182 Chapter 6 Interphase Transport in Isothermal Systems

1.0

0.5

0.2

0.1 \

ч -/
|

о
0.05
j \
s
I 0.02 s
Turb uler It
\
0.01
::k/D = 0.0 )4

0.001

4
ft
0.005
- O.OOC 4

Si kcallys
1
•• • m

нr u..
*—0.C )0(31
•*——4—^
0.002 'ЛОС
>ч
0.001
10 3 104 10 5 10 6 10 7
Reynolds number Re = D<v> p/fi

Fig. 6.2-2. Friction factor for tube flow (see definition of/in Eqs. 6.1-2 and 6.1-3. [Curves of L. F. Moody,
Trans. ASME, 66, 671-684 (1944) as presented in W. L. McCabe and J. C. Smith, Unit Operations of Chemi-
cal Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York (1954).]

which is known as the Blasius formula.2 Equation 5.5-1 (with 2.5 replaced by 2.45 and 1.75
by 2.00) is equivalent to

- y = 4.0 log 10 ReV7 - 0.4 2.3 X 103 < Re < 4 X 106 (6.2-13)

3
which is known as the Prandtl formula. Finally, corresponding to Eq. 5.5-2, we have
5a)
J ^2/(a+i) where (6.2-14)
2aa{a + \){a + 2)
and a = 3/(2 In Re). This has been found to represent the experimental data well for 3.07
X 103 < Re < 3.23 X 106. Equation 6.2-14 is called the Barenblatt formula*
A further relation, which includes the dashed curves for rough pipes in Fig. 6.2-2, is
the empirical Haaland equation5
9 4 8
1 **i
— =-3.6 log фГб.9
^ 4—
_ (k/D\°' ~]
J J [4XlO <Re < 1 0
[0<k/D<0j
0.05
(6.2-15)

2
H. Blasius, Forschungsarbeiten des Ver. Deutsch. Ing., no. 131 (1913).
3
L. Prandtl, Essentials of Fluid Dynamics, Hafner, New York (1952), p. 165.
4
G. I. Barenblatt, Scaling, Self-Similarity, and Intermediate Asymptotics, Cambridge University Press
(1996), §10.2.
5
S. E. Haaland, Trans. ASME, JFE, 105, 89-90 (1983). For other empiricisms see D. J. Zigrang and
N. D. Sylvester, AIChE Journal, 28, 514-515 (1982).
192 Chapter 6 Interphase Transport in Isothermal Systems

X В UI•ke and Plum mer

0 E r g un
100 \ л
- ivicircuin
о
%
° n
^ Oman and Watson
6

4
f

3
4
2

A
10 X
о

4 N. *4v
ч
5
V ^ Д А

\ 4J Ergun equation
• * *

4 \
4 \ д о
3
хдд.
\
*x

1
X >
2 M
• i •*• 3К D n

В urke-Plu mmer equ ati( )П д x

1
3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6 3 4
10 10 3

Fig. 6.4-2. The Ergun equation for flow in packed beds, and the two related asymptotes, the Blake-Kozeny equa-
tion and the Burke-Plummer equation [S. Ergun, Chem. Eng. Prog., 48, 89-94 (1952)].

The above discussion of packed beds illustrates how one can often combine solu-
tions of elementary problems to create useful models for complex systems. The constants
appearing in the models are then determined from experimental data. As better data be-
come available the modeling can be improved.

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. How are graphs of friction factors versus Reynolds numbers generated from experimental
data, and why are they useful?
2. Compare and contrast the friction factor curves for flow in tubes and flow around spheres.
Why do they have different shapes?
3. In Fig. 6.2-2, why does the / versus Re curve for turbulent flow lie above the curve for laminar
flow rather than below?
4. Discuss the caveat after Eq. 6.2-18. Will the use of the mean hydraulic radius for laminar flow
predict a pressure drop that is too high or too low for a given flow rate?
5. Can friction factor correlations be used for unsteady flows?
6. What is the connection, if any, between the Blake-Kozeny equation (Eq. 6.4-9) and Darcy's
law (Eq. 4C.3-2)?
 §7.5 Estimation of the Viscous Loss 207

Table 7.5-1 Brief Summary of Friction Loss Factors for Use with Eq. 7.5-10
(Approximate Values for Turbulent Flow)fl

Disturbances ev

Sudden changes in cross-sectional area^

Rounded entrance to pipe 0.05
Sudden contraction 0.45(1 - j8)

- i
Sudden expansion'

Orifice (sharp-edged) 2.71(1 -

Fittings and valves

90° elbows (rounded) 0.4-0.9
90° elbows (square) 1.3-1.9
45° elbows 0.3-0.4
Globe valve (open) 6-10
Gate valve (open) 0.2
a
Taken from H. Kramers, Physische Transportverschijnselen, Technische Hogeschool Delft, Holland (1958),
pp. 53-54.
b
Here (3 = (smaller cross-sectional area)/(larger cross-sectional area).
c
See derivation from the macroscopic balances in Example 7.6-1. If /3 = 0, then Ev = \{v)2, where (v) is the
velocity upstream from the enlargement.

Most flow systems contain various "obstacles," such as fittings, sudden changes in
diameter, valves, or flow measuring devices. These also contribute to the friction loss Ev.
Such additional resistances may be written in the form of Eq. 7.5-4, with ev determined by
one of two methods: (a) simultaneous solution of the macroscopic balances, or (b) experi-
mental measurement. Some rough values of ev are tabulated in Table 7.5-1 for the conven-
tion that (v) is the average velocity downstream from the disturbance. These ev values are
for turbulent flow for which the Reynolds number dependence is not too important.
Now we are in a position to rewrite Eq. 7.4-7 in the approximate form frequently used
for turbulent flow calculations in a system composed of various kinds of piping and addi-
tional resistances:

M - v\) v2f /) - 2
lv e (7.5-10)
sum over all^h /i sum over all
sections of fittings, valves,
straight conduits meters, etc.

Here Rh is the mean hydraulic radius defined in Eq. 6.2-16,/is the friction factor defined
in Eq. 6.1-4, and ev is the friction loss factor given in Table 7.5-1. Note that the vx and v2 in
the first term refer to the velocities at planes 1 and 2; the v in the first sum is the average
velocity in the zth pipe segment; and the v in the second sum is the average velocity
downstream from the zth fitting, valve, or other obstacle.

EXAMPLE 7.5-1 What is the required power output from the pump at steady state in the system shown in Fig.
7.5-1? The water (p = 62.4 lbw/ft3; /л = 1.0 cp) is to be delivered to the upper tank at a rate of
Power Requirement 12 ft3/min. All of the piping is 4-in. internal diameter smooth circular pipe.
for Pipeline Flow