Direct methods of formation evaluation:

❖ (Unit 1) Drill cutting, return mud analysis for

oil
and gas.
❖ (Unit 2) Core graph, cutting and mud logs.
❖ (Unit 3) Evaluation tools.
The birth of logging can be dated to the first recorded event at Pechelbronn
on September 5, 1927 where H. Doll and the Schlumberger brothers (and a
few others) made a semicontinuous resistivity measurement in that tired old
field in Alsace.

The operation was performed with a rudimentary device (a sonde) consisting

of a bakelite cylinder with a couple of metallic electrodes on its exterior

Sonde are generally cylindrical devices with an outside diameter on the order
of 4 in. or less; this is to accommodate operation in boreholes as small as 6
in. in diameter. Their length varies depending on the sensor array used and
the complexity of associated electronics required. It is possible to connect a
number of devices concurrently, forming tool strings as long as 100 ft.

Sondes are designed to be operated in a centralized position in the borehole.

This operation is achieved by the use of bow-springs attached to the exterior,
or by more sophisticated hydraulically actuated “arms.”

Some measurements require that the sensor package (in this case called a
pad) be in intimate contact with the formation.
This is also achieved by the use of a hydraulically actuated back-up arm

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On the right is an example of a centralized device which uses four actuated arms. There
is a measurement pad at the extremity of each arm. Second from the right is a more
sophisticated pad device, showing the actuated back-up arm in its fully extended
position. Third from the right is an example of a tool which is generally kept centered in
the borehole by external bow-springs, which are not shown in the photo.

The dipmeter, on the left, has sensors on four actuated arms, which are shown in their
fully extended position

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❑ Attached to the bottom of one of its four arms is an additional electrode array
embedded in a rubber “pad.” It is followed by a sonic logging tool, characterized by a
slotted housing, and then a density device with its hydraulically activated back-up arm
fully extended.
❑The tool on the extreme right is another version of a dipmeter with multiple
electrodes on each pad. Courtesy of Schlumberger

❑The actual logging speeds vary depending on the nature of the device.
Measurements which are subject to statistical precision errors or require mechanical
contact between sensor and formation tend to be run more slowly, between 600 ft
and 1,800 ft/h newer tools run as fast as 3,600 ft/h. Some acoustic and electrical
devices can be withdraw from the well, while recording their measurements, at much
greater speeds

❑ The traditional sampling provides one averaged measurement for every 6 in. of
tool travel. For some devices that have good vertical resolution, the sampling interval
is 1.2 in.

❑ Currently, over fifty different types of these logging tools exist in order to meet
various information needs and functions. Some of them are passive measurement
devices; others exert some influence on the formation being traversed. Their
measurements are transmitted to the surface by means of the wire line.

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Logging….how do we get the
data ?
Logging while Drilling Wireline Logging Horizontal Well Logging

Cable side-entry sub

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 Open Hole logging provides the most important source of information for well
evaluation.

Well logging was introduced to the oil industry over 70 years ago and since that
time sophistication of measurements and techniques for acquisition has changed
enormously.

Open hole logging consists of lowering a set of sensors in the well to record the
formation properties as a function of depth.

The measurements can be either performed after a section of the well has been
drilled or while the well is being drilled.

After a section of the well is drilled, measurements are made by lowering a set of
tools on a seven conductor cable and is known as Wireline Logging.

The measurement of formation properties can also be made while the well is being
drilled by placing the sensors in the drill string and is known as Logging While
Drilling.

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Logging: the
Equipment

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Logging: the
Equipment

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 Continuous recording of geophysical parameters
along a borehole produces a geophysical well
log.

Value of measurement is plotted continuously

against depth in the well.

Example, resistivity log is a continuous plot of a

formation’s resistivity from the bottom of the well
to
the top.

Most appropriate name for this continuous depth-

related record is a wireline geophysical well log,
conveniently shortened to well log or log.

Fig. 1. A well log.

Representation of the first ‘log’ made at Pechelbronn, Alsace, France,
in 1927 by H. Droll.
Well Logs – the different types

Different modern geophysical well logs exist.

They are records of sophisticated geophysical measurements along a borehole.
These may be measurements of –
- spontaneous phenomena, such as natural radioactivity
(the gamma ray log), which requires a tool consisting simply of a very
sensitive radiation detector

- or they may be induced, as with the formation velocity log (sonic log),
in which a tool emits sound into the formation and measures the time
taken for the sound to reach a receiver at a set distance along the tool
(Table 1.).
Table 1. Classification of the common wireline geophysical well measurements
(in ‘open hole’).

Log Type Formation parameter measured

Mechanical measurements Caliper Hole diameter

Spontaneous measurements Temperature Borehole temperature

SP (self-potential) Spontaneous electrical currents
Gamma ray Natural radioactivity

Induced measurements Resistivity Resistance to electrical currents

Induction Conductivity of electrical current
Sonic Velocity of sound propagation
Density Reaction to gamma ray bombardment
Photoelectric Reaction to gamma ray bombardment
Neutron Reaction to neutron bombardment
Well Logs – the necessity
Geophysical well logging is necessary because geological sampling
during drilling (‘cuttings sampling’) leaves a very imprecise record of the
formations encountered.

Entire formation samples can be brought to the surface by mechanical

coring, but this is both slow and expensive.

The results of coring are unequivocal.

Logging is precise, but equivocal in that it need interpretation to bring a

log to the level of geological or petrophysical experience.

However, logs fill the gap between ‘cuttings’ and ‘cores’, and with
experience, calibration and computers, they can almost replace cores,
as they certainly contain enough information to put outcrop reality
into the subsurface.

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Well Logs – the making
Wireline geophysical well logs are recorded when the drilling tools are no
longer in the hole.
‘Open-hole’ logs, (open-hole indicates that the formation forms the wall of
a well, as opposed to ‘cased-hole’, in which a tube of metal casing lines the
well) are recorded immediately after drilling.

MWD (measurement while drilling) or LWD (logging while drilling) logs, by

contrast are made while the formation is drilled.
Quite different techniques are made to record MWD and LWD logs but the
results are comparable to open hole wireline logs.

Wireline logs are made using highly specialized equipment entirely separate
from that used for drilling.

Onshore, a motorized logging truck is used which brings its array of surface
recorders, computers and a logging drum and cable to the drill site.
Offshore, the same equipment is installed in a small cabin left permanently on
the rig.
Both truck and cabin use a variety of interchangeable logging tools, which are
lowered into the well on the logging cable (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2.
Well Logs – the making
Logs are recorded digitally.

Sample rate approx. once every 15 cm.

Huge amount of data representing each logging run is fed into the
computer of the surface unit.

There is generally an instantaneous display for quality control and a full

print-out immediately the log is finished.

Raw data are stored on magnetic tape for future processing and editing.
To run wireline logs, hole is cleaned and stabilized and drilling equipment
extracted.
First logging tool is attached to logging cable (wireline) and lowered into hole
to TD.
Most logs are run while pulling the tool up from the bottom of the hole.

The cable attached to the tool acts both as a support for the tool and as a canal
for data transmission.
Outside consists of galvanized steel, while electrical conductors are insulated
in the interior (Fig. 3).

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Well Logs – the making

Fig.3. Schematic diagram of a 7 core logging cable

Well Logs – the making
Because rig time is expensive and holes must be logged immediately,
modern logging tools are multifunction (Fig. 4).
Length may vary but diameter is controlled by hole diameter (3-4 ins.).
Schlumberger ISF sonic tool of 33/8in diameter is 16.9 m long and gives a
simultaneous measurement of gamma ray or caliper, SP, deep resistivity
(conductivity), shallow resistivity and sonic velocity.
The complexity of such tools requires the use of the surface computer,
not only to record but also to memorize and to depth-match the various
readings.
The gamma-ray sensor, for example, is not at the same depth as the resistivity
sensors (Fig. 4), so at any one instant, different formations are being sampled
along the tool.
The surface computer therefore memorizes the readings, compensates for
depth or time lag and gives a depth-matched output.
Despite the use of combined tools, recording of a full set of logs still requires
several different tool descents.
While a quick, shallow logging job may only take 3-4 hours, a deep-hole, full
set may take 2-3 days, each tool taking perhaps 4-5 hours to complete.
Well Logs – the making

Fig. 4. Some typical modern combination

G.R logging tools (After Schlumberger, 1974).
Well Logs – log runs
When a log is made it is said to be ‘run’.
A log run is typically made at the end of each drilling phase before casing is
put in the hole (Fig. 5).
Each specific log run is numbered, being counted from the first time that a
particular log is recorded.
Example - Run 2 of the ISF Sonic may cover the same depth interval as a
Formation Density Log Run 1.
In this case it means that over the first interval of the ISF Sonic, (i.e. Run 1)
there was no Formation Density log recorded (Fig. 5).

Typically, through any well, more logs are run over intervals containing
reservoirs or with shows, than over apparently uninteresting zones.
The choice of logs depends on what it is hoped to find.
Logging costing 5-10% of total well cost is expensive, so that in cheap,
onshore wells, in known terrain, a minimum set is run.
Offshore, where everything is expensive, full sets of logs are generally run,
even if hydrocarbons are not found, as each well represents hard-gained
information.
Cutting down on well logs is probably false economy, but it can be forgiven
when prices are considered.
Well Logs – log runs

Fig. 5. Logging record. Log runs are indicated on a typical offshore drilling curve.
Horizontal lines indicate no drilling, when logs are run. Casing follows logging.
Note log run numbers.

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Well Logs – log presentations
A standard API (American Petroleum Institute) log format exists (Fig.6).
Overall log width is 8.25 in, with tracks of 2.5 in, tracks 1 and 2 being separated
by a column of 0.75 in in which the depths are printed.

There are various combination of grid.

Track 1 is always linear, with ten standard divisions of 0.25 in.
Tracks 2 and 3 may have a 4-cycle logarithmic scale, a linear scale of 20
standard divisions, or a hybrid of logarithmic scale in track 2 and linear scale
in track 3 (Fig. 6).

These are the classic presentations which, in the past, usually prevailed.

With the advent of digitized logs, non-standard formats are becoming more
common, especially on computer playbacks.

On old analog logging systems, choice of vertical or depth scale was limited to
two of 1:1000, 1:500, 1:200, 1:100, 1:40 and 1:20.

From these the most frequent combinations were 1:500 (1 cm = 5m) for
correlation logs and 1:200 for detailed reservoir presentation.

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Well Logs – log presentations

Fig. 6. Three typical API log formats. Tracks are 2.5 in wide with a central 0.75in
depth column. Overall width is 8.25in. Vertical scales are variable.
G.R
Well Logs – log presentations
Markers indicate real time during logging.

On Schlumberger logs, time is indicated by dashed grid margins on the field

prints. Each dash represents one minute regardless of log scale (Fig. 7).

Time markers allow a direct control of logging speed and, indirectly, log
quality.

Every log grid is preceded by a comprehensive log heading.

It covers all aspects which allow the proper interpretation of the log and,
in addition, identification of the well, rig, logger and logging unit.

Log heading illustrated (Fig. 8) is but one example, each company having
its own format.

Calibration data are also added to the log tail, as are short, doubled-up or
repeat sections which act as samples for empirical quality control.
Well Logs – log presentations

Fig. 7. Dashed log margin representing minute intervals (Schlumberger).

The logging speed can be checked from these dashes.
Well Logs – log presentations

Fig. 8. A typical log heading.

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Well Logs – LWD logs (*Logging while drilling)
(*MWD, Measurement While Drilling, is generally taken to refer to simpler,
drilling-type measurements such as hole deviation, while LWD, Logging While
Drilling, is taken to refer to log-type measurements such as resistivity, density
and so on. However there is still some confusion).

Wireline logs are made on a single pass of each specialized tool once
drilling ceases and the bit is taken out of the hole.
In contrast, LWD logs are built up, metre by metre, as drilling actually
takes place. The technique is quite different.
An LWD tool consists of three elements: downhole logging sensors, a data
transmission system and a surface interface.
The logging sensors are placed just behind the drill bit in specialized drill
collars and are active in the hole during drilling.
Sensor signals are transmitted to surface in digital format by pulse telemetry
through drilling mud and collected by surface receivers.
Signals are converted and a continuous log slowly built up as drilling
progresses.
Formation is therefore logged very soon after penetration in a matter of
minutes to several hours depending on drilling rates and distance between
bit and downhole sensors.

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Well Logs – LWD logs (*Logging while drilling)
LWD logs include – gamma ray, resistivity, density, neutron & continuous directional survey.

Log types are similar (but not identical) to wireline log types of similar category.

LWD logs are as accurate as the wireline logs and can be interpreted in a similar way.
However, the characteristics of the readings and data quality problems are rather different.

LWD tools are much used in highly deviated and horizontal wells where they help to direct
the drilling and function in conditions very difficult for standard wireline tools.

Multiple passes with LWD tools, combined with the wireline log results, give a very
accurate picture of fluid movement in the period following drilling.

Case studies suggest that often wireline logs are not run at the best time in terms of
borehole conditions.

Comparison between LWD and wireline logs are still ongoing, expecting the latter to be
the standard.

Very soon the reverse will be true since the slower speed logging of the LWD technique
offers the potential for a better reading.
Table 2. Principal uses of open-hole
wireline logs

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G.R
Formation Evaluation and Well Logging

Principles and application of logging tools – (continued)

• Neutron
• Cement bond
• Variable density
• Caliper
• Dip meter
• Formation micro scanner and imager
❖ Log interpretation methods:
• Saturation
• Porosity and Permeability Estimation
• Quick Look Techniques
• Cross Plots

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What Is In The Well ?

After we have
safely drilled the well,
what is in it ?
Well Logging perspective …….

Suppose you found a tin without a label.

Let’s say you haven’t got an opener…. could
you still find out what’s in it ?
Formation Evaluation & Well logging
If we can drill a hole in the tin and take a
sample or use a probe to remotely investigate
its content.
Wireline Logging ▪ Because the drilling mud keeps gas and oil back in the
rocks, a subsurface deposit of gas or oil can be drilled
without any indication of the gas or oil.
▪ To evaluate the well, a service company runs a wireline
well log. A logging truck is driven out to the well.
▪ A long cylinder containing instruments called a sonde
is unloaded from the truck and lowered down the well
on a wireline.
▪ As the sonde is brought back up the well, the
instruments remotely sense the electrical, sonic, and
radioactive properties of the surrounding rocks and
their fluids.
▪ These measurements are recorded on a long strip of
paper called aG.Rwell log.
Formation Evaluation & Well logging
Formation Evaluation & Well logging
What is Formation Evaluation?
Formation Evaluation (FE) is the process of interpreting a combination of
measurements taken inside a wellbore to detect and quantify oil and gas
reserves in the rock adjacent to the well. FE data can be gathered with wireline
logging instruments or logging-while-drilling tools. Data are organized and
interpreted by depth and represented on a graph called a log.

Shale or Sandstone?
Gamma ray instruments measure a formation's natural radiation. Shale
formations - extremely fine sediments - emit more radiation than coarser
sandstone layers. Lower gamma ray readings indicate presence of sandstone,
which may contain hydrocarbons.

How Easily Does the Fluid Flow?

Permeability, or how easily the fluid flows from the rock, is best determined by
examining core samples taken with full barrel or sidewall coring methods.
Formation Evaluation & Well logging
How Much Hydrocarbon? What Type?
Porosity logging instruments use radioactive sources, to measure the density of
the rock and the amount of pore space that can hold fluids. Petrophysicists use
this data to calculate the volume of the fluid in the reservoir. When neutron and
density porosity measurements cross over (yellow area), the log indicates the
presence of natural gas.
Water or Hydrocarbon
Resistivity instruments measure the electrical resistivity of fluid in the
reservoir adjacent to the wellbore. Saltwater readily conducts electricity,
while hydrocarbons are highly resistive. High resistivity levels indicate the
presence of hydrocarbons.

What are the Properties of the Reservoir Fluid?

Reservoir fluid properties are best understood by analyzing fluid samples taken
directly from the reservoir rock, using the Reservoir Characterization
Instrument. Knowledge of fluid properties helps oil companies design
production facilities and plan for chemical treatment programs.
Drilling vs. Seismology

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The Big Picture

• What is the objective of the well?

• What data do I need to obtain to meet the

objective?

•Questions to ask yourself when planning a petrophysical/logging programme

•Data requirements are different for exploration, appraisal, and development

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Well Data Requirements

Formation Information Fluid Information

y type
y depth y distribution
y gross thickness y saturation
y pressure
y net reservoir y viscosity
y density
y porosity y contaminants
y permeability
y lithology
y formation dip

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Typical Exploration Well
•Typical logging programme for an
exploration well. The resistivity logs
and GR are run to the surface to
estimate densities, determine
24” No logging lithologies
•Note: logs are run in separate sections
and all data are later merge
17 1/2” Resistivity/Sonic/GR (GR to surface)
Resistivity/Sonic/Density/Neutron/GR
Dipmeter
?
Formation Tester
12 1/4” Sidewall Samples

Resistivity/Sonic/Density/
Neutron/GR
Dipmeter
Formation Tester
8 1/2” Sidewall Samples
Velocity Survey

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Typical Development Well

24” No logging

17 1/2” No logging

12 1/4” Resistivity/Density/Neutron/GR

Resistivity/Density/Neutron/GR (GR to surface)

Dipmeter
Formation Tester
8 1/2” Sidewall Samples

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Well Data Sources…
or what sort of data do we acquire in a well ??
•Info during drilling…ask: what data do we
gather
•Taking a core..core measurements in lab.
•Measurements downhole after drilling with
– Drilling data special sondes…..logging
• Mudlog (cuttings, chromatograph)
• Core
– Log data (while drilling or after)
• Resistivity
• Nuclear
• Acoustic
• Nuclear magnetic resonance
• Sampling
• Other”high-tech” tools
– Well tests

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Direct Methods of Formation Evaluation

Direct methods of formation evaluation:

❖Drill cutting, return mud analysis for oil and gas.

❖Core graph, cutting and mud logs.

❖Evaluation tools.
Circulating Mud System
The circulating system pumps drilling
mud in and out of the hole.

The mud flows from the pumps,

through a long, rubber tube, the mud
hose and into the swivel.

The drilling mud then flows down

through the hollow, rotating drillstring
and jets out through the holes in the
drilling bit on the bottom of the well.

The holes called nozzles or jets are

located between each pair of cones.

The drilling mud picks up the rock

chips (cuttings) off the bottom of the
well
Waste
and flows up the well in the space
pit
(annulus) between the rotating
drillstring and well walls.
Circulating Mud System
▪ An important system on the rig is the
circulating mud system.
▪ The drilling mud is pumped down the inside of
the drillpipe where it jets out from nozzles in the
bit and returns up the outside of the drillpipe to
the surface.
▪ The drilling mud removes the rock chips made
by the bit, called well cuttings, from the bottom of
the hole.
▪ This prevents them from clogging up the
bottom of the well.
▪ The drilling mud also prevents any fluids such
Well-cutting removal by as water, gas, and oil from flowing out of the
circulating drilling mud subsurface rocks and into the well.
▪ If gas and oil flowed up onto the floor of the
drilling rig, it could catch fire.
Lithology Logs
The first goal of Formation Evaluation is to attempt to identify the lithology
down hole and its depth of occurrence. The best way of doing this has little
to do with down hole logging tools and more to do with surface mud-return
logging, or Mud-logging.

The returning drilling fluid is designed to carry the rock cutting debris
back to the surface where it can be removed from the system using a
sieve, or ‘shale-shaker’, as it is known. By determining the length of time
it takes to recirculate this material from the bottom of the hole, it is
possible to reassign depths to the cuttings acquired over any time
interval. Geological inspection of the washed cuttings can determine the
lithology and often the presence or absence of hydrocarbons. An
interpretation of the cuttings percentage log coupled with Rate of
Penetration (ROP) gives a basis to assigning formation tops.

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Wellsite Mud Logging
Sample collection on doubledeck shale shaker
Gas trap located above flowline
Flowline Possum belly

Upper screen
(large cutting)

How cutting get sampled:

-cuttings roll off the shaker and get
collected on regular intervals Lower screen
(fine cuttings and
drilling solids)
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Wellsite Mud Logging

During the drilling of a well there will typically be a mud-logging unit

on the rig. This unit has two main responsibilities:
1. To monitor the drilling of the parameters and gas/liquids/solids returns from
the well to assist the drilling department in the safety and optimization of the
drilling process

2. To provide information to the petroleum engineering department that can be

used for evaluation purposes

Typically the mud-logging unit will produce a daily “mud log,” which is transmitted
to the oil company office on a daily basis. Items that will be included are:
Gas readings as measured by a gas detector/chromatograph
• A check for absence of poisonous gases (H2S, SO2)
• A report of cuttings received over the shale shakers, with full lithological
descriptions and relative percentages
• ROP
• Hydrocarbon indications in samples

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Wellsite Mud Logging
Data Obtained
• Rate Of Penetration (ROP)
– Higher in porous rock

• Drilling parameters
(RPM, pump speed/pressure, type of bit)

• Cuttings lithology/texture (every 5 ft)

• What can be measured while drilling ?

• ROP…Porous vs. Non-porous rocks
• Condition of the bit
• Torque etc.

• Why are cuttings useful ?

• Oil/gas shows
• HC staining on cuttings

• Total combustible gas from mud (hot wire)

plus basic composition (chromatograph) C1-C5

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Wellsite Mud Logging

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©SIEP
Wellsite Mud Logging
The mud log may be of great use to the petrophysicist and geologist in
operational decision making and evaluation. Areas in which the mud log may be
particularly important include:
• Identification of the lithology and formation type being drilled
• Identification of porous/permeable zones
• Picking of coring, casing, or final drilling depths
• Confirmation of hydrocarbons being encountered and whether they are
oil or gas

Cuttings Descriptions
The mud-logging unit will generally take a sample of the cuttings received over
the shale shakers at regular time intervals, calculated to correspond to regular
changes in formation depth (e.g., every 5m). Some of these samples are placed
into sealed polythene bags as “wet samples” and retained. Other samples are
washed, dried, and retained as “dry samples.”

Washed samples are examined under a microscope in the mud-logging unit

and a description made that may be communicated to the office.

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Cuttings Descriptions
In order for the information received from the rig to be useful, it is essential that rigid
standards for reporting are followed that are agreed upon between the rig and the office.
Standards will typically vary among companies. Items that should be included are:
Grain properties
▪Texture (muddy/composite)
▪Type
▪Color
▪Roundness, or sphericity
▪Sorting
▪Hardness
▪Size
▪Additional trace minerals (e.g., pyrite, calcite, dolomite, siderite)
▪Carbonate particle types
▪Skeletal particles (fossils, foraminifera)
▪Nonskeletal particles (lithoclasts, aggregates, rounded particles)
▪Coated particles
Porosity and permeability
▪Porosity type (intergranular, fracture, vuggy)
▪Permeability (qualitative as tight, slightly permeable, highly permeable)
Hydrocarbon detection

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Cuttings Descriptions
Natural fluorescence
Examining the cuttings under UV light may indicate the presence of oil, since
oil will fluoresce.

However, fluorescence will not in itself prove the presence of movable oil, due
to other sources of fluorescence that may be present, such as fluorescent
minerals; OBM or lubricants used; other sources of carbon, such as dead oil or
bitumen; and Gilsonite cement.

The correct procedure is for a portion of the lightly washed and undried
cuttings to be placed on a dish and observed under UV light (other light sources
having been removed).

Those parts of the sample exhibiting fluorescence are picked out and placed in
a porcelain test plate hole to be examined for cut fluorescence.

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Florescence: - Florescence occurs when a substance is exposed to
ultraviolet radiations. The absorption of these high- energy electromagnetic
radiations causes an electronic transition in some atoms, when the atoms
return to low energy level they liberate color, this phenomena is known as
florescence.
Florescence is caused by the ultraviolet band of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Different crude oil produces different florescence color on the basis of API
Gravity
API,Gravity Color of Florescence
<15 Brown
15-25 Orange
25-35 yellow or pale yellow
35-45 White
>45 Violet or blue-white
Note:- Crude of high & low API gravity do not produce strong florescence
The relation between the color of florescence & the gravity of the oil can be
very useful in interpretation of the mud logging data

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Cuttings Descriptions
Solvent cut
To measure the solvent cut, about 3 cm of dried and crushed sample is placed
in a test tube and solvent is added to about 1 cm above the sample. The test tube
is shaken for a few minutes, then left to stand.

The solvent cut is the change of coloration of the solvent. Solvents that are
commonly used are chlorothene, ether, and chloroform. Precautions are required
in handling these solvents, since they are toxic and flammable.

Heavy oils generally give a stronger cut than lighter ones. Asphalts will
therefore give a stronger cut than paraffins. Condensate gives rise to only a very
light cut. In addition to the cut, a residual oil ring may be observed around the test
tube after the solvent has evaporated.

In solvent cut fluorescence, the cut fluorescence is measured by taking the test
tube used for the solvent cut and placing it under UV light together with a sample
of the pure solvent (to check for possible contamination) and observing whether
any fluorescence is present.

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Cuttings Descriptions
Acetone test
The acetone test involves placing a sample of washed, dried, and crushed
cuttings in a test tube with acetone. After shaking, the acetone is filtered into
another test tube and an equal amount of water added.

Since acetone is dissolvable in water but hydrocarbons are not, the

liquid becomes milky in colour. This test is particularly useful where light oil
or condensate is present and there is no other source of carbon in the
samples.

Visible staining
Particularly if the permeability and/or viscosity is poor, oil may remain in
cuttings and be visible under the microscope in the form of a stain on
the surface of the cutting.

Odor
The characteristic smell of oil may sometimes be discerned during the
cleaning and drying process.

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Cuttings Descriptions
Gas detection analysis

Gas detectors work by passing air drawn from where the mud reaches the
surface (the bell nipple) over a hot detector filament. This combusts the gas,
raising the temperature and lowering the resistance of the filament.

At high voltages all the combustible gases burn, whereas at lower

temperatures only the lighter components burn. By recording the change in
resistance at different voltages, the relative proportions of the various
components may be estimated.

A gas chromatograph may also be used to further differentiate the various

hydrocarbon components.

Particularly for the detection of poisonous gases, such as H2S, Drager tubes
may be used on the rig floor.

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Hot Wire Analyser:- The standard method for the determination of
amount of gas in mud & cuttings was the hot wire analyzer. The
analyzer is essentially a wheatstone bridge. Two of the usual bridge
resistors are replaced by platinum wire filaments, one of which is in
the cell that is open to the atmosphere & the other is in a cell through
which the sample gas is passed. The filaments are heated to a high
temperature by passing current through the bridge.
When air is in the sample
cell, the conditions of heat generation & heat loss are identical in both
cells, the bridge is balanced i.e the recorder reads zero. When the
sample in the sample cell contains hydrocarbon , it result in increase
in temperature which ultimately leads to the increase of resistance.
Thus the Wheatstone bridge gets unbalanced & the recorder records
deflection. This deflection corresponds to the presence of
hydrocarbon.

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G.R
Gas Chromatograph:-

In order to obtain a more accurate & quantitative analysis of the individual components
of the sample, the partition gas chromatography is used.
A sweep gas flows continuously through a column that is packed with an inert solid
coated with a non- volatile organic liquid. The tube made up of copper, aluminum or
stainless steel is used in column. At the inlet end of the column a small measured
volume of the unknown sample is injected into the sweep gas stream. The heavier
components of the sample tend to absorbed into the column material & are swept very
slowly through it. The lighter components such as methane, are relatively insoluble in
the column material & move rapidly. At the exit of the column, the various components of
the sample appear separately, & the amount of each can be determined with a gas
analyzer.

G.R
The components are identified by the length of time that it takes for it to
move through the column, since this transit time is fixed for a given
compound at set of conditions of temperatures & pressures.
The signal from the gas analyzer is fed to a strip chart recorder to produce
a time vs concentration record. The position of the peak in the time
sequence identifies the compound,& the area under the peak gives the
amount of the compound that is present

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Cuttings Descriptions

Mud Logging Best Practices

Virtual
Microscope

Rig-Site digital
capture for archiving
and real-time remote
Sony Leica
viewing of cuttings

G.R
The Mud Log
Mud logging accuracy
• Lag time: 0 - 2 hours
Depends on annulus, circ. rate

• Depth accuracy: 5 metres

Correct for lag, using ROP

• Differences in slippage
Different cutting densities/shapes
--> mix of lithologies

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An Example Mud log

G.R
An Example Mud log
DOWN-HOLE LOG FORMATS
Before looking at the various tools and their analysis, it is necessary to look at the
format of the presentation of data at the surface.

The down-hole tool response is transmitted to the surface utilizing multiplexing along
the logging cable. Data are recorded at various sampling rates, depending on the type of
tool in use and the logging speed.

All wireline logs are recorded upwards, i.e. the tool is retrieved out of the hole
while recording data.

MWD data is acquired while drilling and is therefore recorded downwards.

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Typical Header Data
The output of data tends to be on a half-foot, or decimetre basis. The log will consist of a
heading, which contains most of the pertinent data relating to the well location, drilling fluid
and borehole conditions encountered. In log analysis it is essential that the log heading
be reviewed first.

While the Header contains the well, mud

and borehole properties, the Footer
contains information about the tool string,
such as its length, the generation and
model of tool employed. This is valuable
information when making environmental
corrections and depth adjustments.
However, the actual distance between the
depth reference and the individual tools in
the string is automatically compensated for
in modern logs. Depth control should be to
better than 1 / 10,000 ft (0.3 / 300 metres)
accuracy.

G.R
An Example Mud log

Log data is recorded in ‘Tracks’, originally these were recorded on

photographic film by a combination galvanometer-camera.

Modern data are acquired directly by computer and recorded on magnetic

tape.

There are a number of conventions when displaying data in tracks, some of

these are shown below.

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Some Log Track Formats

When viewing a log, careful attention should be paid to the scales used and
the number of units per division. In modern computer based analysis, this
becomes less of a problem as the scale parameters are part of the data file.

The downhole log responses to be considered in lithology identification

should be the Gamma ray, the Spontaneous Potential, the Caliper and the
Photo-electric Effect.

There are more modern Geochemical logs, but these require careful
calibration with core-derived data.

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Coring
Core Acquisition
Particularly during the exploration phase of a field, coring presents an
important means to calibrate the petrophysical model and gain additional
information about the reservoir not obtainable by logs.

Usually the decision of when and where to core will be made in conjunction
with the geologist and operations department, taking into account the costs and
data requirements. Generally speaking, it is considered essential to at least
attempt to core a part of the main reservoir formation during the
exploration and appraisal phases of drilling.

A so-called conventional core will usually consist of multiples of 18m and be 4

in. in diameter. The outer barrel has a diameter of 63/4 in. It is acquired while
drilling using a metal sleeve into which the core passes during drilling. At the
end of coring, the core barrel is retrieved at the surface and the core
recovered from the barrel and laid out in 3-ft sections in core boxes for
initial assessment on the wellsite and then transportation to the designated
core laboratory. Special techniques may sometimes be proposed to improve
the quality of the core and to preserve the in-situ fluids. These include:

G.R
Core Acquisition
Using a large-diameter core (5 in.)
Using a fiberglass or aluminium inner sleeve, which may be cut into sections
at the surface, thereby preserving the core intact within the sleeve.

Sponge coring, whereby a polyurethane material surrounds the core in the

inner sleeve, thereby absorbing and retaining any formation fluids.

Resin coring, whereby a special resin is injected onto the surface of the core
to seal the fluids inside.

Freezing the core as soon as it reaches the surface in order to preserve the
fluids inside.

Cutting plugs from the core at the wellsite, which may be sealed and used to
measure the formation fluids.

Using tracers in the mud to attempt to quantify the extent of invasion of

drilling fluid
If samples have been obtained and preserved so that it is expected that the
in-situ fluids are representative of the formation, the following techniques
may be applied:

Centrifuging of samples to produce formation water, which can be

analyzed for chemical composition and electrical properties.

Applying Dean-Stark analysis

G.R to determine the relative amounts of water
and hydrocarbons, thereby producing a measurement of Sw
Conventional Core Analysis
As soon as possible after drilling, sections of the core (typically 0.5m every 10
min) are sealed and kept as preserved samples. The remaining whole core is
typically cleaned, slabbed, and laid out so that the geologist and petrophysicist
can visually inspect the core and examine any sedimentary features. Important
information the petrophysicist can learn from such an inspection include:

The homogeneity of the reservoir and any variations that are likely to be
below the resolution of logging tools.
The type of cementation and distribution of porosity and permeability.

The presence of hydrocarbons from smell and appearance under

ultraviolet (UV) light. Oil/water contacts (OWCs) can some times be
established in this way.

The types of minerals present

Presence of fractures (either cemented, natural, or drilling induced) and

their orientation.

Dip features that may influence logging tools’ response

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Core Acquisition

G.R
Core Acquisition
Coring drilling
vs. wireline

G.R
Core Acquisition
Rock samples can also be obtained by side wall sampling or by coring.

In side wall sampling, a tool consisting of small metal cylinders with

sharp edges that are backed by explosive charges is lowered into the well
on wireline.

At a specified depth, one of the cylinders is fired into the well bore wall.
As the tool is pulled up to the next firing depth, the core plug is pulled out
of the formation but held in the cylinder.

Eventually, the tool is recovered and the core plugs removed from the
metal cylinders.

In drill string coring, a donut-shaped bit is used to drill out a cylinder of

the formation. The core is then broken off and brought to the surface for
analysis.

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Coring Comparison
Comparison of side-wall sampling and coring
– Wireline Coring Advantages
• faster and less expensive to obtain
• intervals selected after logs have identified zones of
interest
• cores can be taken over larger borehole depth interval

– Drillstring Coring Advantages

• continuous vertical section of the formation for study
• large diameter; less invasion effects
• can be better preserved

G.R
Core Acquisition
Sidewall Boring…another type of
wireline coring

G.R
Core Acquisition

G.R
Conventional Core Analysis
After slabbing, the usual procedure is for conventional plugs (typically 0.5 in.
diameter) to be cut at regular intervals. The plugs are then cleaned by refluxing
with a solvent for 24 hours and dried at a temperature that will remove any water
(including clay-bound water). These plugs are then measured for porosity
(using a helium porosimeter), horizontal permeability, and grain density.
Additional plugs are cut in the axis of the core to determine vertical permeability.

Usually a gamma ray detector or density-type device is run over the whole
length of the core in order to provide a reference log that may be correlated to
the wireline data.

Since the “driller’s depths” to which a core is referenced are typically different
from “logger’s depths,” as measured by wireline, it is necessary to make a shift
before the core may be compared to logs. The conventional-plug measurements
are usually performed at ambient conditions (or sometimes a few hundred
psi confining pressure) and therefore need to be corrected to in-situ
conditions before they may be compared to the logs. The correction factors to
be used are determined through further special core analysis (SCAL).

G.R
Information from Conventional Cores

G.R
Special Core Analysis
SCAL measurements are typically performed on a special set of larger-
diameter (1.5 in.) plugs cut from the core. These may be cut at a regular sampling
increment, or the petrophysicist may specify certain depths based on the results
of the conventional analyses. The most important criterion is obviously to
obtain a broad spectrum of properties that fully encompass the range of
properties seen in the reservoir.

In order to ensure that the SCAL plugs are homogeneous, it is normal

procedure to subject the plugs to a CAT (computed axial tomography) scan
prior to using them for future measurements. It is hard to say how many SCAL
plugs are required for a typical program, since this depends on the reservoir type,
thickness, and homogeneity. In general a SCAL program may use between about
5 and 50 plugs.

While many measurements are possible on core plugs, let us concentrate on

the ones that are of direct relevance to the petrophysical model.

These are:

G.R
Special Core Analysis
Porosity and permeability at overburden conditions. Here it is important to
state the pressures at which the measurements should be performed. Typically
measurements are made at five times the pressures that will encompass the likely
range of pressures to be encountered during depletion of the reservoir.

Cementation exponent (m). In this measurement, the resistivity of the

plugs is measured when they are 100% saturated with brine representative of the
formation salinity. This measurement is usually performed at ambient conditions
but may also be performed at in-situ pressure.

Saturation exponent (n). In this measurement, the resistivity of the plugs is

measured as a function of water saturation, with the resistive fluid being either air
or kerosene. This measurement is usually performed at ambient conditions.

Capillary pressure (Pc). The saturation of a nonwetting fluid (either air,

mercury, or kerosene) is measured as a function of Pc applied. In a drainage
cycle, 100% brine is gradually replaced by the nonwetting fluid. For an imbibition
cycle (following a drainage cycle), brine is reintroduced to replace the nonwetting
phase.

G.R
Special Core Analysis
Different techniques are available to make these measurements. In the
traditional approach, m, n, and Pc would be measured using the porous plate
method, with air as the nonwetting phase. Since the measurement is limited to
100 psi, additional Pc measurements would be performed using mercury
injection up to 60,000 psi, thereby also determining the pore-size distribution.

Many oil companies no longer favour these measurement techniques for

the following reasons:
1. Measurements using mercury involve destruction of the plugs and
present a potential environmental/health hazard.
2. Pc measurements involving air/mercury are not representative of true
reservoir conditions and may give misleading results.
3. Porous plate measurements are slow and involve the repetitive handling of
the samples to measure the saturations using a balance. If grain loss occurs,
then the results are inaccurate and the electrical measurements tend to be
operator dependent.

G.R
Special Core Analysis
Preferred techniques for undertaking these measurements are as
follows:
• Measurement of m and n should be performed using a continuous
injection apparatus. While not steady state, this technique has been shown to
give reliable results. In the procedure, the sample is mounted vertically, flushed
with brine, then kerosene-injected at a continuous rate while the resistivity and
saturation are continually monitored.

• Pc should be measured using a centrifuge capable of up to 200 psi

pressure.

The sample is flushed with brine, then the amount of fluid expelled at different
rotational speeds (equivalent to different pressures) is measured. This
technique also has the advantage that the sample if not handled during the
experiment.

G.R
Limitations of Core Measurements
There is a tendency among petrophysicists to treat measurements made on cores as
“gospel” and not to question the reservoir parameters so derived in their
petrophysical model. The following may give reasons why the core data are not
always correct:
• A core is a section of rock cut usually over only a subset of the reservoir in a
particular part of a field. There is no a priori reason why it should be representative
of the reservoir as a whole. In particular, a core cut in the water leg, where diagenetic
processes may be occurring, is not necessarily representative of the oil or gas legs in
a reservoir.
• The coring and recovery process subjects the rock to stress and temperature
changes that may profoundly affect the rock structure.
• The plugging, cleaning, and drying process may completely change the wettability
of the plugs, making them unrepresentative of downhole conditions.
• Resistivity measurements performed on plugs at ambient temperature, using
air as the nonwetting fluid, may be wholly unrepresentative of reservoir
conditions. Apart from the fact that the brine has a totally different resistivity at
ambient temperatures, there may be other factors affecting how easily the non
wetting phase may mingle with the wetting phase. In fact, where experiments have
been performed to measure m and n under truly in-situ conditions, it was found
that the values differed completely from those measured under ambient
conditions.
G.R
Limitations of Core Measurements
• When measurements are made on a selection of, say, 10 SCAL plugs, it
will typically
be found that the m, n, and Pc behavior of all 10 will be completely
different. These
are usually then averaged to obtain a representative behavior for the reservoir.
However, because of the variability, if a new set of 10 plugs is averaged, the
result will
be completely different. This calls into question the validity of any average
drawn
from 10 plugs that are taken to represent thousands of acre-feet of reservoir.

Overall it is better to use core-derived values than nothing at all, and a lot
of valuable information about the reservoir can be gained from core
inspection. However, no core-derived average should be treated as being
completely reliable, and there will be many cases in which it has to be
disregarded in favour of a commonsense approach to all the other
sources of information.

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Mud logs and Cores

REVISION AIDS

1. Describe how a lithology log can be derived from a mudlog.

2. Briefly explain the advantages of wireline and drillstring coring.

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G.R