The basic technology behind the development of the LED dates back to

the 1960s when scientists were working with a chip of semiconductor

material. That material was doped, or impregnated with impurities, to
create a positive-negative or p-n junction.

1.1.1 The p-n Junction

Similar to a conventional diode, current will flow from the p-side of a

semiconductor to its n-side, but not in the reverse direction. The p-side is
also referred to as the anode, and the n-side is also known asthe athode.
Figure 1.1 contains a series of illustrations that indicate how a basic
diode is formed and represents the forerunner or predecessor of the LED.
Thus, one common term for LED is “a son of a diode.”

1.1.1.1 No Applied Voltage

At the top of Figure 1.1a, a silicon p-n junction with no applied voltage is
shown. Both p- and n-doped semiconductors are relatively conductive;
however, the junction between them is a nonconducting layer that is
commonly referred to as the depletion zone. The depletion or
nonconducting area or zone occurs when the electrically charged carriers
in the doped n-type silicon (referred to as electrons) and p-type silicon
(referred to as holes) attract and eliminate one another in a process
referred to as recombination.
Through the manipulation of the nonconductive layer between the pand
n-type silicon, a diode can be formed. The resulting diode forms an
electrical switch that allows the flow of electricity in one direction
but not in the opposite direction.

1.1.1.2 Applying Forward-Bias

In Figure 1.1b, a positive terminal is shown connected to the anode, and
the negative terminal is connected to the cathode. The result of this
connection is a forward bias, which pushes the holes in the p-region and
the electrons in the n-region toward the junction, in effect reducing the
width of the depletion zone. That is, the positive charge applied to the p-
type silicon repels the holes from the n-type silicon, whereas the
negative charge applied to the n-type silicon repels the electrons from
the p-type silicon. The net effect of the positive and negative terminal
connections is to push the electrons and holes toward the p-n junction,
lowering the barrier potential required to reduce the nonconducting
depletion zone so that it becomes so thin that charge carriers in the form
of electrons can tunnel across the barrier p-n junction by increasing the
forward bias voltage. Thus, electrons begin to enter the p-type silicon
and move from hole to hole through the crystal, making it possible for
electric current to flow from the negative terminal to the positive
terminal of the battery.
1.1.1.3 Applying Reverse-Bias In Figure 1.1c, the polarity of the battery
connection is reversed, resulting in a reverse-bias effect. That is, the p-
type region is now connected to the negative terminal of a power supply,
which results in the holes in the p-type silicon being pulled away from
the p-n junction. In effect, this action results in increasing
the width of the nonconducting depletion zone. Because the n-type
silicon is connected to the positive terminal, this action also results in the
electrons being pulled away from the junction, which widens the barrier
and significantly increases the potential barrier, which in turn increases
the resistance to the flow of electricity. Thus, a reversebias connection
minimizes the potential for electric current to flow across the p-n
junction. However, as the reverse voltage increases to a certain level,
the p-n junction will break down, allowing current to begin to flow in the
reverse direction. This action is associated with the use of Zener or
avalanche diodes. From the preceding text, it is clear that a p-n junction
of silicon can be used as a diode, enabling electric charges to flow in one
direction through the junction but not in the opposite direction unless a
very high voltage potential is used in a reverse-bias condition. When
used in a positive bias, negative charges in the form of electrons easily
flow from n-type material to p-type material, whereas the reverse is true
for holes. However, when the p-n junction is reverse biased, the junction
barrier is widened, which increases the resistance to the flow of current.
Now that we

In Section 1.1.1 of this chapter, we examined the operation of the p-n

junction, which is common to diodes and LEDs. In the following sections,
we will examine how an LED generates light via the use of doping
material, before turning our attention to a short description of the
evolution of the LED.
1.1.2.1 Similarity to a Diode An LED can be considered to resemble a diode
because it represents a chip of semiconducting material that is doped or
impregnated with impurities to form a p-n junction. Similar to a diode,
current easily flows from the p-side to the n-side of the semiconductor
via a forward-bias potential, but not in the reverse direction.

1.1.2.2 Crossing the Barrier When an electron crosses the barrier and
meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level and releases energy in the
form of a photon. The photon is a carrier of electromagnetic radiation of
all wavelengths. The actual wavelength of light generated and its color
that corresponds to the emitted wavelength is dependent on the band
gap energy of the materials used to form the p-n junction.
For example, for silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes
combine via a forward-bias voltage such that a nonradiative transition
occurs, which results in no optical emission as the semiconductors
represent indirect band-gap material. However, through the initial use of
gallium arsenide and other materials, a direct band gap with energies
corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light could be
generated by the evolving LED.
1.1.3 LED Evolution
In the following sections we will briefly discuss the evolution of the LED.
This discussion will include how experiments in the use of different
doping materials resulted in the development of different colors and
color intensities for LEDs.

Over a period of approximately 50 years, LEDs have been manufactured

using different inorganic semiconductor materials to generate a wide
variety of colors. Table 1.1 lists in alphabetical order common
semiconductor materials used to create LEDs as well as the type of
generated light. Note that the use of certain types of semiconductor
materials is currently under development. This development effort is
primarily focused on research into generating bright white light. Due to
the development of several methods to generate bright white light, the
number of applications available for LEDs has considerably expanded,
including one application familiar to many consumers. That application is
the use of bright white LEDs in high-end flashlights.

As indicated earlier in this chapter (Section 1.1.2.1), an LED has the

electrical characteristics of a diode. This means that it will pass current in
one direction but block it in the reverse direction. Depending
on the semiconductor material and its doping, the LED will emit light at a
particular wavelength.
In general, LEDs require a forward operating voltage of approximately
1.5–3 V and a forward current ranging from 10 to 30 mA, with 20 mA
being the most common current they are designed to support. Both the
forward operating voltage and forward current vary depending on the
semiconductor material used. For example, the use of gallium arsenide
(GaAs) with a forward voltage drop of approximately 1.4 V generates
infrared to red light. In comparison, the use of gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP) with a voltage drop near 2 V is used to generate
wavelengths that correspond to frequencies between red and yellow
light, whereas gallium phosphide LEDs have a bluegreen to blue color
and a voltage drop of approximately 3 V.

In a manufacturing environment, different amounts of arsenide and

phosphide are commonly used to produce LEDs that emit different
colors. Currently, blue and bright White LEDs are more difficult to
manufacture and are usually less efficient than other LEDs. Their lower
efficiency and greater manufacturing difficulty results in an increase in
their unit cost. LEDs are manufactured in several sizes and shapes. Some
are manufactured as multicolor devices that contain both a red and a
green chip, enabling the production of light between the two colors.
Tricolor, red, blue, and green (RGB), LEDs are also manufactured as well
as various types of white LEDs that vary in intensity and are used for
different applications. Applications of LEDs range from use as indicators
to lighting and data transmission. Visible light LEDs are primarily used for
indicator lights, such as an emergency path on an aircraft floor. In
comparison, high-intensity white LEDs are used for short-range lighting
in flashlights, whereas IR LEDs are commonly used for data transmission.
Later in this chapter, we will describe and discuss a range of LED
applications that make the device as ubiquitous as the pen.
1.1.4.1.1 LED Legs The general fabrication process that results in the
manufacture of LEDs is so well thought out that it becomes difficult to
use them incorrectly. LEDs are manufactured with two “legs” protruding
from the flat edge of the device, as illustrated in Figure 1.2. On modern
LEDs, the anode (+) is longer than the cathode (−), with the latter
marked by a flat edge. Although the anode is marked with the letter “a,”
a “c” or “k” is used to mark the cathode, with the letter “k” more
frequently used. Unfortunately, older LEDs were not explicitly fabricated,
and often their improper connection resulted in the device burning out.
Returning our attention to Figure 1.2 note that the emitted light is
reflected off the plastic case at different angles and, unlike a laser, is not
coherent light.
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1.1.4.2.1 Series Operations A number of LEDs placed in series is similar to
Christmas lighting. That is, if one should fail, it will result in an open
circuit that stops the flow of current to other devices beyond the failed
device. An exception to this are LEDs whose failure enables current to
bypass the failed device, allowing the other LEDs to continue to
illuminate.
Figure 1.3 illustrates the connection of four LEDs in series with one
another driven by a 12 V power source. Note that the LEDs are
positioned such that the cathodes (−) and anodes (+) alternate in their
connection to the wiring that forms the circuit. Otherwise, placing two
anodes (+) or two cathodes (−) in sequence would disable the circuit and
the LEDs would not illuminate. With four LEDs placed in series using a 12
V power source, the voltage going through each LED is 12/4 or 3 V. If you
only had three LEDs in series, each would receive 12/3 or 4 V. Similarly, if
there were two LEDs in series and the power source continued to be 12
V,
then each LED would have 12/2 or 6 V going through the device.
Because LEDs are typically designed to operate between 2 and 4 V, too
much voltage passing through the LED can result in its failure as well as
an unpleasant burning smell. To prevent this, it’s common to add a
resistor, which not only limits the voltage drop but, in addition,
limits the current that would otherwise flow through the LED.
Shortly, we will discuss the use of resistors in more detail, including
computation of their value in ohms.