pathways available to a vehicle in its travel to a defined destination point in the
system. A typical guided vehicle layout, one that exploits the capabilities of modern
AGVS technology, contains features such as multiple loops, branches, side tracks,
and spurs, in addition to the required pickup and drop-off stations. Vehicles in the
system must decide which path to take to reach a defined destination point.

When a vehicle approaches a branching point in which the guide path splits into two
(or more) directions, a decision must be made as to which path the vehicle should
take. This is sometimes referred to as a decision point for the vehicle. There are two
methods used in commercial AGV systems to permit the vehicle to decide which
path to take:
1. Frequency select method
2. Path switch select method

In the frequency select method, the guide wires leading into the two separate paths at
the branch have different frequencies. As the vehicle enters the decision point, it reads
an identification code on the floor to identify its location. Depending on its
programmed destination, the vehicle selects one of the guide paths by deciding
which frequency to track. This method requires a separate frequency generator for
each frequency that is used in the guide path layout. This usually means that two or
three generators are needed in the system. Additional channels must often be cut into
the floor with the frequency select method to provide for bypass channels where only
the main channel needs to be powered for vehicle tracking.

The path switch select method uses a single frequency throughout the guide path
layout. In order to control the path of a vehicle at a decision point, the power is
switched off in ail branches except the one on which the vehicle is to travel. To
accomplish routing by the path switch select method, the guide path layout most be
divided into blocks that can be independently turned on and off by means of controls
mounted on the floor near their respective blocks. These control units are operated by
the vehicles as they move in the various blocks. As a vehicle enters a decision point, it
activates a floor-mounted switching device connected to the control unit for the
relevant block. The control unit activates the desired guide path and turns off the
alternative branch or branches.

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Traffic control and safety

The purpose of traffic control for an AGVS is to prevent collisions between vehicles
traveling along the same guide path in the layout. This purpose is usually
accomplished by means of a control system called the blocking system. The term
"blocking" suggests that a vehicle traveling along a given guide path is in some way
prevented from hitting any vehicle ahead of it. There are several means used in
commercial AGV systems to accomplish blocking. They are:
1. On-board vehicle sensing
2. Zone blocking

On-board vehicle sensing and zone blocking are often used in combination to
implement a comprehensive blocking system.

On-board vehicle sensing (sometimes called forward sensing) involves the use of
some form of sensor system to detect the presence of vehicles and carts ahead on the
same guide wire. The sensors used on commercial guided vehicles include optical
sensors and ultrasonic systems. When the on-board sensor detects an obstacle (e.g,
another guided vehicle) in front of it, the vehicle stops. When the obstacle is removed,
the vehicle proceeds. Assuming that the sensor system is 100% effective, collisions
between vehicles are avoided and traffic is controlled. Unfortunately, the effectiveness
of forward sensing is limited by the capability of the sensor system to detect vehicles
in front of it on the guide path. Since the sensors themselves are most effective in
detecting obstacles directly ahead of the vehicle, these systems are most appropriate
on layouts that contain long stretches of straight pathways. They are less effective at
turns and convergence points where forward vehicles may not be directly in front of
the sensor.

The concept of zone control is simple. The AGVS layout is divided into separate zones,
and the operating rule is that no vehicle is permitted to enter a zone if that zone is
already occupied by another vehicle. The length of a zone is sufficient to hold one
vehicle (or a train in driverless train systems) plus an allowance for safety and other
considerations. These other considerations include the number of vehicles in the
system, the size and complexity of the layout, and the objective of minimizing the
number of separate zone controls. When one vehicle occupies a given zone, any
trailing vehicle is not allowed into that zone. The leading vehicle must proceed into
the next zone before the trailing vehicle can occupy the given zone.

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By controlling the forward movement of vehicles in the separate zones, collisions are
prevented and traffic in the overall system is controlled. The concept is illustrated in
Figure 23 in its simplest form. More complicated zone control schemes separate any
two vehicles by a blocked zone.

Figure 23 zone control

One means of implementing zone control is to use separate control units for each
zone. These controls are mounted along the guide path and are actuated by the
vehicle in the zone. When a vehicle enters a given zone, it activates the block in the
previous (upstream) zone to block any trailing vehicle from moving forward and
colliding with the present vehicle. As the present vehicle moves into the next
(downstream) zone, it activates the block in that zone and deactivates the block in the
previous zone. In effect, zones are turned on and off to control vehicle movement by
the blocking system.

In addition to avoiding collisions between vehicles, a related objective is the safety of

human beings who might be located along the route of the vehicles traveling in the
system. There are several devices that are usually included on an automatic guided
vehicle to achieve this safety objective. One of the safety devices is an obstacle-
detection sensor located at the front of each vehicle. This is often the same on-board
sensor as that used in the blocking system to detect the presence of other vehicles
located in front of the sensor. The sensor can detect not only other vehicles, but also
people and obstacles in the path of the vehicle. These obstacle-detection systems are
usually based on optical, infrared, or ultrasonic sensors. The vehicles are
programmed either to stop when an obstacle is sensed ahead of it, or to slow down.
The reason for slowing down is that the sensed object may be located off to the side of
the vehicle path, or directly ahead of the vehicle beyond a turn in the guide path. In
either of these cases, the vehicle should be permitted to proceed at a slower (safer)
speed until it has passed the object or rounded the turn.

Another safety device included on virtually all commercial AG vehicles is an

emergency bumper. This bumper surrounds the front of the vehicle and protrudes
ahead of it by a distance which can be a foot or more. When the bumper makes
contact with an object, the vehifcle is programmed to brake immediately. Depending on
the speed of the vehicle, its load, and other conditions, the braking distance will vary

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from several inches to several feet. Most vehicles are programmed to require manual
restarting after an obstacle encounter has occurred with the emergency bumper.

Other safety devices on the vehicles include warning lights (blinking or rotating lights)
and/or warning bells. These devices alert people that the vehicle is present.

Finally, another safety feature that prevents runaway vehicles is the inherent op-
erating characteristic of the guidance system: If the vehicle strays by more than a
few inches from the defined path, the vehicle is programmed to stop.

System management
Managing the operations of an AGVS deals principally with the problem of
dispatching vehicles to the points in the system where they are needed (e.g., to
perform pickups and deliveries) in a timely and efficient manner. The system
management function depends on reliable operation of the other system functions
discussed above (guidance, routing, traffic control). There are a number of methods
used in commercial A.GV systems for dispatching vehicles. These methods are
generally used in combination to maximize responsiveness and effectiveness of the
overall system. The dispatching methods include:
* On-board control panel
* Remote call stations
* Central computer control

Each guided vehicle is equipped with some form of control panel for the purpose
of manual vehicle control, vehicle programming, and other functions. Most
commercial vehicles have the capacity to be dispatched by means of this control
panel to a given station in the AGVS layout. Dispatching with an on-board control
panel represents the lowest level of sophistication among the possible methods. Its
advantage is that it provides the AGVS with flexibility and responsiveness to
changing demands on the handling system. Its disadvantage is that it requires
manual attention.

The use of remote call stations is another method that allows the AGVS to respond
to changing demand patterns in the system. The simplest form of call station is a
press button mounted near the load/unload station. This provides a signal to any
passing vehicle to stop at the station in order to accomplish a load transfer
operation. The vehicle might then be dispatched to the desired location by means
of the on-board control panel.

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More sophisticated call stations consist of control panels mounted near the various
stations along the layout. This method permits a vehicle to be stopped at a given
station, and its next destination to be programmed from the remote call panel. This
represents a more automated approach to the dispatching function and is useful in
AGV systems that are capable of automatic loading and unloading operations.
Both of the call station methods described here involve a human interface with the
AGVS at the load/unload station. It is also possible to automate the call function at
an automatic load/unload station. One example is an automated production
workstation that receives raw materials and sends completed parts by means of the
AGVS. The workstation is interfaced with the AGVS to call for vehicles as needed
to perform the loading and unloading procedures.

In large factory and warehouse systems involving a high level of automation, the
AGVS servicing the factory or warehouse must also be highly automated to
achieve efficient operation of the entire production-storage-handling system. Central
computer control is used to accomplish automatic dispatching of vehicles according to a
preplanned schedule of pickups and deliveries in the layout and/or in response to
calls from the various load/unload stations in the system. In this dispatching method, the
central computer issues commands to the vehicles in the system concerning their
destinations and operations to perform. To accomplish the dispatching function, the
central computer must possess real-time information about the location of each vehicle
in the system so that it can make appropriate decisions concerning which vehicles to
dispatch to what locations. Hence, the vehicles must continually communicate their
whereabouts to the central controller.

There are differences in the way these central computer dispatching systems operate.
One of the differences involves the distribution of the decision-making responsibilities
between the central controller and the individual vehicles. At one extreme, the central
computer makes nearly all the decisions about routing of vehicles and other
functions. The central computer plans out the routes for each vehicle and controls the
operation of the guide path zones and other functions, At the opposite extreme, each
individual vehicle possesses a substantial decision-making capability to make its own
routing selections and to control its own operations. The central computer is still
needed to control the overall scheduling and determine which vehicles should go to the
various demand points in the system. However, the vehicles themselves decide which
routes to take and control their own load transfer operations. Vehicles in this second
category are often referred to as "smart" vehicles.
To accomplish the system management function, it is helpful to monitor the overall
operations of the AGVS by means of some form of graphics display. Even with central
computer control it is still desirable for human managers to be able to see the overall
system operations, in order to monitor its general status and to spot problems (e.g.,
traffic jams, breakdowns, etc.). A CRT color graphics display is often used for these
purposes in modem guided vehicle systems.

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Another useful tool in carrying out the systems management function is a system
performance report for each shift (or other appropriate time period) of AGVS
operation. These periodic reports of system performance provide summary
information about proportion uptime, downtime, number of transactions (deliveries)
made during a shift, and more detailed data about each station and each vehicle in the
system. Hard-copy reports containing this type of information permit the system
managers to compare operations from shift to shift and month to month to maintain a
high level of overall system performance.

Applications
Automated Guided Vehicles can be used in a wide variety of applications to transport
many different types of material including pallets, rolls, racks, carts, and containers.

AGVs excel in applications with the following characteristics:

• Repetitive movement of materials over a distance

• Regular delivery of stable loads
• Medium throughput/volume
• When on-time delivery is critical and late deliveries are causing inefficiency
• Operations with at least two shifts
• Processes where tracking material is important

Driverless train operations

Storage/distribution
Assembly line operations
FMS
Mail delivery in offices
Hospitals
Raw Material Handling
Work-in-Process Movement
Pallet Handling
Finished Product Handling
Trailer Loading
Roll Handling

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Battery Charging
1. Driverless train operations: These applications involve the movement of large
quantities of materials over relatively large distances. For example, the moves
are with in a large warehouse or factory building, or between buildings in a
large storage depot. For the movement of trains consisting of 5 to 10 trailers,
this becomes an efficient handling method,

2. Storage/distribution systems: Unit load carriers and pallet trucks are typically
used in these applications. These storage and distribution operations involve the
movement of materials in unit loads (sometimes individual items are moved)
from or to specific locations. The applications often interface the AGVS with
some other automated handling or storage system, such as an automated
storage/retrieval system (AS/RS) in a distribution center. The AGVS delivers
incoming items or unit loads (contained on pallets) from the receiving dock to
the AS/RS, which places the items in storage, and the AS/RS retrieves
individual pallet loads or items from storage and transfers them to vehicles
for delivery to the shipping dock. When the rates of incoming loads and the
outgoing loads are in balance, this mode of -operation permits loads to be
carried in both directions by the AGVS vehicles, thereby increasing the
handling system efficiency.

This type of storage/distribution operation can also be applied in light

manufacturing and assembly operations in which work-in-progress is stored in
a central storage area and distributed to individual workstations for assembly
or processing. Electronics assembly is an example of these types of
applications. Components are "kitted" at the storage area and delivered in tote
pans or trays by the guided vehicles to the assembly workstations in the
plant. Light-load AGV systems are used in these applications.

3. Assembly-line operations: AGV systems are being used in a growing number

of assembly-line applications, based on a trend that began in Europe. In these
applications, the production rate is relatively low (perhaps 4 to 10 min per
station in the line) and there are a variety of different models made on the
production line. 'Between the work stations, components are kitted and
placed on the vehicle for the assembly operations that are to be performed
on the partially completed product at the next station. The workstations are
generally arranged in parallel configurations to add to the flexibility of the
line. Unit load carriers and light-load guided vehicles are the type of AGVS
used in these assembly lines.

4. Flexible manufacturing systems: Another growing application of AGVS

technology is in flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). In this application, the
guided vehicles are used as the materials handling system in the FMS. The

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vehicles deliver work from the staging area (where work is placed on pallet
fixtures, usually manually) to the individual workstations in the system. The
vehicles also move work between stations in the manufacturing system. At a
workstation, the work is transferred from the vehicle platform into the work
area of the station (usually, the table of a machine tool) for processing. At the
completion of processing by that station a vehicle returns to pick up the
work and transport it to the next area. AGV systems provide a versatile
material handling system to complement the flexibility of the FMS operation.

5. Miscellaneous applications: Other applications of automated guided vehicle

systems include non manufacturing and non warehousing applications, such as
mail delivery in office buildings and hospital material handling operations.
Hospital guided vehicles transport meal trays, linen, medical and laboratory
supplies, and other materials between various departments in the building.
These applications typically require movement of the vehicles between
different floors of the hospital, and hospital AGV systems have the capability
to summon and use elevators for this purpose.

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