BIOSTATISTICS AND COMPUTER

APPLICATIONS

G.KATHIRAVAft-/
W.JEBARANI
M.THIRUNAVUKKARASU

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY STATISTICS AND COMPUTER

APPLICATIONS
MADRAS VETERINARY COLLEGE
TAMIL NADU VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY
CHENNAI ·600 007
-
2002
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The support granted by the Dean, Madras

Veterinary College, Chennai - 600 007 by I I

providing financial assistance from the reAR

Development Grant for bringing rout this manual
is gratefully acknowledged.

Authors I
 CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Biostatistics
Introduction 1
Measures of averages 8
Measures 'of dispersion 16
Correlation 24
Regression 29
Probability theory and distribution 31
Theory of sampling 38
Test of significance 47
Design of experiments 57
Biological assays 64

Computer Applications
Introduction 66
Hardware 73
Software 80
Disk operating system 85
Software development 88
Internet and e-mail applications 93
Computers in veterinary field 100
Windows operating system 104
Word processing using MS-Word 116
Spreadsheet operations in MS-Excel 128
MS-PowerPoint presentation 138
t ·.·~sraiJ6tFcs and Computer Applications
......... ...,:.,......:.. 1.-
.....p'l . . . . . . . . . . . .

810 STATISTICS
INTRODUCTION
All the biological sciences have moved from simple descriptions of concepts to the
principles defined by numerically measured data. In fact, statistics has become one of the
essential tools in modem biology. This process has necessitated all the students of biological
sciences to be aware of the principles, concepts and methods of statistics. The subject of
statistics covers in general the design of a study, collection of data, analysis of collected data,
presentation of summarised information, interpretation of results and communication of
findings.
Statistics applied to biological sciences is often called as bio-statistics. Usually, the
word 'statistics' carries different meanings depending on the occasion in which it is used. For
e.g., it may mean statistical data which refer to quantitative facts, statistical method which
means the methods dealing with quantitative analysis or statistical measures of a sample. i.e.,
mean, standard deviation etc. of a sample.
By statistical data, we mean the aggregate of facts which are affected by multiplicity
of causes, numerically expressed, estimated to a reasonable standard of accuracy and
collected in a systematic manner for a pre -determined purpose.
StavsticaJ method includes co}}ection, classification, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data.

Functions of statistics
Statistics
presents facts in a definite form helps in testing the hypothesis
Simplifies mass of figures helps in prediction
Qr facilitates comparison helps in the formulation of
c;- helps in formulating hypothesis suitable policies
Limitations of statistics
Statistics does not deal with the individuals. It deals only with quantitative characters,
However qualitative characters can be numerically expressed and analyzed. For ego
Intelligence of stUdents by marks obtained, poverty by income received. Statistical results are
true only on an average. Statistics is only one of the methods of studying a problem. Statistics
may be sometimes misused, if not properly interpreted. .

Jmportant definitions
Population
A set or. collection of objects pertaining to a phenomenon of statistical enquiry is
referred to as universe or population or census. (e.g.) animals in a farm.
8;0 Statistics and Computer Applications

Sample
When a few units are selected from a population, it is called as a sample. (e.g.)
animals of a particular breed in a farm.
Variable
The quantitative or numerical characteristic of the data is called as a variable. (e.g.)
weight of an animal.
Constant . I

It is a numerical value, which is same for all the units in the population. (e.g.) no. of
credit hours for B.v.Sc students.
Attribute ,
.It refers to the qualitative character of the items chosen. (e.g.) breed of an animal.
Parameter
A statistical measure pertaining to a population is called as a parameter. (e.g.) mean,
standard deviation of the population.
Statistic
A statistical measure pertaining to the sample is called as a statistic. (e.g.) mean,
standard deviation of the sample.
Continuous variable
If a variable takes an intermediate value between any specified interval, it is called as.
a continuous variable. (e.g.) the weight of animal.
Discrete or discontinuous variable
If a variable takes only integral values, then it is called as a discrete (or) discontinuous
variable: (e.g.) no. of animals in a farm.

Collection of data
A statistical investigation always begins with collection of data. One can collect'
the data either by himself or from available records. The data collected by the
investigator himself from the sample or population are called as the primary data. The
source from which one gathers primary data is called as the primary source.
The other kind of data collected from the available sources is known as
secondary data. The source from which we are getting secondary data is known as
secondary source.
Methods of collecting primary data
Direct personal observation
The investigator himself goes to the field of enquiry and collects the data.
Indirect personal observation
The investigator collects data from a third person (called as witness), who knoV;
about the data being gathered.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications 3

Data collection through agents, local reporters etc.

Here the investigator appoints some person called as an agent to collect
information on his behalf. -
Data collection through questionnaires
The investigator prepares questionnaires and sends the same to the respondents to
collect data from the respondents.
Methods Merits Demerits
Direct personal It is very accurate Expensive in terms of time and money
observation Intensive details can be Not suitable when the field of enquiry is
collected large
Indirect personal It saves time Witnesses should possess thorough
observation knowledge of the facts regarding the i
problem of investigation
Witness must be willing to give
information
Data collection It saves time The agents will collect information in their
through agents and own fashion
local reporters etc. Only approximate resl:llts can be obtained
It is expensive
Data coUection Large areas can be It cannot be used if the informants are
through covered illiterate
questionnaires It is less expensive Response may be poor.
It saves time Possibility of vague/ inaccurate answers.

Secondary data
The data collected from the available sources like published reports, documents,
journals etc. are calted secondary data. The source from which the secondary data are
collected is called as secondary source of data. While the primary data are collected for a
specific purpose, the secondary data are gathered from sources which wer~ done for some
other purpose.
Sources of obtaining secondary data
... Published reports! documents of institutions, NGOs etc.
.. Scientific journals
.. Government reports
... Books and news papers
. Although the method of secondary data gathering saves time, labour and money, the
dements of this include questionable accuracy of the data, doubtful usefulness of it for the
current study and the possible improper methods of data collection.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications
, .
Classification of data
Classification of data is the next step after collection of data. It is the process of
arranging data into homogeneous classes according to similarities.
Objectives (uses) of classification
1. To remove unnecessary details
2. To bring out explicitly the significant features in the data
3. To make comparisons and drawing inferences
Types of classification~
I

Numerical classification
Classification of data according to quantitative characters. (e.g) classification of
animals in a farm according to their weight
Descriptive classification
Classification according to attributes i.e, qualitative characters. (e.g).
classification of animals according to breeds
Spatial cfassification
Classification according to geographical area. (e.g) district wise livestock
population in Tamil Nadu
Temporal classification
Classification according to time (e.g) livestock population in different years
Classification according to class interval (frequency distribution)
When the data are grouped into classes of appropriate interval, showing the number
in each class, we get frequency distribution. (e.g).The following is the frequency table
showing the distribution of chicks in different weight classes:
Class (weight in Frequency (no.
gms} of chicks)
30,-34 5
34-38 15 l
38-42 5 I
42-46 3
46-50 2
Total
. 30
Class limits
Class limits are the limits within which the class interval lies. Thus each class interval '
has two limns, the upper and the lower limits.
Class interval
Class interval is a frequency distribution giving the range of values of the character
with the lower and upper limits.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Frequency
Frequency is the number of observation in that class.
Width or length of the class interval
Width of class interval is the difference between the upper boundary and lower
boundary of the same class.
Rules to be followed in forming a frequency distribution
1. The class interval should be of equal width and of such size that the characteristic
features of the distribution are displayed.
2. Classes should not be too large (or) too small. If too large, it will involve considerable
errors in assuming that the midpoints of the class intervals are the average of that
class. If too small, there will be many classes with zero frequency (or) small
frequency. There are however certain type of data, which may. require the use of
unequal or varying class intervals. When there is irregular flow of data and wide
fluc;:tuating gap among the varieties, varying Class intervals are to be taken (or)
otherwise there may be a possibility of classes without any frequency or observations
falling in that category.
3. The range of the classes should cover the entire range of data and the classes must
be continuous.
4. It is convenient to have the midpoint of the class interval to be an integer. As a
general rule, the number of classes should be in the range of 6-16 and never more
than 30.
Choice of the class interval
The following are the different types of class intervals that are followed:
a b c d .:~. e f
0-10 oand under 10 5 Less than 20 0-10 0-9.9
10-20 10 and under 20 10 20-30 10-30 10-19.9
20-30 15 30-40 .~ 30-70
more than 40

In type 'd' the end classes are open, in type 'e' there are unequal class intervals, in
type 'c' the mid-points of the class intervals are given, in type 'f the class limits are exactly
defined. Though type 'b' is good, we are not using it as the class limits are not clearly
expressed in type 'b' .We often use type 'a'. The difficulty is where to include 10, 20 etc., we
often include 10 in the second class and 20 in the third class and so on.we define 0 and upto
10 in first class. 10 and upto 20 in second class and so on. Depending on the need and
Situation, appropriate type of class interval could be chosen.

Formation of frequency distribution

1. Method of tally marks
2. Array method
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

1. Method of tally marks

First we have to form the class interval. The difference between maximum and
minimum values in the collected data are noted and it is to be divided by the number of
required classes. This value should be rounded off to our convenience. The number of
required classes can be calculated using the formula suggested by Sturge's rule.
K n 1 + 3.322 log n
Where k is the number of required classes and n is the number of observations. After I
forming the class interval each should be written one below the other and for each item in the
collected data a stroke is marked against the class interval in which it falls. Usually after every
four such strokes in the clas~ interv~l, the fifth item is indicated by striking the previous four
strokes, thus, making it easy'to count. These strokes are counted and this is called formation
of frequency distribution by the method of tally marks.
Eg. The following are the data on lactation period (in days) of cows in ~ farm. Form a
frequency distribution with suitable class intervals.
290 309 292 302 307 301 289 285
302 276 284 287 298 294 273 305
270 282 273 277 279 287- 275 279
276 285 305 297 271 292 295 282
282 296 294 296 303 293 301 300

Smallest number = 270

Largest number = 309
Difference = 39 =6.5
6
Let us have six classes. The difference between largest and smallest number is 39,
When divided by 6 is 6.5. The width of the class interval may be taken near to 6.5. So the 'j
classes should be taken as 270-275, 275-280, ... !.'

Classes Tally mark Frequency

270 - 275 IIII 4
275 - 280 'fill I 6
280 - 285 III 3
285 - 290 'fill j 6
290 - 295 'ff//_I 6
295---300 - - -'ff// 5
300 - 305 'fill I 6
305 - 310 IIII 4
Total 40
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications 7

Lactation period (in days) of cows in a farm

Lactation period (in days) Number of cows
270 - 275 4
275 - 280 6
280 - 285 3
285 - 290 6
295 - 300 6
300 - 305 5
305 - 310 4
2. Array method
An array is an orderly arrangement of the data by magnitude in the ascending or
descending order. Form the class interval as in the previous method. Then arrange the given
data in the ascending order of magnitude.
From the array, we will count the number of observations belonging to each class and
then we will write. This method is not easy, when the number of observation is large. We can
adopt this method in the cases, where the number of observations are less than 50.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

MEASURES OF AVERAGES
A statistical average condenses a frequency distribution or raw data and presents it in
one single representative number. It is a single value which is considered as the most
representative or typical value for a set of values. Such a value can neither be the smallest one
nor the largest one but is one which usually lies somewhere near the centre of the group. That,
is why an average is usually referred to as a measure of central tendency. It is located at a I

pOint around which most of the other values tend to cluster and therefore it is also termed as a:,
measure of location. It is considered as a measure of description because it describes the ~
main characteristics of the data. I'
11
Objectives of averaging
.
Ii
I
1. To get a single, summary figure describing the prominent characteristics of the entire'"
group of data.
2. To facilitate inter-comparison of different phenomena

Types (forms) of averages

1. Arithmetic Mean (AM) or Mean or common mean
2. Geometric Mean (GM)
3. Harmonic Mean (HM)
4. Median
5. Mode

Summation Notations ;1

If there are 'n' observations and their values are given by X1, X2, ... , Xn then the sum of~
the observations, X1 + X2 + ... + Xn can be written using the symbol '~. (read as sigma) as'
follows: n
Xl + X2 + ... + Xn = L Xi which means the sum of Xi'S, i taking values from1 to n
, =1
When no ambiguity is likely to arise, then the suffix i can be removed and we can
write as X1 + X2 + '" + Xn =~x. Then using the notation L f,Xi =f1x1 + f2x2 + ... + fnXn which can
be written as 2:fx.
n n
L bXi = bI: Xi
1=1 i =1
which can be written as I:bx =bXl + b x2 + ... + bXn =b (Xl + X2 +.... + Xn) = b ~X
1. Arithmetic mean (AM)
It is the value obtained by dividing the sum of the values of the given items (of a
variable) by the number of items. Thus,
Mean = (sum of the values of the items in the series I Total number of items)
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

It is usually denoted by x.
If we denote all the 'n' observations in a series by Xl, X2, X3, ......... Xn, then arithmetic
mean or mean for that series will be given by
Arithmetic mean = Xl + X, + ''I + Xn
n
n
= I: xi I n
j =1

In the case of a frequency distribution if the different class marks of the 'n' classes are
denoted by Xl, X2, ... , Xn and the corresponding frequencies by fl, 12, ... , fn , then the mean of
the data is
X = f,Xl + f2x2 + ... + foXn
f,+f2+ ... +fn
= I:fixi I I:fi
= I:fixi I N

Short cut method (for grouped data)

Put di = (xi - A) I c where A is an arbitrary number usually taken as the middle value of
the middle class interval. '
n
Lfidi
Then, X =A + i=' X C

N
Combined mean
If X, is the mean of first group of n, items, X2 is~the mean of second group of n2
items, then the combined mean of the two groups.is nl Xl + n2 X;
nl + n2~
Xl = (sum of all the observations in the first gl"()up) I nl
- \
nl Xl = sum of all the observations in the first group
X2 = (sum of all the observations in the second group) I n2
n2 X2 = sum of all the observations in the second group
- -
nl x,+ n2 X2 = sum of all the observations in the two groups of size nl + n2
Therefore X = (nl Xl + n2 X2) I (nl + n2)
Extending the above result if X; is the mean of the ilh group of ni observations, then
X = (L ni Xi) I L nj
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Weighted arithmetic mean

In computing simple AM, it was assumed that all the items are of equal importance.
This may not be always true. When items vary in importance they must be assigned weight in
proportion to their relative importance. Thus, a weighted mean is the mean of weighted items.
In calculating weighted A.M. each item is multiplied by its weight and the products so derived
are slimmed up. This total is divided by the total weights (and not by the number of items) to
get the weighted mean.
Symbolically if x" X2, ... , Xn are the different items with weights w" W2, ... , Wn I'
respectively then the weighted mean is given by I:i

Xw =(W1Xl + W2 X2 + ... + Wn Xn) 1(Wl + W2 + ... + wn) =(1: Wi Xi) I ( LWi)

l
In fact, AM of a grouped data is a weighted average of the class marks Le. middle
value of the class-interval whose weights are the respective frequency. Weighted mean is a
much better measure than the simple mean in case when the items in a series are not equally
important. '.,

2. Geometric mean (GM)

The geometric mean is the nth root of product of 'n' items of a series. If Xl, X2, ...... Xn
are the 'n' observations in a series then GM is given by:
GM =~ (Xl X2 ... Xn) = (Xl X2 ... Xn) lIn

To simplify the above by taking logarithms on both sides,

log GM =log (Xl X2 ... Xn)1,n
= 1/n (log X, + log X2 + ......... log Xn)
=L log xi
n
Therefore, GM =antilog l: log Xi
n
Thus, geometric mean is the antilogarithm of the arithmetic mean of the logarithmic
values. logarithm of geometric mean is the arithmetic mean of logarithmic values.
In the case of frequency distribution (grouped data), GM is given by GM =(x,f1
X2f2 .... Xnln)1IN where N = total frequency = l:fi, Xi is the mid point of the class with frequency fi.
Simplifying .by taking logarithm on both sides,
log GM = 1/N log (Xlf1 x{l. ... xnfn)
= 1/N (fl log Xl + h log X2 + ... + fn log Xn)
= l: fdog Xi
N
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Therefore, GM = antilog [L fi log Xl] I N

where Xi is the mid value of the class whose frequency is fi.

3. Harmonic mean (HM)

Harmonic mean is the total number of items of a variable divided by the sum of the
reciprocals of the items. If X1, X2, ... Xn are the 'n' observations and HM represents the
harmonic mean, then
HM = n I (1/xl + 1/x2 + ... +1/Xn ) =n 1r. 1/Xl
1
= =

~11/X]
\,

[
A.M. of the reciprocals ~

....

'"

Harmonic mean is the reciprocal of arithmetic mean of the reciprocal values.,

In the case of a frequency distribution, HM is obtained by using the formula,
HM = f1 + f2 + ... + tn
fl/xl+ f21 X2+ ... +fn/Xn
= N/[Lfi/xil
where Xi is the mid value of the class whose frequency is fi, N is the total frequency.

4. Median
It is the value which has got equal number of observations on either side when the
items are arranged in the~ l:Iscending or descending order of magnitude. Median divides the
series into two equal parts, one part will consist of all variables less than median and the other
part greater than median.
' ..
For an ungrouped (raw) data,
Case a:
When n is odd, then Median ='\ size of f(n + 1) I 21 fh item after arranging the
data in tlie ascending or descending order of
magnitude
Case b:
When n is even, then Median = average of n/2 th and l(n 12) + 1]:h item after
arranging the data in tne ascendmg or
descendmg order of magnitude

In the case of frequency distribution, median is the value which has got equal number
of frequencies on either side (i.e.) which corresponds to the cumulative frequency of Nf2. It is
obtained by
Median =L + [(N 12-m) If 1 x c
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

where L is the lower boundary of the medianal class, N is total frequency, m is cumulative
frequency upto the medianal class, c is width of the class interval and f is frequency in the
medianal class.

Note 1: Medianal class is the class corresponding to the cumulative frequency equal to or just
greater than N12.
2: Median can be computed using ogive. It is the x coordinate of the point of intersection
of the less than and greater than cumulative frequency curve.

5. Mode
It is the size of the most frequent item in a large set of data. Thus mode is the value of
tthat variable which occurs most frequently or repeats itself the greatest number of times.
In the ca~e of grouped data mode can be calculated by
Mode = L + (cf2) I fl + h
where L is the lower boundary of the modal class, fl' h are the frequencies in the
preceding and succeeding modal class and c is the class interval. "

Alternative formula
Mode = L +_j!__(HJ
2f - fl-f2
where L is the lower limit of the modal'class, fl, f2 are the frequencies in the preceding
and succeeding modal classes respectively and f is the frequency of the modal class.
Note: 1. Mode can be computed from histogram . It is the x coordinate of the points of
intersection of the two diagonals from the top comers of the modal class to the
pre and post modal class top comers.
2. As a first approximation, mid point of the modal class will be taken as the value
of the mode which is called crude mode.
3. In a moderately asymmetrical distribution mean-l11ode = 3 (mean-median),
(approximately), Mode = 3 median - 2 mean (approximately). This is
empirical mode.
4. A distribution can have more than one mode. If it has got one mode, it is called
unimodal distribution; if it has got two modes, it is called bi-modal distribution; if
it has got three modes, it is called tri-modal distribution; if it has got more than
three modes, it is called multi-modal or poly-modal distribution.

Properties of arithmetic mean

1. The sum· of the deviations of the items from the mean is equal to zero.
2. The sum of the squared deviations from the mean is smallerJhan the sum 'of the
squared deviations of the items from any other value i.e. L (xi - X)2 is minimum.
3. The product of the mean with the number of observations gives the total of the
original data, Le. LXi =n x.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications 13

4. If Xl, X2 are the means of the two groups with the number of observations, nl and
x
n2 respectively the mean of the combined group is given by
X =

5. AM>GM> HM
6. When all the values are equal, AM =GM =HM
7. i. for a symmetrical distribution, AM = median = mode
ii. for a positively skewed distribution, AM > median> mode (short tail on the left)
iii. for a negatively skewed distribution AM < median < mode (short tail on the right)

Properties of geometric mean ...

~. GM will be z.ero if one or more of the lIalues are z.ero,
2. GM < AM, GM> HM

Properties of harmonic mean

1. HM < GM <AM

Properties of Median
1. Mean deviation taken about median as the origin is the minimum.
2. i. If the distribution is symmetrical, median::: mean =mode,
ii. Median < mean, and median> mode, if the distribution is positively skewed.
iii. Median> mean, and median < mode, if the distribution is negatively skewed.

Properties of Mode ,~"

1, i. If the distribution is symmetrical, mode = median = mean.
ii. If the distribution is'P.Qsitively skewed, mode < median < mean,
iii. If the distribution is negatively skewed, mode> median> mean
2. If the distribu~ion is mode'rately asymmetrical then, Mode = 3 median - 2 mean
(approximately) . \

Choice of an average
The selection of an average ·is a difficult one. It should be done after giving
consideration to the nature and type of enquiry taken up and also the object of statistical
investigation. No one average can be good for all purposes, as different forms of averages
have different characteristics. Thus in selecting an average the chief characteristics and
limitation of various averages must be considered. Most of the averages suffer from one
limitation or the other and they have their own advantages and disadvantages.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

An ideal average should possess the (o((owing qualities:

1. It should be rigidly defined
2. It should be based on all observations
3. It should be simple to understand and easy to calculate
4. It should have minimum influence of extreme values
5. It should possess sampling stability
6. It should be capable of further algebraic treatment.
7. It should not be affected by open end classes
Let us see how the different averages satisfY these qualities:
~

Arithmetic mean
It is rigidly defined, based on all observations, simple to understand and easy to
calculate and is capable of further algebraic treatment.
It is affected much by extreme values and to some extent it possesses s~mpling
stability:

Geometric mean
It is rigidly defined, based on all observations and is capable of further algebraic
treatment. It is less affected by extreme values.
It is not simple to understand and easy to calculate as it involves logarithms, and it
does not possess sampJing stability.

Harmonic mean
It is rigidly defined, based on all observations and is capable of further algebraic
treatment and is not affected by extreme values.
It is not simple to understand and easy to calculate as it involves reciprocals and does
not possess sampling stability.

Median
It is simple to understand and easy to-calculate and is not affected by extreme values.
It can be calculated for distribution with open end classes.
It is not rigidly defined, not based on all observations, does not possess sampling
stability and is not capable of algebraic treatment.

Mode
It is simple to understand and easy to calculate and is not affected by extreme values
(normally). '
It is not rigidly defined, not based on all observations, does not posses sampling
stability and is not capable of algebraic treatment.
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

Thus we see that the qualities essential for a good average are satisfied in varying
degrees by different measures of central tendency that have been seen. It is obvious that AM
possesses the above properties more than any other type of averages. It is the most popular
device in practice. Hence it is called common average. Though the median and mode are
easily computed than others, they are indeterminate in many cases and are not capable of
algebraic manipulations.
Situations where different averages are used
a AM is generally applicable for all sorts of data. It should be used when the distribution is
reasonably symmetrical and further statistical analysis is to be carried out such as the
computation of the standard deviation etc. and also algebraic manipulation i~ to be
followed subsequently.
a GM is used when it is desired to give more weights to small items and less'weight to large
items and in the case of ratios, percentages and microorganisms.
a HM is used in averaging certain types of ratios and rates. and problems involving time. It
gives more weight to small items.
a The median is to be used when the attribute of the data are not directly measurable. As it
can be easily located. by mere inspection, it can be calculated when the data are
incomplete. Use the median when tl)e distribution is highly skewed and the extreme items
may have distorting effects on the mean.
a Mode can be used to know the most typical value or the most common item. It is also
used when the quickest estimate of centrality is required.
Exercises
Find the AM, GM, HM, median and mode for the following data:
a. Following are the data on water requirements for swine (in gall day I head)
for ten animals:
.~~
1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.8, 2.0, 2.1, 2.2, 2.2, 2.5.
b. Water requirement for swine (in gall day I head)
.
Water requirement No. of swine
1.0 -1.3 \ 2
1.3-1.6 2
1.6-1.9 \ '6
1.9 - 2.2 15
2.2- 2.5 11
2.5-2.8 3
2.8 - 3.1 1
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

MEASURES OF DISPERSION
The measures of central tendency indicate only the central position. But they offer
their own limitations and do not throw light on the formation of the series of data. Sometimes
they may offer misleading results too. For ego Consider the following three series.
Series A 50,50,50,50
Series B 50,56,48,42,43,59,52
Series C 1,29,120
They have the same mean 50. Hence we may conclude that these series are alike in
nature. But a close examination shall reveal that the distributions differ widely from one
another. In one distribution, the values may be closely packed and in the other they may be
widely scattered. Such a variation is called scatter, spread or dispersion. Hence an average is
more meaningful when it is examined in the light of ·dispersion. When dispersion is not
significant then the average appears to be a true representative figure of the series and when
dispersion is significant, it implies that the average is far from being a true representative
figure. The measurement of the scattering of item in a distribution about the average is called a
measure of variation or dispersion. Measures of dispersion also enable comparison of two or
more distributions with regard to their variability or consistency.

Objectives of measures of dispersion

1. To determine the reliability of an average
2. To serve as a basis for control of the variability
3. To compare two or more series with regard to their variability

Absolute and relative dispersion .

When dispersion is expressed in terms of original units of series, for e.g., weight in kg,
income in rupees etc., it is called as absolute dispersion. If dispersion is expressed in terms of
a pure number, free from units of measurements, then the dispersion is relative dispersion.
A relative measure of dispersion is an absolute measure of dispersion divided by an
average.

Different measures of dispersion

(F Range
(F Ouartile deviation (00)
(F Mean deviation (MD)
(F Standard deviation (SD)
1. Range
It is the difference between the highest and lowest values in the raw data series. For
the grouped data, the range is the difference between the lower limit of the first class and the
upper limit of the last class. it is a very simple measure of dispersion. It is useful in the study 01
variation in money rate and rates of exchange, weather forecast etc.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Relative measure of dispersion for range is the ratio of range (R.R) which is given by
R.R = (H - L) 1 (H + L)

2. Quartile Deviation (QD)

It is also known as semi-inter quartile range. It is based on quartiles which are points
which divide the data series into four equal parts. The lower or first quartile (01) divides the
lower half of the distribution into two equal parts, Le., it is the value below which 25% of the
observation lie and above which 75% of the observations lie. Similarly, the upper or third
quartile (03) divides the upper half of the distribution into two equal parts, i.e. it is the value
below which 75% of the observations lie and above which 25% of the observations lie. The
difference, 03 - 01 is called inter quartile range and OD is given by (03 - 01) 12
For grouped data, 01 is the value which corresponds to th~c~mulative frequency of
N/4 and OJ is the value which corresponds to the frequency of 3N/4. . ""
OD is used in the case of open end distribution.

Formula to compute QD
In the case of raw data, after arranging the data in the ascending order,
01 = Size of the [(n + 1)/4] lh term
OJ = Size of 3 [(n + 1)/4]lh term
Then,
OD =

In the case of frequency distribution or grouped data,

J

01 = Ll + (N/4 - .01:) x c
~
where Ll is the lower boundary of the first quartile
class, ml is the cumulative frequency upto the first
quartile class, f1 is the frequency in the first quartile
class and c is the width of the class interval
= LJ + (3N/4 - m3) x c where L3 is the lower boundary of the third quartile
\ class, m3 is the cumulative frequency upto third quartile
class, f3 is frequency in the third quartile class and
"c is the width of the class interval
Then,
OD=(03-01)/2
Relative measure of OD is known as the quartile co-efficient of dispersion (OC).
OC of dispersion =(<l3 - 01) I (<l3 + 01)
Note:
» The second quartile (02) is the median.
» 01,~, OJ are three quartiles which divide the series into 4 equal parts.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

)i;> We have 9 decites which divide the entire range into 10 equal parts and they are
denoted by 01.02 .... 09.
)i;> We have 99 percentiles which divide the entire range into 100 equal parts and they are
denoted by Pl. P2 •...• Pgg.
)i;> In the case of symmetrical distribution. Q3+ Q1 = Median / 2 and therefore. OC of
dispersion = (03·01) 12 Median.
3. Mean deviation (MD)
Mean deviation or average deviation in a series is the AM of the deviations of the
various items from an average (mean. median or mode) of the series taking all deviations as
positive.
For raw data. MD about mean =
n
MD about an average A = L Ixi • A I where A is mean or median or mode
n
For grouped data the mean
deviation about an average A = Lfi IXi • AI where A is mean or median or mode.
N Xi is mid point of the ith class with
frequency fi

The relative measure of Mean Deviation is known as mean coefficient of dispersion or

coefficient of mean deviation and is obtained by dividing the MD by the average from which it is
computed.
Coefficient of MD about an average A = (MD ahout an average AJ I A
Coefficient of MD about an average A in % = MD about an average A X 100
A
Note: In actual practice. MD is calculated either from mean or median. but mode is not
used as its value is indeterminate. However, median i~ preferred to mean,because
mean deviation from the median is minimum.

4. Standard deviation (SO)

It is the most perfect and widely used measure of dispersion. It is an improved
method over MD. It is the root mean square of the deviation measured from the mean. In other
words, SD is the square root of the AM of the square of the deyiatio.n of i_tems taken from AM of
the series. It Is denoted by 'cr' (sigma).
n
(j = L (Xi- X)2 for raw data
i=l

n
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications , 19

n
= Lfi (Xi - X)2 for grouped data where Xi is the mid
i=1 value of the class interval whose
N frequency is fi and N is the total frequency
c

To simplify the above,

= LXi2 _ rXI]2 = Mean of the squared values - Square of the mean

n n ...

= L~Xi2 - {~r for grouped data

Short cut method

Put di =Xi - A, then cr =c x
L~di2 _ {Lfidl}2
-c-
'\. N N
Shephard's correction
In computing the standard deviation, sometimes grouping error may occur on account
of grouping of data into different classes. For statistical adjustment of this grouping error,
Shephard has suggested a correction value to be deducted from the variance of the grouped
data, which is given by .•.
C2 = sguare of width of class interval
12 '·12

Hence, corrected S.D. =

Coefficient of Variation
Relative measure of standard deviation is known as coefficient of variation (CV or
COV) arid is defined as SD I Mean.
Therefore CV =[cr x 100] I x
Thus, CV is the percentage variation from the mean, with SO being treated as the
total variation.
Higher CV indicates greater variability and less CV implies better consistency of data.
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Variance
Square of standard deviation is called as variance. It is the mean square deviation. It
is the sum of the squared deviation of individual observations from the mean divided by tne
number of observations. It is denoted by (12.

Standard error (SE)

The mean of random sample may be taken as a representative of the population
mean. The difference between the sample mean and population mean is due to sampling and
it is called sampling error or standard error. It is defined as the SO of the mean of different
samples, taken from the population.
If we study only one sample, then SE ( ;) = SO /...I n
where 'n' is the size of the sample and SO is that of the sample.

Probable error (PE)

PE 02/3 SO

Properties of QD
1. QD 0 213 SO 0 PE
2. Mean! QO will cover 50% of the cases

Properties of MD
1. MDO 4 SO
5
2. MD about median as the origin is the minimum

Properties of SO
1. SO is greater than MD, QO and PE
2. Mean square deviation will be minimum, if the deviation is taken from AM as thE
origin.
3. Mean! 1 SO will cover 68.27% of the items
Mean! 2 SO will cover 95.45% of the items
\
Mean! 3 SO will cover 99.73% of the items
4. By adding or subtracting a constant from all the observations, SO is unaltered.
5. If Xl, X2 are the means of two samples of sizes nl, n2 respectively with SO 0'1, -0'2
then the combined SO (0') is given by
(n1-+ n2)_?'2 =nl ~12 + 02 0'22+ nl d12 + n2 d22 where X is the combined mean and d
= Xl - X; d2 = X2 - X
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Merits and demerits of dispersion measures

The essential requisites of a good measure of dispersion are the same as that of averages.
Dispersion Merits Demerits
measure
Range It is easy to calculate and It is not rigidly defined. It is not based on all
simple to understand. observations. It is affected much by extreme
values. It does not possess sampling
stability. It is not amenable for further
mathematical treatment.
Quartile It is easy to calculate and It is not rigidly defined. It is not based on all
Deviation simple to understand and is not observations. It does not possess sampling
affected by extreme items. stability. It is not amenable for further
mathematical treatment.
Mean It is based on all observations, It is affectea' ~uch by extreme values. It
Deviation it is rigidly defined and easy to does not possess sampling stability. It is not
calculate and simple to amenable for further mathematical
understand. treatment.
Standard It has a rigid formula and is It is affected much by extreme values.
Deviation based on all observations. It is
capable of further algebraic
treatment. It is less affected by
sampling

Choice of dispersion measure

We see that standard deviation satisfies many of the ideal qualities than the other
measures of dispersion. It is the most reliable and a better summary descriptive measure.
Among, other measures, ~he range is unstable and its value depends upon extreme item in the
data series. Range fails to consider central tendency of the data where quartile deviation
excludes half of the items from consideration. Mean deviation suffers from the mathematically
logical defect of neglecting algebraic signs (particularly negative signs). Standard deviation is
free from all these defects to a great extent and is the most useful and most popularly used
measure of dispersion.
Exercises:
.
Find range, QD, MD, SD, variance, SE, and CV
1. for the following data on water requirement for swine (in gal/day/head)
I 1.0 __I 1.2 I 1.4 I 1.5 I 1.8 I 2.0 I 2.2 I 2.5 I 2.1 I 2.2 17.9
2. for the following swine group data on water requirement (gal/day/head).
Water 1.0 -1.3 1.3 - 1.6 1.6 - 1.9 1.9 - 2.2 2.2 -2.5 2.5 -2.8 2.8 - 3.1
requirement
No. of 2 2 6 15 11 3 1
swine
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

SKEWNESS
It has been seen that the measures of central tendency indicate the central position or i
central tendency of the frequency distribution and the measures of dispersion give an \
indication to the extent to which the items cluster around or scatter away from the central !
tendency. But none of these measures indicate the form or type of the distribution. ;
:

Consider the following two distributions:

Class Frequency Class Frequency ,I
0-5 10 0-5 10 I

5-10 30 5-10 40 1

10-15 60 10-15 30
1

15-20 ;60 15-20 90

20-25 '30 20-25 20
25-30 10 25-30 10
I,

The above two distributions have the same mean (=15) and SO (= 6), but yet they are!
not identical distribution. The distribution on the left hand side (LHS) is symmetrical one,
whereas the distribution on the right hand side (RHS) is asymmetrical or skewed.
Skewness refers to the symmetry or departure from symmetry. Symmetry means that i
the number of values above the mode and below the mode is same in a data series. When a I
distribution departs from the symmetrical form, it is said to be asymmetrical or skewed. :
Evidently, in the case of symmetrical distribution, the two tails of the curve are of equal size
and in the case of asymmetrical distribution, one tail of the curve is longer than the other. A
distribution is said to be skewed in the direction of the excess tail. Thus if the right tail is longer
than the left, the distribution is positively skewed; if the left tail is longer than the right, the
distribution is negatively skewed.

Symmetric distribution
(No skew)
Positive skew Negeti.e:A
/\___ ~~ L_j
Measures of skewness
1. Pearsonian measure of skewness
2. Bowley's measure of skewness
3. Measure of skewness based on moments

1. Pearson ian measure of skewness

It is given by mean - mode or 3 (mean - median) and the coefficient of skewness is
mean - mode or 3 (mean - median)
SO SO
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

2. Bowley's measure of skewness

It is given by OJ - M - (M-Ol). i.e. 03 + 01 - 2M and the coefficient of skewness is
OJ+OI -2M '
03""01
3. Measure of skewness based on moments
PI and is given by PI =J.132//.l23.
It is denoted by
where J.1r, rO moment about i is given by J.1r =L (Xi- iy for raw data
n
Ilr = ~Ji (Xi- i)r for grouped data
N
Note: f.l2 is the variance of the data

KURTOSIS
It is the measure of the peakedness. It indicates the degree of flatness or peakedness
in the region or area relating to the mode of frequency curve. A normal curye is symmetrical
and bell shaped. When two distributions are compared, the top of the frequency curve may be
flat, very narrow or peaked. This characteristic of frequency curve is known as kurtosis or
peakedness.
The normal curve is known as mesokurtic. A curve more peaked than normal curve is
leptokurtic and if the curve is flatter than the normal curve is platykurtic.

",~, mesokurtic

r~'atYkurtic
._
-4 -3 -2 -1 C 1 2 3 4\

Measure of Kurtosis

It is measured by i32 - 3 where [32= J.l4I,.li

x
Where ,Jl4 is the 4th moment about given by J.I.4 = L(Xi - X)4 for raw data
n
and IJi (Xi - X)4 for grouped data i32 ::: 3 for a normal curve
P2 < 3 for platykurtic curve
N
[32 ) 3 for leptokurtic curve
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

CORRELATION 1
So far, we have studied the problems relating to one variable only. In practice, we
come across a large number of problems involving the use of two or more variables.
Bivariate population
It is a set of data with paired values involving measurements of two related variables
of the same data. For e.g., feed intake and weight of animals, birth weight and litter size 0
pigs.

Meaning of correlation
~ If two variables are so related that the changes in the values of one are followed b
the changes in the value ()f the other such that (i) an increase in the one is followed by a
increase or decrease in the other or (ii) a decrease in the one is followed by an increase a
decrease in the other, then the two variables are said to be correlated. That is, if two variable
vary in such a way that movements in one are accompanied by movements in th~ other, these
quantities are correlated. Thus, correlation or covariation is the study of simultaneous changes
in both the variables in the same or opposite direction. .
Correlation is the strength of relationship or the intensity of association between two
variables. If two variables vary in such a way that as one increases (or decreases), the other
also increases (or decreases), then the correlation is said to be positive or direct. (eg.) feed
intake and growth rate of animals. If two variables vary in such a way that as one increases,
the other decreases and vice versa, then the correlation is said to be indirect or negative (eg.)
litter size and birth weight of piglets.
If there i s no relationship between the two variables, they are said to be independent
or uncorrelated.

Coefficient of correlation
A measure of correlation free from units of measurements is called coefficient of
correlation. It is denoted by 'r'.

Properties ()f 'r'

1. r takes values from. -1 to +1
2. When r =+1, the correlation is perfect and positive
3. When r =-1, the correlation is perfect and negative
4. When r = 0, there is no correlation

Real and Spurious correlation

When there is a real correlation between two variables, it may be that a change in one~
variable is the cause of the change in the other. There is covariation based on the logicall
relationships and causation.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications 25

Sometimes, even if two variables are independent of each other, there may be a high
degree of correlation between them. Such a correlation indicates the relationship with no
logical basis. For e.g., rainfall in Tamil Nadu and yield in Kamataka, cattle number and number
of human illiterates. Such a correlation is called spurious or nonsen.se correlation.

Type of correlation
1. Simple, partial and multiple
2. Linear and non-linear

Simple, partial and multiple

It is based on the number of variables studied. When only two variables are involved
in the study of correlation, it is called as the simple correlation. (eg) (i.) feed in'ta-!<e and growth
of animals, (ii). birth weight and number of piglets. . "-
"'-
When more than two variables are involved in the study. it is either multiple or partial
correlation. In multiple correlation, we study the correlation of one dependant variable over all
the other independent variables, (eg.) milk yield vs. first lactation period, food: supplied, age
etc.
In partial correlation we study the relationship between two variables, assuming that
the other variables are constant. (eg) correlation between the weight of broiler and feed intake
assuming the other factors like areciprovided, labour used, medicinal cost etc. as constant.

Linear and Non-linear

On the basis of degree of covariation, correlation may be termed as linear or non-
linear. When the correlation between two sets of variables is perfect of degree one or unity
which means that the two variables have an exact functional relationship, the correlation is said
to be linear. The graphical depiction of a linear correlation presents a straight line and its
functional relationship is repr~§.9nted by the relation, y = a + bx, where 'a' and 'b' are
constants.
A perfect linear correlation may be positive or negative. Thus, its numerical coefficient
will be either +1 or -1. These are th~limits of correlation. Thus, coefficient of correlation cannot
be greater than +1 or less than -1. If the correlation is imperfect, its graphic exposition will be
non-linear. It will not form a straight lin'e. Non-linear correlation will always be less than unity
and it will lie between -1 and +1.

Methods of studying correlation

1. Scatter diagram
2. Correlation graph
3. Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation
4. Concurrent deviation method
5. Rank method
Scatter diagram
A scatter diagram or scattergram or scatterplot or dot diagram is a chart prepared to
represent graphically the relationship between two variables. Take one variable on the
 I

Bio Statistics and Computer Applications 26

horizontal and another <?n the vertiea!" axis and mark points corresponding to each pair of the: I

given observations after taking suitable scale. Then, the figure which contains the collection 0
dots or points is called a scatter diagram. The way in which the dot lies on the scatter diagram
shows the type of correlation. If these dots show some trend either upward or downward the
two variables are correlated. If the dots do not show any trend, there is absence of correlatio
between the two· variables.

y y y

•
• •
•• •
• •
• •
••
•
O~---------'·x O~---------'X
• O'----------.x
Perfect positive correlation Perfect negative correlation Limited posi~ive correlation

•
• • • • •• • • •
•
• • • • •• • • •
••
o'--------..X N------.x
Limited negative correlation Absence of correlation
This method is not suitable when the number of observations is fairly large. By thl
method, we cannot get a measure of correlation but we can only say that whether the variabl
are correlated or not.

Correlation graph
In this method, curves are plotted for the data on two variables. By examining
direction and closeness of the two curves so drawn, we can infer whether or not the variabl
are related. If both the curves drawn on the graph are moving in the same direction (eith
upward or downward), correlation is said to be positive. On the other hand, if the curves a
moving in the opposite direction, ~rrelation is said to be negative.
.y y
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications 27

This method is normally used for time series data. However, like scatter diagram, this
method also does not offer any numerical value for coefficient of correlation. .

Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation

Of the several mathematical methods of measuring correlation, the Karl Pearson's
method, popularly known as pearson ian coefficient of correlation is often used. It is denoted by
r. It is also called product moment formula. It is given by .
= LXY - x y where x, yare the means of x and y respectively,
-n- n is the number of paired observations, Ox, Oy are
Ox Oy SOs of x and y

Covariance of two variables x, y is given by r.xy - x y \ .

,_
n \ "
Concurrent deviation method
This method of studying correlation is the simplest of all the methods. What is to be
found in this method is the direction of change of x and y variables. The stepwise procedure is:
Step i. Find out the direction of change of x variable, i.e as compared with the first
value, whether the second value is increasing or decreasing or constant. If it is increasing, put
a + sign, if it is decreasing, put a - sign and if it is constant, put zero. Similarly, as compared to
second value, find out whether the third value is increasing, decreasing or constant. Repeat
the same process for the other values also. Denote the column as Ox.
Step ii. In the same way, find out the direction of change of y variable and denote
this column as Oy.
Step iii. Multiply Ox with Oy and determine the value of C, the number of concurrent
deviations or the number of positive signs obtained after multiplying Ox with Oy.
Step iv. Then apply' the, fo~ula r =~ tCn-n]
_ sign is taken as that of (2c-n)

Rank method
Sometimes we may not know the actual values, but their ranking may be known. In
such occasions, this method would be of use. Even when the actual values are available, we
can rank them and measure correlation using the formula:
rs = 1 - (6:Ed 2) / n(n2 - 1) where'd' is the difference in the ranking of the two series x and y,
and n is the number ofpaired observations
When some of the values are equal, give the average rank and then add 1112 (mL m)
to D:J2, where m stands for the number of items whose values are equal.
Bio Stat;stics and Computer Applications

When the number of paired observations exceed 30, it is very difficult to rank them
and hence, unless rank is given, it is better to avoid this method. This method is also called as
Spearman's rank cO'rrelation coefficient.
Probable Error
PE of r = 0.6745 (1 - rd
V
r ±PE denote the limits of correlation in the population
Coefficient of determination
Square of correlation coefficient (r2) is defined as coefficient of determination. If r2=
0.85, it implies that 85% of the variation in the dependent variable is due to the independent
variable studied.

Coefficient of non-determination
(1 - r2) is defined as the coefficient of non-determination. If 1-r2 =0.24. we infer that
24% of the variation in the dependent variable is due to the other variables whicn are not
studied. This is called as unexplained variations. .
Properties of correlation coefficient
1. Correlation coefficient lies between -1 and +1
2. Correlation coefficient is independent of change of ~cale and origin of the
variable x and y
3. Correlation coefficient is the geometric mean of the two regression coefficients
(in magnitude).
Exercise
The following are the data on weight gain of catUe (y) and the level of vitamin added to diet (x).j
Find out the coefficient of correlation between them. :
X 1 234 5 6
y 6 9 13 12 14 18
Bio statistics and Computer f',pplications 29

REGRESSION
The meaning of regression is the act of returning or going back. This term was
introduced by Francis Galton, when he studied the relationship between the heights of father
and sons.
We may be interested in estimating the value of one variable given the value of
another. This is done with the help of regression. Regression is the amount of dependence of
one variable on the other. This gives the rate of change of one variable with respect to another.
The problem of regression is to find out equations of the lines (or curves) with functional
relationship between two variables, independent (x) and dependent (y). The simple linear
regression is of the form y =a + bx, where 'b' represents the slope of the line (also called as
regression coefficient) and 'a' the intercept of the line. \
In a study where data on age and weight of animals are a~allab~, age could
be considerea as ~'ne inaependen~ varia'o'e, w'ni'e Wfii1Jrft CIS 'ine nepennertcwffia'o'le; Yt
means that weight regresses on age.
In the regreSSion line y = a + bx, a and b are calculated by
b :: LXY - x Y
n

a = y -bx
The above is the regression line of y and x. Similarly we have the regression equation
of x on y which can be given by:
x :: C + dy, where d is the regression coefficient of the regression line x on y which isI given by
d = LXY-~Y
-n- and c = -x - d -Y

Properties of regression coefficient

1. Regression coefficient gives the rate of change in the value of dependent variable (y) for a
unit change in the independent vari"able (x).
2. Regression equation is useful in estimating the values of y by knowing the values of x.
3. Both the regression coefficients will be of the same sign.
4. If one cifthe -regression coefficients is greater than one, the other will be less than one.
5. Product of the regreSSion coefficient; is the square of correlation coefficient.
r = +..Jbcf if band dare +ve
= -{60 if band d are -ve
 30
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

Exercise

th
Fit a regression equation of the form y =a + bx and estimate the milk yield on 15 day an(
~_ I
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

PROBABILITY THEORY AND PROBABILITY

IDISTRIBUTION
Probability refers to the chance of happening of a particular event or a measure of the
strength or degrees of belief one has in a particular outcome of an event or experiment.

Important definitions
1. Event Any phenomena occur]ing in nature
2. Equally likely events: All events have equal chance of occurrence
3. Mutually exclusive events: If the occurrence of an event completely avoids the
occurrence of another event, then the events are said to be mutually exclusive.
4. Independent events: if the occurrence of one event in no way affects the occut:J'9nce
of another event, then these events are said to be independent .
5. Simple and compound event When two or more events occur together; their
happening is described as a compound event, while if only one event takes pl~ at a
time, it is called as a simple event.
6. Exhaustive cases: refer to all possible outcomes without any omissions
7. Sample space: represent the set of all possible outcomes of a phenomenon
Measure of probability
If A is a desired event and 'r' is the number of occurrences of A out of the total
number of possible occurrences say 'n', then the probability of occurrence of A, denoted by
P(A), is given by:
.~~

P(A) = (No. of occurrence of A) I (Total no. of occurrences) =rI n

. Probability is a ratio taking values from 0 t01. It can never be negative. If an eveht is
?n lmpossible event, then the probability is O.lf an event is certain to occur, then its probability
~.1 \

Mathematical and empirical probability \

Wi Mathematical or ua priorf' probability is one, which can be determined deductively
of thout any experimentation or trial. It is based on the assumption that one has full confidence
Wh?n event happening out of several possible alternatives (even before the eyent happens),
eq~C~t are mutually exclusive and equally likely, It assumes,that all cases are equally likely, Le.
p:nc:r
es a pr~babl~ all the time. However, for many kinds of chances and events in real life
ty In SOCial and economic aspects, this definition is unsuitable, as one cannot declare a
happe .at at! cases are equally likely. Thus, without assuming any of certainty of the event
outco~InQ, If one tries to base the probability of an event on past experience of certain
then th: S
base~. upon a long series of experiments (that is, on the basis of statistical data),
probablirty is known as statistical or empirical probability.
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications
.. -, ... ',- , ~;"

If 'n' is the number of cases ,Observed which is not only a large number but also
increases indefinitely up to infinity which sets a limit to the probability of the event happening :
and when an event A is found to be occurring in 'm' number of cases, the ~tio ( mIn) is clOse I
,to P(A): the:statistical probabiiitY. In other words, " .
P(A) = lim ....DL
n~ oc n
Theorem of total probability or addition theorem .
The probability of ocCurrence of one or other of a set of mutually exclusive events il
. the sum of th~ probabilities of occurrence of the separate events of the set.
Proof "
Lei-'n' be the exhaustive mutually exclusive w~ys in which all events can occur. Le
the first event occur in a, of these ways, the second in a2 of these ways.:: and I(th event occu~ .
in akof these ways. Then, if p" P2, ... , Pk be the probabilities of the occurrence of these events
p, = a,f'n; P2= a2/ n; P3= a3/ n, ... , Pk';" ak/ n.
Since these events are mutually exclusive, the number of ways in whi~h one or othe
of k events will occur is:

=
n
= al +a2+ ... ,~
-n n -- n
= p,+ P2+ ... , + Pk
= Sum of the independent probability of the events
Suppose if we take two mutually exclusive events A and B, then the probability of an
one of the events A or B, which are mutually exclusive, shall happen, is the sum of th""
probability of occurrence of A and the probability of occurrence of B
P(A or B) =P(A) + P(B)
Multiplicatiol'l o~ compound probability theorem
The probability of simultaneous occurrence of a set of independent events is t
product of the separate probabilities of those independent events.
If A and B are two independent events and their individual probabilities are P(A) a
P{B), then the probability of joint occurrences of A and B, i.e the probability of the compoun
event A and B, is the product of their respective p,~obabilities.
Suppose if the event A occurs in nr ways of which m, ways are successful and
event B occurs in n2 ways of which m2 ways are successful.
then P(A) = ~and P(B) = m2

The total outcome of the events =n,n2;

Bio statistics and Computer Applications 33

The total no. of successful outcomes for A and B = m1m2

Therefore P(AB) = ...ID.t!!!.2.. = !!!L x...mz... =P(A) xP(B)
nln2 nl n2

Probability of compound events

If p is th~ probability of the event, the probability that it will occur in exactly x out of n
cases is nCxqn-xpx.
Example 1: An animal Scientist wishes to choose three animals for his research from 8 sheep,
three of which are Suffolk, and the other are Mecheri. What is the probability that a randomly
selected group will have two Mecheri and one Suffolk sheep?

The total possible group of 3 = BC3

= 8x7x6
1x2x3
= 56
We can select two Mecheri out of five in 5C2 ways and we can select one Suffolk in
3Cl ways.
Therefore, the total possible ways of selecting 2 Mecheri and 1 Suffolk =5C2 x 3Cl = 10 x 3 =
30. Probability of getting two Mechen and one Suffolk is = 30/56 =0.54.
Example 2: An animal scientist works with three different cattle breeds to improve their
efficiency of beef production. Suppose he has 10 Steers, 5 of which are Angus, 3 are
Brahman, and 2 are Hereford and he selects three animals at random. What is the probability
that all the three selected are Angus?
The total number of ways of getting 3 animals = lOC3

= 10 x 9 x 8
"'~
1x2x3
= 120
No. of ways of getting three"Angus is = 5C3 =10
The probability of getting three'~ngus = 10/120 = 0.0833
Example 3: If we assume that male and female calves are equally likely, what is the probability
of exactly three out of 10 calves born will be ''male calves?

'p' is probability of success and 'q' is the prQbability of failure.

Then, probability of getting 'x' success in 'n' trial = ncx. pn-x. q x

In the given case, n = 10, P=q =%; x = 3
Let the event of getting a male calf be the success, then we have to find the probability, x =3
probability = 1DC3 (Yz) 10.3 (%)3
= 10C3 (%)10
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

= 10 x 9 x 8 x 1
1x2x3 210
= 120
1024
= 0.1171
Example 4: Find the probability of a cow having 5 calving to have
i. All are female calves
ii. Atleast one female calf
iii. 2 female calves and 3 male calves
Consider the event of getting the female calf a success.
Probability of having 'x' success out of 'n' trials is ncx px gil-x
n =5, P=q =%
p(x) = 5cx (%)x (%)5-X
= Sex (%)5
= 5Cx.
32
i). P(AII are females)
P(x =5) = 5cs/32 =1/32 = 0.0312
ii). P( Atleast one female calQ
P(x ~_1) = 1 - P(x = 0)
= 1 - 5Co/32
= 1 - 1/32
= 1 - 0.0312
= 0.9688
iii). P(2 female calves and 3 male calves)
P(x = 2) = 5C2/32
= 10/32
= 0.3125
Probability distribution
The probability distribution shows how the set of all possible mutually
events is distributed. The probability distribution can be regarded as the theoretical
of an empirical relative frequency distribution, with its own mean and variance. A
distribution comprises all the values that the random variable can take, with their
probabilities.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications 35

Binomial distribution or Bemoullian distribution

It is a probability distribution expressing the probability of one set of alternatives, Le.
success or failure. It is developed under the following assumptions: '
1. An experiment is performed under the same condition for a fixed number of trials, say 'n'
2. In each such trial, there are only two possible chances of the experiment, success or
failure
3. The probability of success denoted by 'p' which remains constant from trial to trial and the
probability of failure denoted by q=1-p .'
4. The trials are independent
In a series of n independent trails, if p is the constant probability of sLlccess ata single
trial, then the variate 'x " Le the number of success at these 'n. . ,trails is said to follow binomial
distribution. The variate takes values from 0 to n (all integers), theprobability of getting 0, 1, 2,
••• , 1'1 S\l\.~$e~ at the~e \\ t\'a~ls ls qn ,\\C'lqn.l'jl,\\C'An.2?2, ... , nC'A(\n-x~, '~"'jln res.'jledi'let'1, 1Ht\icll.
are the respective terms of binomial expansion '(q+p)h .
Suppose if we have N sets of "n' trials, the number of sets in which we will have 0, 1,
2, .'" n success will be given by the successive terms of binomial expansion N(q+p)n. Thus,
we classify the sets according to the number of successes which they contain and we get a
frequency distribution which is known as the binomial distribution.'
No. of success 0 1 2 ". x ... n
Frequency Nqn NnClqn.lp NnC2Qn-2p2 NnCxqn.xpx Npn

Properties of Binomial distribution

1. It is a distribution of discontinuous or discrete variate
2. It has two parameters (constants). They are nand p, where n denotes the number of
independent !rials and p denotes the constant probability of success
~ ~ .
at a single trial
3. Ittakes values from 0 to n (all integers), Le. 0, 1,2,,,,, n
4. Its mean is np and variance is npq, where q=1-p
- .
SO = '" npq; Variance is always less than mean
5. The different frequencies are different terms of binomial expansion N(q+p)n
6. It is symmetrical, when p=q=Y2
7. When n is large and p is small such that np is constant, the binomial distribution tends to a
Poisson distribution .
8. When n is large and p=q=Y2. the binomial tends to become a normal distribution
Poisson distribution
. I It is a discrete probability distribution and is limiting form of binomial distribution, when
~~rge and p is ~mall such that np is constant. It is a distribution of rare events. It is 'also
as the law of Improbable events. The equation is:
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

P(x) = N e-m.mx

x!
where, m is the mean, N is the total frequency and x is the no. success
I:'roperties of Poisson distribution
1. It has one parameter m
2. It is a distribution of discrete variate
3. It takes values from 0 to a
4. Mean is approximately equal to variance
5. Skewness is 11 m
6. Kurtosis is 3 + [11 m]
Normal Distribution or Normal Probability Distribution or Gaussian Distribution
Binomial and Poisson distributions are the more useful theoretical distributions t
discrete variables. That is, they relate to ~he occurrence of di~tinct events. In order to have ,
mathematical distribution suitable for dealing with quantities who,se magnitude is continuous
variable. a continuous distribution is needed. The normal distribution is the most use
theoretical distribution for continuous variable. It was discovered by De Movire as the limiti !

form of Binomial distribution and was also known to Laplace. Gauss is the first one who m
reference to this and it was erratically named after him. The frequency curve corresponding
normal distribution is normal frequency curve Of normal curve or Gaussian or LaplaCian'
probability curve.
y = N e-(x-m)2 I 2a2

~
where m= mean, N= total frequency, (]2 = variance

Properties of Normal distribution

1. It is a distribution of continuous variates
2. The variate takes values from -a to+ a
3. It is symmetrical distribution; mean=median=mode
4. The slope of the curve is bell shaped. The ends of curve tails off asymptotically
base
to_
5. It has two parameters m and 0 2
6. The first and the third quartiles are equi-distant from the median
7. MD =4/5 (] or 0.7979 0
8. i. mean ± 213 (] covers 50% of the observation
ii. mean ± (] covers 68.27 % of the observation
iii. mean ± 2(] covers 95.45% of the observation
iv. mean ± 3(] covers 99.73% of the observation
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

9. All odd moments about mean = 0

10. Skewness is zero
11. Kurtosis is 3. It is mesokurtic.
A frequency curve is leptokurtic if kurtosis > 3
A frequency curve is platykurtic if kurtosis < 3
12. If mean =0; SD=1 then the normal distribution is a standard normal distribution and its
equation is y =_N e-x2/2

~
leptokurtlc mesokurtlc
'.'" "
\ platykurtlc
 -y
!
method In P"'cti"" 't"'EORY OF SAMPLING
orCens
sarnplin9'l'I)~th
ql'l required information may be obtained by following either

every unit of p~s ttl~th od of data collection.

Sam ~Ulati()1'\ Od: It refers to the complete enumeration of the data from each
the samples :~nQ tl) Or universe, i.e. total set of items in a particular investigation.
the population fo~'f) ~~hOd: It is the process of learning about the population on the b .
Pa", tht. p th. population. i.•.• a part of th. univ.rs. or population se~1S
population, s~et~r i~ llrpose of investigation.
sample. e.g., rn~f th~ the statistical measure pertaining to the population, e.g., mean
Need for sam ."" "I
Phl'\Q
~PUlation.etc. whil. statiStic is the statistical measure pertaining
e sample, SD of the sample, etc.
~ 0
In Illan
especi~ly when 'I ~it ..
consuming, sam P~t:l\..a~a~lon~, census method, in spite of its advantages, is not
Phf)~ atlon IS large or infinite. As censuS metho~ proves to be costly a
Advantage of sa Illethod of data collection appears appropnate. nd
1. As only a Part ~~li"g ".
th . .
the part of t~t a.~ 'h~ POpulation is studied, this method saves time.
2. It saves Co

3. Since only ae P~J:)~ a~ount of labour and expenses involved will be less for the
greater accu f~,"" ation).
4. It provides ~ac'y. ~nd standard number of observations are involved, it provides
Or~
5. articles
Sometimes
are S~'"~~tailed
. information as it deals with only a few observations.
· to b~ t:lling is the only method available. When the population is
Disadvantages ~e~troyed for testing the quality, census method can not be carried
What
differ from the ~~ ~
standard errOr ~t,--:t from that sample is only the estimate of population parameter
Standard err .... i~~ yal~e of the parameter, y~t it is possible to calculate the sampling
. Or I h IS given along with the estimate.
1· It IS u.. 'il<i~
. Yl~~ .. tllpling error
<

2· ItstaIS t....I l~ '111erence between parameter and statistic

nCia I'~~,~ndard deviation of the sample means. If only one sample is
. ~rror is ..so . where n =size of sample
Est/mate: is th
Estimator: is th~
are two types
e." rn
.~, lle of population parameter obtained from the sample.

Of ~~t'le which is used to estimate the value of the population

~timate:
 BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

point estimate: is a single value which is used to estimate the population parameter
InteNSI estimate: is an interval in which population parameter lies between. It is also called
fiducial limit or confidence interval.
Notations
Particulars Sample Population
Observations Yl, Y2, Y3.... Yl, Y2, Y3 ...
rsize n N
Mean Y Y
Standard deviation s CJ

Properties of best estimator

"-
1. Unbiased estimator. If Y is the pppula1ion mean and yis its estimate and if the
mean of all possible estimates is equal to Y, then the estimator is said to be
unbiased. In other words E( y) = y~, then yis unbiased estimate Y.
2. Consistency estimator. When sample size n is increased indefinitely, then probability
estimate that ~ is close to Ywill be close to 1. .
Y
When 'n' approaches 'N' the probability that !.. is close to Y·will be close to 1.
Y
3. Minimum variance estimator. If there are two estimators " "
~ will be a minimum variance estimator, if V~ is
Y
<V [~rorru,( ~Js ,
LyJ

4. Best estimator. If an estimator is unbiased and consistent, it is called best estimator.

5. Linear estimator. : is a linear estimator, if it can be written as a linear function of
y
sample observations. i.e if Y1, Y2 ... are sample observations, then
"
y =kl Yl + k2 Y2+ k3 Y3 + ... + knYnwhere kl' k2.... , kn are constants.
: 6. EffICient estimator. unbiased. minimum variance estimator is called efficient estimator
:~. Uses of standard error
~ 1. Standard error of the mean indicates the average vari~~iol1s in sample means from
the population mean. Standard error is used as an instrument or basis for testing the
hypothesis.
The magnitude of standard error gives us an idea about the reliability of the sample.
The greater the standard error is greater the departure of actual value from the
expected value and hence greater the unreliability (lesser the reliability) of sample.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

The reciprocal of standard error is taken as a measure of reliability or precision of

sample. That is,
Precision =1/S.E and SE = _so.
.r;
As n increases, SE decreases and hence precision increases. In large samples, I

sampling distribution of statistics approximates normal distribution

3. Standard error helps us to determine the limits, within which the population iI
parameters are expected to lie. i_

SAMPLING PROCEDURES
i. Random sampling or probability sampling
a. Unrestricted random sampling or simple random sampling
b. Restricted random sampling
o Stratified sampling
o Systematic random sampling
o Cluster sampling
o Multistage sampling.
ii. Non random sampling or non probability sampling
a. Judgment sampling
b. Convenient sampling
c. Quota sampling

Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

SRS is the technique of drawing sample from the population, in such a way that el
unit of population has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample. If N,
the population size and n is sample size, the probability that anyone of N units in population·
be considered as a unit in the sample is 1/N. •
SRS can be done by anyone of the following two methods:
1. Lottery method
2. Method using random number table

Lottery method
This is a very popular method of selecting random samples. In this method, alll
items of universe are numbered or named on separate slips of papers of identical shape-
size. These slips are then folded in the same manner and are put in a container. After shU
one slip after another is taken till the required sample size is obtained. The number in the~
would constitute the sample and thus the selection of items depends entirely on chancf' .
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Method using random number table

The lottery method is quite cumbersome when the size of the population is large. The
alternative method of random selection is using table of random numbers. The following are
some of the tables of random numbers available:

1. Tippets random numbers table consisting of 41,600 random units grouped into 10,400
sets of 4 digits random numbers
2. Fisher and Yates random number table consisting of 15,000 random units assigned
into 1,500 sets of 2 digits random numbers
3. Kendall and Smith random numbers table having 10 lakh random digits grouped into
25,000 sets of 4 digits random numbers \. ~,

4. Rand Corporation table of random numbers' having of 1 lakh random number digits
grouped into 20,000 sets of,5 digited random numberS'
5. Rao, Mitra and Matthai table of random numbers conSisting of 20,000 random digits
grouped into 5,000 sets of 5 digits random numbers

The following table displays the details ,of the above random number tables:
S.
Random numbers Sets Digits
No.
1. 41,600 10,400 4
2. 15,000 1,500 2
3. 10,00,000 25,000 4
4. 1,00,000 20,000 5
5. 20,000 5,000 5

Exam~e of selecting samples through random numbers

If the population size is 30 {N =30} and sample size is 15 (n = 15), then, number the
population from 1 to 30. Since 30 is a 2 digit number, choose a 2 digit random number table. In
the 2 digit random number table, choose 01 to 90 rejecting 91 - 99 and 00 so as to give equal
chance to all units. Have a random start in random number table. Start any where, select that
number if the m:II'ilber is less than 30; if the number is greater than 30, divide it by 30 and take
the reminder, if th~ reminder is 0, that corresponds to 30. The process has to be repeated till
we get 15 different numbers (i.e. required sample size).
Estimation of population mean and confidence intervals
If .Yl, Y2. ... , Yn are the sample values chosen from the population of size N, then the
mean of the sample .
= Y, + Y2 + ....... + Yn
n
n
I.e. y = L_1l._
i=1 n
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

-
Sample mean = ywill be taken as estimate of population mean Y

"
y = y
Confidence interval
For this, we have to find out standard error of population mean. Estimation of standard 'error of
population mean,

"
i.e., S.E. ( Y)
l\ r------
S;E. ( Y) where S2 is variance of sample

When n > 30, 95% confidence interval for population mean y is given by

y:t 1.96 S.E. ( y)

"

y! 1.96 ~ (N; J ~
99% confidence interval is
y! 2.58 ~ [N - n
N
J s'
n

Far small samples, if n < 30, then 95% and 99% confidence interval for y is
¥- :t t (n-1) df (5%) S.E. ( ¥) and
y :t t (n-1) df (1%) S.E. ( y) respectively
Stratified Random Sampling (StRS)
In this method, the population of size 'N' is subdivided into a definite number of no
overlapping and distinct sub population of sizes Nl, N2.... , Nk such that Nl + N2 + N3 + .. , + N
= N. This procedure .of dividing the population into distinct sub populations is call
stratification and each sub population is called as a stratum. While forming a stratum, we see
that the units within each str.atum are more homogenous with respect to the character(s) unde~
study. Between strata, there should be greater diversity or variability. This is done with the idea I
of improving the precision of estimate. I'.:

Within each stratum of size 'Ni', a simple random sample of nj will be drawn such th i

n1 + n2 + ...... + nk =n, while 'n' is the size of the sample'. Such a sampling method is called
the stratified random sampling.
SituaUons where St.RS could be used
1. When the character under investigation is highly variable.
2. When estimates are required for subpopulations also
PIV U,,,,,,,,,IIVW W,'W 'VV"'I-'U&r;;, npfI"",aUVI'\)

Notations
Particulars Sample Population
Characteristic value Yll, Y12 ... Yij, jlh unit in ilh Yll, Y12... Yij, jth unit in ilh
stratum stratum
Mean Yl, Y2 ... Yl, Y2 ...

Estimate of population mean and its confidence interval

_ Let Yl, Y2, ... , Yk denote the sample mean of1 S1 stratum, 2nd stratum, ... kth stratum. "
Then Yl is the unbiased estimate of 1s1 stratum population mean Y2 is unbiased estimate of
2nd stratum population mean and so on. In general .Yi is the unbiased estimate of ith stratum
population mean. \_'. . . .
" '"
Therefore estimate of Yi = Yi
"

" = Yil + Yi2 + ...... + Yini

ni
ni
= r,
j=l
Yij

"
~ = (sum of characteristic values of all samples values in 1st stratum) I n1
"
Y2 = (sum of characteristic values of all samples values in 2nd stratum) I n2 and so on. "
Estimate of population mean in St. RS, ~ is given by weighted mean of YI'S with weights NifN
,. YSlRS
NilN is called stratum weight.
" ,,= Nl/N Yl +N2/N Y2+ .... +.NklNYk
'YStRS

0-
= N1 Y1 + N2 -;2 + .. , + Nk Yk

1
Because, (N; + N2 + ...... + Nk) I N =1
=
k
1:
i=1

N
Ni yi = .;, : ~
~-
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

k
YSlRS = 1: Ni yi

N
Advantage of St.RS
1. It is more representative than SRS, as there is a possibility for all sample units drawn
from a single comer of the population. However in St.RS, all stratums are equally
represented and thereby avoid the possibility of any essential group of population being
completely eliminated from sample.
2. St.RS provides more precise population estimate, besides estimates for each of the
stratum.
3. As compared which SRS, the St.RS would be concentrated geographically, accordingly,
time and money involved in collecting the data and interviewing the individuals will be.
considerably reduced and supervision of field work could be done with greater efficacy
and convenience.
Estimate of Standard Error of A = SE (A ")
YStRS YStR~

Let us denote the corresponding estimated variance of sample in ith stratum by Si2

{;StRl ~ ~2 [~i -~y

SE

For n > 30, 95% confidence interval for Y StRS is given by,

= 1\ + 1.96 SE A

YStRS Y StRS

where,

For n>30, 99% confidence interval for YSlI~S is given by,

= 2.58 SE A

YSlRS

. where, SE A

YSt.RS
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications.
-
For n < 3D, 95% confidence interval for Y SlRS is given by,
= "+ ~n.1)df 5% S;_ "
YSlRS YSlRS

where, SE II

YSlRS

For n < 3D, 99% confidence interval for Y SlRS is given by

±~n.1)df 1% SE_"
Y SlRS . YStRS
"- ...
where, SE 1\

YSlRS

Syst~matic sampling
It is a commonly employed technique, if the COlllplete and upto' date list of sampling
units is available. This consists of selecting only the 1s1 urlit at random, the rest being selected
according to some predetermined pattern involving regular spacing of units. Let us suppose
that 'N' population units are serially numbered from 1 to Nin some order and a sample of size
In' is to be chosen, then let k = N/n and this k is called sampling interval or sampling ratio.
Choose a number (p) at random, which is less than k, th~n choose every kth item, i.e., p, p+k,
p+ 2k,oo. This random number p is called random start.

Merits and Demerits

~~

Merits
1. It is mo~ convenient than simple random samplihg and stratified random sampling as
time and work involved is relatively less.
2. Systematic sampling 'l{ill be more efficient than simple random sampling, provided the
list from which sample units are drawn is known. .
Demerits \
1. Actual sample size will be different from that of rElquired size.
2. Sample mean is not an·unbiased estimate of POPulation mean.
3. It may lead highly biased estimates, if there are periodic features associated with
sampling interval. i.e., if the list has a periodic features and sampling interval is equal
to or multiple of that period. .
Bio StaUstics and Computer Applications

Cluster sampling
In this case, total population is divided depending on the problem under study, into
some recognisable subdivisions named as clusters and simple random sample of these
clusters is drawn. Each and every unit in the selected clusters is observed as sample. For
example, If we are interested in obtaining income of a city, whole city is divided into N different
blocks or localities and simple random sample of 'n' blocks is drawn. The individuals in
selected blocks form the cluster sample.

Multistage sampling
Instead of enumerating all sample units in the selected clusters, one can obtain better
and more efficient estimators by resorting to sub sampling within the clusters. This technique is
called second stage bmpling, clusters being termed first stage sampling unit. The entire
above procedure is called multistage sampling.
For example, if we want to study consumption pattern of households in Tamil Nadu. In •
the first stage, a simple random sample of few districts will be selected. Selected districts then
divided into villages and from which a simple random sample of villages is selected, which is
called second stage sampling units. In the third stage of sampling, the selected villages will be
further divided into households and a simple random sample of households will be selected as
final sample units.

Non-random sampling method

1. Purposive or deliberate or subjective or judgment sampling: It is the one in which the
investigator takes the samples exclusively at his discretion.
2. Convenient sampling: If the investigator chooses the samples at his convenience, it is
called convenient sampling.
3. Quota sampling: It is a type of judgment sampling wherein quotas are setup according
to some specified characteristics such as 'this much in this group', 'this much in other .
group' and so on.
Exercise: Estimate the mean weight of broiler in a farm consisting of 1500 birds of 7 weeks old I
broilers. A sample of 15 broilers was selected at random and their mean weights
in kgs are given below.
1.6 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1
1.8 1.8 1.9 1.7 1.9 2.0 1.9
Estimate the total weight of the meat available in the population and its
confidence interval at 95%, 99% level
-
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE
It is a statistical procedure followed to test the significant difference between statistics
and the parameter or between any two statistics. Le. between sample mean and population
mean or between two sample means.
Hypothesis: Any statement made about the population
Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference betw~n statistics and parameter or
between any two statistics. It is usually denoted by He. Null hypothesis is never proved. It is
either accepted or rejected at some level of significance. Usually we will have nvo .levels of
significance. Five per cent level of significance means that we may go wrong in 5 out of 100
occasions. At 1% level of significance, the error in accepting null hypothesis is reduced i.e. we
may go wrong in one out of 100 occasions.
Alternate hypothesis: Statement contrary to null hypothesis is alternate hypothesis
and is denoted by Hl.
Degrees of freedom: The number of observations which are free to move or free to
vary.
Different tests of significance
Parametric test
A distribution will be attached to the test. The various parametric tests are
1. Normal deviate test or large sample test or Z test
2. Students t test or small sample test
3. Chi-square test
4. Variance - ratio test or F-test

Non·Parametric test
It will be free from distribution and it is called distribution ,free method.
In any test, we take any four type of decisions:
a Null hypothesis may be true but we reject it by our test ....\1ype I error.
a Null hypothesis may be false but we accept it .... Type II error.
~ Null hypothesis is true and we accept it -correct decision. \
~ Null hypothesis is false and we reject it -correct decision.
Statistical procedure followed in any test for significance
Step 1: Formation of null hypothesis
Step 2: Calculation of test statistics
Test statistics = (Statistics .... Parameter) I SE of difference
= (Difference in the value of two statistiCS)
SE of difference
Step 3: Depending on the value of test statistics, we take decisions different from test to test.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications E
~
LARGE SAMPLE TEST -- ~.
This is carried out, when sample size is > 30. When n > 30, it will follow norm
distribution whose equation is .
y = N -=:{&m)2 where m = mean
e 2cr2 =
cr standard deviation
~2 TTcr 2

1. To test the Significant difference between sample mean and population mean
Step 1: Ho: No significant difference between sample mean and population mean
Step 2: Test stc3,tistics or Z statistics is given by,
Z = Sample mean - populatiqn mean
SE of difference
=
-
x-m where x=mean of sample
SE ( x-m) m =mean of population
-
Z = x-m where cr is SD of population, n is size of sample

When (J is not known, replace it by's' which is S.D. of sample. Then,

-
Z = x-m
s

Step 3: Conclusion
i. III < 1.96, we say that l is not significant and Ho is accepted. We denote thil
by l = ( }NS.
ii. III > 1.96, l is significant and Ho is rejected. We denote this by l :: ( r.
iii. III > 2.58,l is highly significant and Ho is rejected. We denote this as l
( )*".
Exercise
A sample of 300 broilers is taken from a farm and their mean weight was found to be 1.9 k
with Standard Deviation 0.24 kgs. Verify whether the sample could have been taken from
population of mean weight 2.23 kgs.
BiO statiStiCS 8f1U VUIIIII U1t1' 1'1",""",aUUII.,

2 (a). To test the signi~cant difference between two sample means, when they are taken
from different population
Ho: There is no significant difference between two sample means.

z = Xl - X, where Xt, X2 are sample means with sizes nl and n2

SE ( Xf - xz} respectively

= Xt - X2

aI, a2 - SO of the population

When aI, a2are not available SI, S2 can be used
- -
z = XI - X2 Xl, ~ -mean of samples of sizes n1, 02
with SO of S1, S2 respectively.

Conclusion: as in the previous test

Exercise
The mean milk yield during a lactation in two farms, are estimated as 2176 kgs and 2,425 kgs
with SO 56.2 kgs and 43.2 kgs by taking a sample of sizes 50 and 60 respectively. Test
whether the two farms differ significantly in their lactation yield.
2(b}. To test the significant difference between the sample means, when they are taken
from same population
Ho: There is no significant difference between the two sample means
z =

"~.

z =
S1 2 + S2 2 where cr (SO of Pbpulation) is not known,
n2 n1 replace cr 2 = n1 51 2 + n2 S22
n1 + n2
Conclusion: as in the previous test
Exercise: Two samples of sizes 35 and 48 are taken from a broiler farm and their mean
weight(in kgs)were worked out as 1.8 and 2.0 respectively with SO 0.72 and 0.56. Test the
Significance of the two samples.
_ffi_o_s_m_t~_oc_s_a_nd_~
__m_p_w_er_A_p_pl_~a_h_on_s____________ --------------------1
3. To test significant difference between sample proportion with population proportion
It 'n' is the number of trials, and 'p' is the proportion of success out of 'n' trials, and P
the expected proportion of success, then p follows normal distribution when 'n' is large.
Ho; There is no significant difference between p and P.
Test statistic Z = P- P = P- p. where Q =1 • P
SE (p- P)

Conclusion: as in the previous test

Exercise I
In a farm 120 calves were'bom in a year out of which 73 are female. Test the hypothesis thatl:
sexes are born in equal proportion.
4. To test the significant difference between two proportions
Ho: There is no significant difference between the two proportions
Let PI, P2 are observed proportions of success out of n1, n2 trails respectively.
Z = PI • P2
SE (PI· P2)
= PI • P2

PI ql t P2q2 where q, =1 - PI q2 =1 - P2
n, n2
(or)
= Pl-P2 where P = n, PI + n2P2
n, + n2
PQ~n, • a = 1· P
~J
and

Exercise
In a farm, 16 animals are diseased out of 500 prior to the treatment. After giving treatment, t
number of diseased animals are 3 out of 100. Test whether the treatment is effective.
5. Test of significance of an observed correlation coefficient
Let'r' be the sample correlation coefficient and 'p' be the population correlation coefficient.
Ho: There is no Significant difference between correlation coefficients of the sample and populatic .a
Z = r- p = r -p
SE (r- p) 1 p2

fil
Conclusion: as in the previous test.
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

-----
t. In this case, we are not interested about r being significantly different from p, but we
No ~~terested whether there is a significant correlation between the variables studied. i.e.
:e~er r is significantly different from 0 (zero). ,
Hence, in the above formula, put p = 0 J:"
Z = r-o = 'll n
(1 - 0) {--In
If z is not significant, then we conclude that r is not significant Le. there is no
correlation between the variables studied. It z is significant, then there is significant correlation.
Then we denote this as r = ( ).* If Z is highly significant, then we say that r is highly significant
and ; = ( )*"*. In both cases, both variables studied are ,related.
Exercise
The correlation coefficient between first lactation yield and second lactation yield of 75
Tharpad<ar cows was found to be 0.5819. Test the significance of correlation in the sample.

SMALL SAMPLE TEST

When the sample size is large and variates are normally distributed, normal test is
employed to test the significance of differences. With small samples and when the degrees of
freedom less than 30, the variates are not normally distributed. Hence we make use of the 't'
distribution and 't' test of significance. Tables have been constructed relating to 't' at different
probability levels for various degrees of freedom.
1.To test the significance of the sample mean from the population mean
Step 1: Ho: There is no significant difference between the sample mean and
population mean
Step 2: Test statistic is given by
t = difference in the mean' of the sample anq,population
S.E of difference
= x-m = x-m wittid.f=(n-1)
SE ( x-m) _5_

-In \
-
x = mean of the sample of size 'n' with SO '5' with d. f= (n-1)
m=population mean
Step 3: Conclusion
i. If ItI < table value of t for (n-1) dJ. at 5% level t is non-significant and Ho is accepted. We
denote this as t = ( }N,S.
ii. If ItI > table value of 't' for (n-1) dJ at 5% level't' is significant. Ho is rejected, we denote
this as t =( )*.
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

iii. If ItI > table value of't' for (n-1) d.f. at 1 % level t is highly significant. Ho is rejected.
denote this as t =( ) **
Exercise
The average fleece weight of a breed of sheep was given as 1700 gm per sheep. From this
20 sheep were selected at random and the average weight of fleece per sheep of this sample
found to be 1625 gm with SO 38.75 gms. Find whether the sample mean agrees with
population mean.
2. To test the significant difference between two sample means when the sizes are less
30 and they are dependent (Paired 't' test)
Two samples are dependent when they have some common factor linking
) observations in the two samples,
'~
, Step 1: Ho: There is no significant difference between the two sample means
Step 2: Test statistic is given by t = d- 0 = _i with d f =n-1
SEof d s

~ '\:
\
d = Difference in the observation of the two samples
s = SOot d
Conclusion: As in previous test
Exercise
The first clip wool yield of daughters of the ram and their dams (in 100 gm) are
Daughter (x) 19 14 21 18 21 17 17 15 8 20
Dam (V) 9 17 14 16 15 18 9 8 10 11
Test the Significant difference between the daughter and the dam.
3. To test the significant difference between the two samples, when the samples are
independent (Non-Paired or Un-paired 't' test)
By independence of the two samples, we mean that there is no relationship betwee
individuals contributing the sample. Thus, the sample drawn from different populations or differell ,
parts of the same population will be independent.
Step 1: Ho: There is no significant difference between the sample means.
Step 2: Test statistics 't' is given by
i.e. t = Difference in the means of the sample
S.E. of the difference
with d.f = nl + n2 - 2 Where S2 =(nl-1) S1 2+ (n2'" 1)S22

Xl, X2 are the means of the two samples with SO 51, 52 of sizes nl, n2 respectively;
'. Bio Statistics and Computer.AppllCatlOnS 53

conclusion: as in the previous test (with respect to dJ.)

exercise
Following are the data On first lactation yield of Sindhi and Sahiwal. Test whether there is any
significant difference between these two breeds.
Sindhi 66 47 54 64 56 66 51 28 55 56 29
Sahiwal 68 53 53 72 54 63 41 33

4. To test the significance of an observed correlation coefficient

Step 1: Ho: There is no significant correlation
step 2: Test statistic is given by = r- 0
S.E. of (r - 0)
= r~ with d.f. = n-2

. Conclusion: as in previous test (with the respective degree of freedom)

Exercise
The coefficient of correlation between the first lactation yield and second lactation yield of 25
Tr'rarparkarcaws frUm Ii large population is 0.48. (s this significant of correlation in the population.
N.B: Table A11 page 55? of statistical methods by Snedecor and Cochran gives the critical values
of correlation coefficient that are significant at 5% and 1% level. If 'n' is the no. of observations, we
have to see the table for degrees of freedom at (n-2) .
.i'~
CHI·SQUARE TEST OF SIGNIFICANCE (x.2 test)
This test is used in case of observed frequencies are to be tested for their fit with
expected or theoretical frequencies·or to test whether two factors of classification of a set of
individuals presented in the form of two-\way table are independent or not.

Chl·square test of goodness of fit

This test is performed to test whe1her the deviation of observed frequencies in a given
data from the expected frequencies are due to real causes or due to chance. In other words, this is
a test to decide whether the observed frequencies are in accordance with the frequencies within
statistical limits. This test is used to decide whether the given data has a good fit with one of the
known ferms. of distributions, viz:, Normal, Binomial or Poisson. This test is also used to test the
observed number of progenies in a genetic experiment to fit in Mendalian laws of heredity. The test
statistic for goodness of fit is given by
X2 = :E (O-~ 0 observed frequency
E E Expected frequency
df = No. of classes -1
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

In this case,
Ho: The fit is good or there is no significant difference between observed and expected
frequency.
Conclusion
1. If calculated X2 is less than table X2 for the respective degrees of freedom at 5% level.
X2 is not significant which is denoted by X2 =( )N.S Le., Ho is accepted. The fit is
good.
2. If calculated X2 is > table X2 for the respective dJ .at 5% level X2 is significant and
denoted by X2 = ( )*. Ho is rejected. The fit is not good or theoretical frequencies are
not according to theory.
1
~. If calculated X2 is > table X2 for the respective df at 1% level X2 is highly significant
and denoted by X2 = ( )**. Ho is rejected. The fit is not good or theoretical frequencies
are not according to theory.
Exercise
1. In a farm 250 calves were born during a particular time. The number of male calves is 135.
test whether the sexes are equally born. '
2. The following table gives the classification of 400 plants according to the nature of leaves
and flower colour.
Blue flower and flat leaves 234
Blue flower and crimpled leaf 63
White flower and fiat leaf 76
White flower and crimpled leaf 27
Test whether the frequencies are In the ratio 9:3:3:1.

Chi·square test of independence

This is performed when the data is presented in the form of contingency table. A table
giving the simultaneous classification of the body of data in two different ways is called a"
·contingency table" If there are 'r' rows and c' columns, the table is said to be an or x~
I

contingency table". X2 test is applied to test whether the factors classified are independent 01
not. i.e. the 2 factors are associated or not. In the contingency table both factors may b~
qualitative or one qualitative and the other quantitative or both quantitative. The degrees OJ
freedom for r x c contingency table is (r-1) (c-1).
Application of ,rstatistics in a 2 x 2 ;r! contingency table'
Level-I Level-II Total
Levell a . b a+b
Level II c d c+d
Total a+c b+d a+b+c+d=n
Step 1: Ho: The factors are independent
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications 5

step 2: X2 is given by
r} = (ad - bc)2x n
(a+b) (c+d) (a+c) (b+d) with df=(2-1) (2-1) =1
Conclusion: as in the case of X2 test of goodness of fit (with the respective d.f).
The above formula is applicable when all a, b, c, d are greater than 5. If one or more
is less than 5, Yate's correction of continuity is to be applied which is as follows:
r} = (Iad - be I - n I 2)2 x n
(a+b) (c+d) (a+c) (b+d)
In a (r x c) contingency table, the expected value (E) in the ith row and jill column is
calculated by R; X C] \
-N- -.........,

where
""
Ri = Sum ofal! the values in the ilh row
Cj = Sum of all the values in the j1h column
N = Grand total Le., the sum of all the values in the given contingency table
Then, x2= :E (O-E)2
E
Conclusion: as in previous test (with the respective dO
Exercise
1. The following table relating to the survival to one breeding farm during 5 years. Test the
significance of the mo rtality rate with the season. .
Season of birth Survived Died Total
Summer 378 82 460
. Rainy. 215 16 231
Winter 204 87 291
'.Total 797 185 982
2. Following is the vaccine test results. Find whether the inoculation of vaccine can be regarded
as effective against the disease. \
Survived Dead Total
Inoculated ,10 12 22
Non-inoculated 14 13 27
3. In an experiment on the Immul)lsation of goats from Anthrax, the following results were
obtained De'nve your,1n. ference on tee h ff' ectlveness 0f '
vaccme.
Survived Died Total
Inoculated 15 2 17
Noninoculated 4 10 14
Total 19 12 31
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

"F' TEST or VARIANCE·RATIO TEST

This is the test to compare the variance of 2 samples
i. Ho : There is no significant difference between the variances of two samples
ii. The 'F' Statistics is given by
F = Estimated variance of first sample = fu!. with d.f= (n1-1),(n2""1)
Estimated variance of second sample S22
S1 2 and S22 are the variance of the sample of sizes.n1, n2 respectively.
F has 2 degrees of freedom, one for higher variance and another for smaller variance.
NB: We have to put the greatest of variance (S1 2 , S22)in the numerator
Conclusion:
i. If callFl < tab F for d.f. =(n1-1), (n2"1) at 5% level, F is not significant. Ho is accepted.
ii. If callFl > tab F for d.f. = (n1-1), (n2""1) at 5% level, F is Significant, F = ()*. Ho is
rejected '
iii. If cal iFl > tab F for d.f. =(n1-1), (n2-1) at 1% level, F 1!5 highly significant. F = ( )*..,
Ho is rejected.
Exercise:
Test whether the variances are Significantly different in the following sample.
Sample I (X1) 45 46 49 25 17 18 13 56 58
Sample II (X2) 47 49 43 27 29 38 37
BiD Statistics and Co,mputer Applications

DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
Introduction
Designing an experiment means planning an e,cperiment so that information collected
will be relevant to the problem under investigation.
The Design of an experiment is the compl@te sequence of steps taken before
experimenting to ensure that the appropriate data will be obtained in a way that furnish an
objective analysis leading to valid inferences with re~pect to the state and problem. The
purpose of any experimental design is to provide maximllm information relevant to the problem
under investigation.

Definition
Treatment: What we apply on the su~iect Qf investigati(ln is "called treatment. e.g. Application
of feed to animals ,application of fertilizer to agricultural p~ot, etc.
Experimental material and experimental unit: The in~ividual or group of individuals that will
be subjected to a treatment is called the experimental unit and the collection of such units will
be experimental material.
Response: Outcome of an experiment. i.e. the treatment effect available from the
experimental units.
Experimental e"or: It is the unit-to-unit variation within the same treatment group. This is a
measure of variation due to uncontrollable causes. It describes the failure of two identically
treated experimental units to yield identical results.

Basic Principles of Experimental Designs

1. Randomization 2. Replication 3. Local ContraIl
1. Randomization: It is a deviCe for eliminating bias. i.e. by randomly assigning treatments to the
experimental units we avoid personal bias. It invOlves giving equal chances to all the
experim~~tal units to be subjected to different treatments. It can be done by the use of random
number table or by drawing lots. The randomization procedure is different for different designs.
Purposes served by randomization:
o It avoids personal bias
o It makes the test valid
2. Replication: By replication we mean the number of experimental units receiving a particular
treatment. If an experiment have equal replication for all the treatments studied, then the
design is called "Equi-replicated design" If a design MS got an unequal replication for different
treatments then it is known as a design with unequal replication.
Purposes served by replication: .
o It provides an estimate of experimental error
o It enables us to obtain a more precise estimate of the mean effect of any factor,
since precision is 1/S.E. and S.E. = S.D. I "n. As 'n' increases precision
increases. The more the replication, the more the precision will be.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

-'
3. Local control: It refers to the balancing, blocking and grouping of the experimental
that is employed in the experiment. It refers to the skillful logical way of grouping
experimental units in such a manner that there is more uniformity within the same
and there is greater variability between different groups.

Purposes served by local control:

o To make the experimental design more efficient
o To make the test procedure more powerful
Criteria for making blocks
Characters that have influence on the response value before the commencement
the experiment are considered as the criteria for making blocks. For e.g. in milk yield "'u...""'''~..,
the stage of lactation can be considered as criteria for making blocks and in weight gain
we can consider the initial weight or initial age or breed or sex as criteria for making blocks.
In completely randomised deSign (CRD), there is no local control applied, while
randomised block design (RBD) local control is applied in one direction with one criterion
in Latin square design (LSD) in two directions with two criteria.
Besides these three principles of experimental designs, there are auxiliary
and control that should be considered while experimenting.
Auxiliary variable: Some characters are not being altered by the treatments applied but
have influence on the characters under study. Such character can be utilised to improve
precision of the estimate and the efficiency of designs. They are so chosen that the COlltectl()rI
of information about this do not involve cost and labour.
Control: When no treatment is applied over a group of experimental units we consider
units to constitute a control group. The purpose of this control is to make effective
Whenever an experiment is conducted to make recommendation of a new treatment, it
better to include a control group as one of the treatment group:

COMPLETELY RANDOMISED DESIGN (CRD)

This is simplest of all experimental deSigns. This is the design in which the tr"'~ltml"ntc:
are assigned completely at random to the experimental units or vice versa. i.e. it imposes
restrictions on the allocation of treatments to the experimental units. CRD is preferred when
the experimental units considered for the experiment are known to be homogeneous.
number of experimental units and treatments can be utilized in this design. As the' design
highly flexible and simple. the CRD is widely used. Analysis is simple, even if certain VClIIJI..."_',,
are missing. The experimental units will be allotted to the different treatments by using
number table or by lottery method.

Collection and analysis of data

After having randomised the experimental units over different treatments,
recordings (if any) of the experimental units are noted against each experimental unit.
example, in case of weight gain study, initial weights are to be recorded. Then
~. Bio Statistics and Computer Applications 59

, xperimental units are subjected to respective treatments and after the experimental period,
~e response values will be observed. The data will be tabulated as follows.
Data of response values
Trl Tr2 ... Trt
Yll Y12 ... Y1t
Y2t Y2t ... y'l!.
...
...
...
...
... ,
",
Yn1t Yn2t ... 'Yntt
Tl T2 ... Ti'

Let us have' t 'treatments each having replications nl, n; ... nt. then, nl + n2 + ... + nt =N
Stepwise procedure
Ho There is no significant difference between the treatments
Step 1; a. Calculation of treatment total Tl, T2 ..... T\
b. Calculation of grand total (GT) = Tl +T2+ .... " +Tt
c. Calculation of correction factor (CF) =~
N
Step 2: Calculation of sum of squares
a. Total sum of squares (TSS) = y2" + Yt22+,,,. Ynti - CF
··"tb. Treatmentsumofsquares(TrSS)=T, 2 + T22+ ... +Tt2 -CF

c. " Error sum of squares (ESS) = TSS - TrSs

Step 3: Formation of Analysis of Variance table

\ ANOVA table or AOVtable

Source of Degrees of Sum of squares Mean squares
F
variation (S. V) freedom(dJ} (S.S) =
(M.S.) SS/d.f.
Treatments (t-1) TrSS Tr.SS = Tr.MS Tr MS
(t.-1 ) EMS
Error (N-t) ESS ESS = EMS
-- N-t
Total (N-t) TSS
Error dJ = Total d.f. - Treatment dJ
= (N-1) - (t -1) = N -1 - t + 1 = (N - t)
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

..
Step 4: Initial decision
i. If calculated F< table value of F for t-1, N-t d.f. at 5% level, F is not significant. Ho is
accepted. All the treatments are alike.
ii. If calculated F> tab F for (t-1), (N-t) d.f. at 5% level F is Significant.F=( )*. Ho is
rejected.
iii. If calculated F> tab F for (t-1), (N-t) d.f at 1% level F is highly Significant. F=( )**. Ho
is rejected.
If F is significant or highly significant, critical difference between treatment means is to
be worked out. Critical difference between any two treatment means is defined as the least
significant difference between any two treatment means, to be exceeded by the difference

I
between two treatment means to declare them as significantly different.
Critical difference between any two treatment = Standard error of the differenCE
means at 5% level between the treatment means
table value of 't' for error dJ. a
~. 5% level.
Critical difference between any two treatment =' Standard error of the differena
means at 1% level between the treatment means}
table value of 't' for error dJ. ra
1% level.

Critical difference between Trl and Tr2 at 5% (1%)= E.M.S. ~/nl + 1/n2J x~' error d.f at
5% (1%) l

Critical difference betweenTrl,Tr3 at 5%(1%) = E.M. + 1 x 't' error dJ at 5% (1%)

and soon. n3

Step 5:
After this, write treatment means Tr1 Tr2... Trn
Bar chart representation will be done to show the significant differences among the .
treatments.
Note: If we have equal number of replication, i.e, nl = n2 = .... nt = n, then,
we have in step 2
1. Treatmentsumofsquares=T1 2 +T22+ ... +T\2 - CF
n
Critical difference between any twoL x =f2'EMS table 'f for error d.f. at 5% or 1% level
treatment means at 5% or 1% leve~
---
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

EXercise: A set of data involving 4 feedstuffs A, B, C, 0 tried on 20 chicks is given below. All
the 20 chicks are treated alike in all respects except the feeding treatments is given to 5
chicks. Analyse the data.
Weight gain (in gms) of baby chicks
A B C 0
55 61 42 169
49 112 97 131
42 30 81 169
21 89 95 85
52 63 92 154
\.

RANDOMISED BLOCK DESIGN (RBD) '" "

,

In this design, we make use of the principle of local control with the idea of reducing
the variability due to experimental error. First we, arrange the experimental units into
homogeneous blocks such that within the blocks, the e~perimental units are as far as possible
homogeneous and between the blocks there is variability. This design can be made'use of
when the experimenter finds that the available experimental units can be grouped into different
homcgeneous blocks each containing units as many' as the number of treatments or as a
multiple of the number of treatments. The blocking' has to be done on the basis of any
observable character, which is likely to have influence over the factor under study. For e.g. in
the study of comparative effects on weight gain in chicks, the chicks may be grouped
according to strains. If we are to conduct a Randomised Block DeSign to try 't' treatments, we
need 'bt' number of experimental units, where b = number of blocks and t = number of
treatments. Each block is a replication by itself and number of replication = number of blocks =
b. This is the restriction in the case of RBD. RBO is an equi-replicated deSign .
• !:.. RBD is a better design than CRD, as this will have greater precision of the estimates
and greater efficiency of the designs.

Randomization
Having formed the number of blocks, experimental units to the different treatments
will be allottl~d 'independently for each block randomly and the response values will be
tabulated as follows:
\
Treatment Tr, Tr2 .. , Trt Total
1 Yl1 Y12 ... Y1t BI
2 . B2
Y21 Y22 ." Y2t
... ... .,. ... ... ...
.. , .. , ... ... .. , .. .
B Ybl Yb2 ... Ybt Bt
Total T1 T2 ... Tl GT

Stepwise procedure
Ho Treatment means do not different Significantly
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Step 1:
a. Calculation of treatment total, i.e. Tl, T2 ..... Tt
b. Calculation of block total, i.~. Bl, Bz..... Bt
c. Calculation of grand total (GT) = Tl + T2 + ...... +Tt = Bl + B2 + ...... +Bt
= Sum of the treatment totals
= Sum of the block totals
d. Calculation of correction factor (C.F) = (G.T )2 N=bt
b xt
Step 2:
Calculation of sum of squares
a. l'~ta~ sum ~~ squafes {l'.S.S.) :. LL 'J~2 - C'f. te sum ~~ s~ua\"e ~{ a\\ ~ h t
.
\
values-CF
b. Treatment sum of squares (TrSS) = Tl. + T22 + ... + Tf - C.F
b
c. Block sum of squares (BSS = B12 + B~ + ........ + Bt2 _ C.F
t
d. Error sum of squares (ESS) = TSS - (TrS + BSS)

Step 3: Formation of Analysis of Variance table

ANOVATable
Source of Sum of
d.f. Mean squares F·
variation squares
Treatments (t -1) TrSS TrSS = TrMS TrMS
(t.-1) EMS
Block (b -1) BSS BMS= BSS
1):1
Error (b-1) (t-1) ESS EMS = ESS
(b-1) (t-1)
Total b(t-1) TSS
Step 5: Initial decision
i. If calc!Jlat~d F< table value, .0fF .100;1 ,..N-t d.f. at 5% level, F is not significant. Ho is
accepted. Alrthe treatments are alike.
ii. If calculated F> tab F for (t-1), (N-t) dJ. at 5% level F is significant.F=( )*. Ho is
rejected.
iii. If calculated F> tab F for (t-1), (N-t) dJ at 1% level F is·highly significant. F=( )**. Ho
is rejected.
Bio statistics and Computer Applications
-
In the last two cases we have to calculate critical difference between any two
treatment means at 5% (1 %) level.
= ~ 2 ~MS x table value of .t' for error d.f. at 5% (1 %) level

Bar chart representation will be done to show the significance between treatments.

Advantages of RBD
1. This is a simple design with one local control for more efficient utilisation of the available
experimental units. RBD ta~es into account and eliminates the assignable source of
variation among the experimental units by means of grouping the more homogeneous
units together. >. . "
2. This reduces the experimental error arid the....test of significance become more efficient.
3. Any number of treatments and any number of replications may be included but each
treatment should have same number of replications.

Disadvantage
1. When the data from some experimental units are missing the "Missing plot technique" has
to be used.
2. If the missing observations are more, this design is less convenient than CRD.
Exerc:se: Consider the results given in following table for an experiment involving 6 treatments
in 4 randomized blocks.
Response values for a RBD
Blocks 1 2 3 I 4 5 6
1 24.7 20.6 27.7 16.2 16.2 24.5
2 27.3 28.8 22.7 15.0 17.0 22.5
3 38.5 39.5 36.8 19.6 15.4 26.3
·4 28.5 31.0 34.9 14.1 17.7 22.6
Bio statistics and Computer Applications

BIOLOGICAL ASSAYS
Biological assay or bioassay is a form of experiment for the estimation of the potency
of a substance or comparing the efficacy of two or more substances by means of the reaction
that follows their application to living matter. Bioassay is different from purely comparative
experiment. In the usual experiments, the magnitudes of effects of different treatments are
compared, whereas in bioassays the potencies of treatments are compared.
Structure of a bioassay
The bioassay involves a stimulus applied to a subject and the response of the subject
to the stimulus. Astimulus may be an antibiotic, feed aditive etc.
When a stimulus is applied to a subject, there may be a change in some
characteristics of the subject. For example, weight of the whole subject or of an organ may
Change, an analytical value may change, recovery fro,m symptoms of a disease may appear, or
the subject may die. Such changes in the subject are known as responses. The response
may be quantitative as in the case of weight or qualitative as in the case of mortality. The
magnitude of response depends upon the dose.
..
Nature of preparation
Normally, two preparations having a common effect are taken for assaying. One
preparation may be designated as the standard (S) and the other as test (T). The standard
preparation may be one that is used as a scale of reference or it may have a wider usage. The.
two preparations should contain the same effective ingredient that produces response and
have the common effect. An assay that includes such_ preparations is known as analytical
dilution assay. If the two preparations have a common effect but do not contain the same
effective ingredient, the assay is known as comparative dilution assay.

Relative Potency
If we have two preparations Sand T, let Ds and Dr denote the doses of the two'
preparations, respectively. Let each of them produce a pre-assigned response in the subjects.:
Then the ratio between the doses is known as relative potency. Symbolically, the relative
potency is given by I

p= Ds

1
If p = 1, the two preparations are equipotent; if p >1 the potency of the tes,
preparation is greater than that of the standard preparation, and if p < 1 the potency of the test
preparation is, smaller than that of the standard preparation.
,
~~ I
The basic assumption in the theoretical fonnulation of the bio-assay is similarity. Th~
similarity assumption states that the same response Y can be produced whatever Ds units o!
the standard, or pDr units of the test are given. This assumption would be correct if the twl
preparations consisted of the same effective ingredients but in different proportions.
.....-
r
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Dose response curves

The knowledge of the dose-response relations is an essential pre-requisite to the
design of an assay. The first stage in bioassay is, therefore, to determine the relation between
dosage and response with a single preparation. Usually, the relation between dosage and
response will be a sigmoid curve. Statistical techniques have not been developed for handling
a sigmoid curve. Hence, we have to select units of response and of dose which will lead to a
straight-line relation between them.
Types of bioa~says
There'are three main types of bioassays. They are a. direct assays, b. indirect assays
based on quantitative responses and c. indirect assay~ based on quantal responses.
a. Direct assays . '-. .
In direct assays, doses of standard and' test preparations are administered to
randomly selected identical subjects. The administration 'of the stimuli is stopped as soon as
tfle pre-ass(grred response h-as accurred. The t~rTce doses, the doses below which no
response occurs for the standard and test preparations, are measured directly as soon as the
response has occurred.
b. Indirect assays based on quantitative respon~e,
In this type of assays, specified doses o.f stimuli and their responses are recorded.
The responses may be a change in weight, a change in analytical value, time of survival of the
subject and the like. The relationship between the dose and response is then ascertained.
Next, the dose corresponding to a given response is obtained from the relation. Such results
are obtained for both standard and test preparations. Finally, the relative potency is estimated.
3. Quantal Response Assays
In many biological assays the responses are qLlalitative in nature, for example,
in)be .assay of parasiticides the response is m()rtality of parasites. Such qualitative
responses are' also known as all-or-none' responses. The assays in which the
responses are qualitative are known as quantal r~sponse assays .
.~

In the' quantal response assay, the subject is given a pre-determined dose of

the preparatlon under test and is observed to see whether or not a specified response
occurs. Thus, quantal response assays are closely related to direct assays. In this
type of assay~the strength of a preparation is characterized by the median tolerance or
the dose that induces 50% responses.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Computer is a general purpose electronic device for storing, processing and analysing
data or information following a set of instructions given to it by human beings.
Computers do not come up with Original ideas but they are helpful to human beings in
calculating, record keeping, trial and error experimenting, communicating, information
gathering and other managerial tasks involved in translating an idea into reality. The reason
the computer can do these things quickly is simply that it is an electronic device.
It should be emphasised that computers do not know anything, do not think, do not
just do things on their own unless we tell it to do and there is no 'wrong keys' in a computer.
Computer is much more than a calculator that it can perfont:l some complicated activities such
as choosing, copying, moving, comparing and performing non-arithmetic operations also.
What is more significant is the computers speed. The time required for computers to
execute such basic operations as adding and subtracting varies from a few microseconds
(millionth of a second) to a few nano seconds (billionth of a second) or even less.
In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. As the circuits in a
computer have no mechanical parts, the computers generally do not malfunction. If the input is
correct and the program is reliable, then we can expect that the computer will produce
accurate results. In other words, computer errors can usually be traced to incorrect input data
or unreliable programs both caused by human beings not by computers. Computers can
perform complex and repetitive calculations rapidly and accurately; store large amounts of data
and hold programmes of a model, which can be explored in many different ways, etc.

History of Computers
Computer history starts with the development of a device called the 'abacus' by the
Chinese around 3000 B.C. Although there were a number of improvements made in calculating
devices, no conceptual ch~nges were made until the end of the 18th ~ntury. During the first
decade of the 19th .century, Jacquard invented an automated loom operated by a mechanism
controlled by punched cards. During the same period, Charles 8abbage developed the first
mechanical computer called differential and analytical engine. This device had provisions for
inputting data, staring information, performing arithmetic operations and printing out results.
This provided the base for the development of modem computers.
At the end of the 19th century, Herman Hollerith and James Power designed a data
processing machine fot processing census information. A Significant machine built in the early
1940s was 'Mark I' which utilised electromagnetic relays. In 1946, the first electronic machine
known as ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was introduced by a
team led by Professors Eckert and. Mauchly of USA. During the period 1947-52, John Von
Neumann and his team developed a high-speed digital computer using vacuum tubes and the
concept of a stored programme.
~.

Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Evolution of Computers

Period Event
3000 B.C. The first mathematical device - Abacus
17th Century The first four-function calculator - Machine arithm~tic
1830-50 The first computer-Analytical engine by Charles Babbage
1930 Card reader and sorter
1946 Stored program concept by Von Neumann
. ,
1947 ENIAC - The first electron.ig digital computer using vacuum tubes,
first generation computers ",
1949 EDSAC - The first stored program electronic computer
(Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator)
1949 Transistors (Bell laboratories)
1950 Voluminous storage and sequential Magnetic access devices
(compound possible tapes rapid transfer of data)
1958 Computer using transistors in the name UNIVAC, Second
generation computer
1959 IBM 1401 Model- Computerised commercial data processing
1959 Random access devices Discs
1964 Integrated circuits (IC), Vast intemal storage and fast speed
1965 Computers using ICs, Third generation computers
1969., ~ Large Scale Integrated (LSI circuits)
1971 Computers using LSI circuits, Fourth generation computers
1972 '. Microprocessors, enormous processing speed
1976 First microcomputer - The Apple, user friendliness, inexpensive
computers, low maintenance cost, portable
1980's & 1990's \ Expert system, logic operation, Fifth generation computer and
deduction rearing

Computer Generations
One of the early stored program electronic computers was UNIVAC I (UNiversal
Automatic Computer I) built by Remington Rand in 1951 and was used by US Census Bureau.
From the early 1950s, computers started appearing in quick succession each claiming an
improvement over the other in terms of speed memory capacity input-output devices and
programming techniques with a continuous reduction in size and cost. Computers developed
after ENIAC have been classified into the following four generations.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

--
1. First generation 1946-1955
2. Second generation 1956-1965
3. Third generation 1966-1975
4. Fourth generation 1976-1985
From 1946, each decade had contributed a generation of computers. First generation
computers are those in which vacuum tubes were used. Magnetic tape drives and magnetic
core memories were developed during this period. First generation computers had the
characteristics of large size and slow operating speed.
The second-generation computers (for e.g., IBM 1401) were marked by the use of a
solid-state device called the transistor invented by Bell labs in USA in the place of vacuum
tubes. These computers occupied less space, required less power and produced much less
heat.
The research in the field of electronics led to the innovation of the integrated circuits
now popularly knows as IC chips. The use of IC chips in the place of transistors gave birth to
the third generation computers. These computers were still more compact, faster and less
expensive. .
Continued effort towards miniaturization led to the development of large-scale
integration (LSI) technology. Intel Corporation introduced LSI chips called microprocessors
for building computers. The latest child of the computer family that uses LSI chips has been
named the fourth generation computer. Invention of microprocessor in 1972 has changed the
computing scene dramatically. A microprocessor when interfaced with memory and
inputloutput units becomes a microcomputer. The first business. microcomputer called APPLE
II was released in USA in 1977.
Japan and many other countries are now working on systems what are known as
expert systems, which would considerably improve the man-machine interaction. This
generation of computers is termed as fifth generation computers (thinking computers).
However it is not very clear what direction the fifth generation takes.

Classification of Computers
Based on the operating prinCiples, computers can be classified into following types:
a. Digital computers
b. Analog computers
c. Hybrid computers
Digital compl,1ters. operate_essel1tlaUy .by counting. All quantities are expressed as
discrete digits or numbers. Digital computers are useful for calculating arithmetic expressions
and manipulation of data such as preparation of bills ledgers etc.
Analog computers operate by measuring rather than by counting. The name, which:
was derived from a Greek word, analog, denotes that the computer functions by establishing
similarities between two quantities that are usually expressed as voltages. .
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

Computers, which combine features of both digital and analog types, are called hybrid
computers. A majority of the computers used in the world today-are only digital.
Modem computers are classified depending upon their applications as special
purpose computers and general-purpose computers. Special purpose computers are tailor
made solely to cater to the requirements of a particular task or application. On the other hand,
general-purpose computers are designed to meet the needs of many different applications.

Computer Systems
A 'system' is a group of integrated parts that have a common purpose of achieving a
certain objective. Computer systems are categorised as Personal Computer (PC or Micro
computers), Mini computers, Main Frame computers and Super computers based on their size
and performance.
"."- "
1. Personal Computer (Micro Computer) ,
The most popular form of the computer in use today is probably the PC or the
personal computer. It is a microcomputer having its CPU on a single microprocessor. The PC
is small in size but capable enough to handle large sized applications. It can perform a diverse
range of functions from keeping track of household accounts to keeping records of the stores
of a large manufacturing company.
Functionally, it is similar to any other large system. It is a self-contained unit and
usually designed for use by one person at a time.

2. Mini Computer
It is a medium sized computer that is more powerful than a microcomputer. The mini
computer is usually designed to serve multiple uses simultaneously, Le. more than one person
can work at a time on a mini. A system that supports multiple users is called multi terminal,
time-sharing system. Mini computers are the popular data processing system among the
business Qfganisation today.

3. Mai," Frame Computer

Thethave large storage capacities and very high speed of processing (compare to
micro (or) mini computers). They support a large number of terminals for simultaneously. They
are mostly used 1h large organisations for large-scale jobs.
However, tqere is an overlap between the expensive minis and small mainframe
models in terms of cost and capability. Similarly, there can be an overlap between the more
powerful PC system and the mini computer.

4. Super Computer
These systems are the largest, fastest and most expensive computers in the world.
While the speed of traditional computers is measured in terms of million instructions per
second (MIPS), a super computer is rated in terms of millions operations per second (MOPS)
with an operation consisting of numerous instructions. Typically, the super computer is used
for large-scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering disciplines.
Bio statistics and~ Computer Applications

PARAM is the super computer built indigenously by Indian Scientists and Engineers
at C-OAC (Centre for Development of Advance Computing - Puna)
Indian began to make super computers after USA banned the sale of Cray super
computer to India. India has built about 35 super computers and sold to Russia, Canada and
Germany. PARAM -10,OQO, the latest machine' in the series can do 100 billion flopping point
operations per second. Otl:ler than India, USA and Japan had super computers faster than
PARAM - 10000 PC-based super computers. PARAM Anant is super computing accessible
and affordable for education, research and business application. IT uses a cluster of CPU's of
computers to achieve high speed in computing, using System Area Network (SAN), a
hardware network specially developed by C-OAC. A key feature of PARAM Anant is the
system and its components can be upgraded easily so that the technology does not become
obsolete.

Benefits and Limitations of Computers

A computer provides four basic benefits:
a. Speed
b. Accuracy
c. Diligence
d. Versatmty
Unlike human beings, computers simply do not get bored or tired. The monotony of
repetitive work does not affect computers. However, computers cannot take over all activities
of human beings simply because they are less flexible than human beings. They have to be
told what to do and they cannot perform anything outside its defined scope. If an unanticipated
situation arises, computers will either produce erroneous results or give up the task altogether,
because they do not have the potential to work out an alternative solution.

Major Applications of Computer Systems

Essentially there are five major areas where the microcomputer is now used:

1. Word processing
Word processing was the first major application of microcomputers. Word processing .
is concerned with creation and manipulation of. text (letters, documents etc.), replacing all i
operations normally associated with a typewriter. Word processing allows storage of I
documents and retrieval of them later for revision, edition or printing. Insertion, deletion,
moving of words or even paragraphs from one place. to another, changing the margins and line.
spacing etc., ,can also be performed through this package. Specialised commands like
highlighting a part of the document, underlining, changing to italics etc., are all possible. ~
Spelling and grammar checking facilities are also available. l
2. Spread sheets 1':
Business executives mostly use this application. It is called as the electroni~
equivalent of the accountanfs ledger. Spreadsheets are suitable for any problem that can be
r Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

expressed in row and column format. Necessary calculations can be made instantly, accurately
and automatically. .

3. Graphics
Graphics is an effective way of communicating statistical information. This application
enables the user to quickly convert tabular data to graph form without having to rely on a
draftsman or artist. Three dimensional pie charts, bar charts, '!:Y' graphs/and other forms of
sophisticated :graphs can be made available in stunning colours and within a few minutes with
just a few simple key strokes.
4. Database management
Database management is a system '.t~at,allows for creation, storage, retrieval and
manipulation of files or databases. This allows US'\to, maintain records electronically. The
records may be student records in a university, 'customer records in a business concern, etc.
There is provision for addition of new records as wen as modification or deletion of existing
information. We can retrieve the data in any order in which we like. For example, items
can be 6sted alphabetically or chronologically or in any other order. This software can display
all of the information or only a selected portion of, it.

5. Communication
This application connects the computer to the outside world. This enables us to talk
to our friend in the next room, to access information services such as share market data, flight
and hotel information or just about anything else you can think of. We can shop or bank by
computer, send and receive electronic mail etc. -

Data Processing
I
• Data means facts. Information is the data arranged in an order and fom, that is useful
to the people who receive it. Data are the new material of information. All information consists
of data, but not all
data necessarily produce speCific and meaningful information. Data
proce§sing converts raw data into information.

Data p~cessing consists of three basic activities.

1. Capturing the input data
2. Manipulating the data
• Classifying
i Calculating
• Sorting
I Summarising
3. Managing the output results
Q Storing and retrieving
Q Communicating and reproducing
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Computer Processing Operations

Computers by performing the following four operations enable the data processing
activities described above.
& Input-Output Operations - A computer can accept data (input) and supply-processed
data (output),
& Text manipulation and calculation operations - Computers are able to manipulate the
non-numeric letters and other symbols, besides being able to perform calculations on
numbers.
& Logic/comparison operations - Computer has the ability to perform logic operations.
& Storage and retrieval operations - Both data and program instructions are stored
internally in a computer and retrieved for use.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

HARDWARE
The major physical components of a computer system are input devices, processing
devices and output devices. The main hardware cornponents of a computer system are the
following:
1. Main memory
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
a. Arithmetic logic Unit (AlU)
b. Control unit
3. Secondary memory
'.'- ...
\

4. Input devices ......

5. Output devices

Processcw (CPU) . t

P.arts Of a CoinPute r

\
1. Input devices
Input devices are the machines designed for data entry purposes and for human-
machine communication. Examples for input devices are keyboard, mouse, input pen,
microphone, etc.

a. . Keyboard
Computer keyboard is essentially the same as a typewriter keyboard. Additional keys,
however, provide access to functions that are available on a computer.
Bio Statistics and Computer AppJicatic;ms

b. Mouse
A mouse is a palm-sized device. On top of the mouse there are buttons for
communicating with the computer. Using mouse is a very quick way to move around on a
screen. The mouse is designed to slide around on the desktop. Its motion sends a signal to the
computer that moves the mouse cursor. Mouse is so widely used in graphics applications.

c. Track ball
Track ball is the improvement over the mouse. It looks like a mouse, but it lies on its
back. Track balls are really popular with users of portable computers. Track balls will be very
useful where there may not be any flat surface available while travelling in a car or in a plane.
d. Light pen
It is a pen like device with a light on one end and a wire connected to the computer on
the other end. One can touch the screen with the pen and the system recognises the light
pen's location. Thus the pen can be used for drawing on the screen.
There are other input devices called joysticks, tablet, scanner, voice recognition
software, etc.

2. Central Processing Unit

The CPU is the most important hardware of a computer system which has 2 major
components viz. ALU and control unit. ALU is responsible for all the arithmetical and logical
operations like manipulations of numerical data, comparison of relative magnitudes of
numericals. The control section maintains order and directs the operation of the entire system
by selecting, interpreting and seeing to the executions of program instructions. Although the
control section does not process data, it acts as a central nervous system for the data
manipulating components of the computer like selecting and executing the program
instructions one after another until the processing in completed.
A CPU's processing power is measured in million instructions per second (MIPS). The
speed of the CPU was measured in milli seconds (One 1000th of a second) on first generation
computers, in micro seconds (one millionth of a second) on second generation computers, in
nano seconds (one billionth of a second) on third and fourth generation computers and is
expected to be measured in pico seconds (one 1000th of a nano second) in the fifth generation
computers.
All arithmetical and logical operations are performed in spe~ial storage areas in the
CPU called registers. A register is characterised by its size, i.e. the number of bits it can hold.
Since processing is done in the registers, the size of the registers plays a very important role in
the speed of processing and broadly defines the internal architecture of a CPU. Following are
a few important registers:
Instruction register - This register holds the instruction being executed currently.
Programme counter - This points to the next instruction to be executed.
ACCUmulator This holds the accumulated results of computation.
Working register This holds the intermediate results of computation.
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

The computing power of a CPU is largely depend on the power of its ALU. The speed
of a CPU is usually measured in cycle time, Le. the time required to execute one basic
instruction, which is measured in MIPS. Another important characteristic that determines the
processing speed is the data path width, which provides the communication link between a
memory location and the CPU. A 16-bit data path brings twice the amount of information at a
time into the CPU as compared to an a-bit data path. The word size of a processor is a
measure of the amount of information that can be processed simultaneously by the CPU,
which is the same as the size of a register. Cycle time, data path width and word size jointly
determine the processing power of CPU expressed in MIPS (million'lnstructions per second).

3. Main memory
Q , as main memory) is used for the following four
The primary storage (also called
pu~ses: '"
,"
Q To have input storage area for storing"data until processing.
Q To provide wo'rking storage space for storing data being processed and intermediate
results.
Q To provide output storage area for holding finished results.
Q To have program storage area fqr holding processing instructions.
Von Neumann introduced the concept of computer storage in 1947 and the first
electronic computer using stored programme called EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage
Automatic Calculator) was announced in 1949. Nowadays, an essential component of every
computer is its memory. The main memory is used to store a variety of critical information
required for processing by the CPU, which include input data, application programmes,
systems programmes, intermediate results and final results of computations.
A digital computer represents information intemally in a digitised nature. Hence the
choice of an appropriate number system is impOrtant in the design of a digital computer,
decimal system with digits 0 to 9, or binary system with digits 0 and 1 and so on. When the
computers are designed to use decimal numbers, the computer should be able to distinguish
. between 10 levels of voltage. However, it will be more effective and reliable to design a
• computer using only 2 signals, the presence and absence of an electrical pulse. This can be
achieved by designing computers to hold information based on binary digits, (bits), 0 and 1.
The number 1 could be used to signify the presence of an electrical pulse and the number 0
the absence
, of it. .
Information in a computer consists of a large number of symbols or characters,
namely alphabets A to Z, mathematical signs such as +, -, =, <, %etc. and special characters
like " *, $, £, @, and so on. With 2 binary digits, we can represent 4 (22) different characters
namely 00, 10, 01 and 11. With 3 digits, we can represent 23 =8 different characters, namely"
000,001,010,100,011,101,110 and 111. With 6 digits,'we can represent upto 64 different
characters, which would be enough to represent all characters noted above. However, an extra
digit is needed if we want to include the lower case alphabets such as a to z also. Keeping in
mind the need to include more characters in future, a binary digits (Bits) are used to represent
a character inside a modem computer system. This collection of a binary digits is called a byte.
There are two widely used a-bit codes in use today. These are 1. EBCDIC - Extended Binary
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Coded Decimal Interchange Code and ~. ASCII - American Standard Code for Information
Interchange.
The amount of information a computer can store is measured in bytes. One byte is
roughly equivalent to a single character. For e.g. It takes three bytes to store the word 'boy'
and four bytes to store the word 'girl'. A kilobyte often abbreviated, as K or KB is about 1000
bytes. (1 kilobyte=21o bytes =1024 bytes), A mega byte abbreviated as MB is about one million
bytes. A giga byte is about one billion bytes. In general one byte can store one character, one
KB can store one third of a page, one MB can store 333 pages and one GB 3,33,333 pages.
Computers are available with storage capacities of 2 GB to 20 GB.
Characteristics of main memory
The memory unit is made up of a number of memory locations or cells. Each memory
location is designed to hold information of a fixed ~ize, for e.g. 8 bits. This is referred to as the
word length (word size) of the memory. Each location is sequentially numbered to provide a
unique reference to locate the informath:m stored in it. This reference is known as location
address. Any information stored in the main memory is accessed by referring to its location
address.
The main memory of computer system is measured in terms of two other
characteristics namely, capacity and SPeed. The capacity is measured in terms of kilo bytes
(KB) or mega bytes (MB) and is computed by multiplying number of addressable memory
locations by the word length (in bytes) of each location. The speed of the main memory refers
to the time required to access information stored in any memory location and it is known as
memory access time.
The technologies known as magnetic core technology and semi-conductor technology
have been used to make the main memory of a computer system. However, only
semiconductor technology is used today tor main memOiY and magnetic core technology is out
of use today. The advantages of semi CClnductor memory are that it is very fast, cheaper and :
smaller in size. The only drawback of selni conductor memory is that it is volatile, that it loses'
its contents in the event of power failure. However, it is hot a serious drawback and can be
easily overcome by having back up power units.
Semi conductor memory is kno'i/n as Random Access Memory (RAM). A memory is
said to be RAM, if any part of the memory can be accessed directly (randomly) for
readinglwriting infonnafion. There is another type of memory called Read Only Memory (ROM):,
which alows information in it to be only read and it would not permit any writing or modification.
ROM can be classified into
-PROM - Programmable ROM. This is uSed to store programs. Once programmed,.,
PROM is essentially ROM. ~
EPROM - Erasable PROM. This is used to store programmes, erase them·
subsequently and reprogram.
Memory controllers
Memory units are interfaced With CPU through memory controllers which are. twp
high-speed storage areas called Memory Address Register (MAR) and Memory Buffer Register
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

(MBR). These controllers establish communication between CPU and main memory. To
store a word in the main memory, the CPU puts the word into the MBR and its location address
in the MAR and sends a write signal to the memory. This leads to the process of writing the
word available in MBR in the specified memory location erasing its previous contents, if any.
Similarly, to fetch a word from the main memory, the CPU puts the location address of the
word in the MAR and sends a read signal. Then the requested word is made available to the
CPU in the MBR.

4. Secondary storage devices

Since the internal storage capacity of computers is limited, it presents a limitation to
storage of voluminous data. Further, once'the power goes off, data stored in the internal
storage would be lost. This means that every tim~·you want to work on the PC, you have to
input the data required. For permanent storage of data; external storage media can be used
with a PC. Secondary memory provides economical storage of large volumes of data on
magnetic media, thereby offering permanen~ (non-volatile storage). There are 2 types of
secondary rnemory viz 1. Serial access memory, which allows only a serial access of data and
2. Random access memory, which allows random access of data. E.g. for serial access
memory is magnetic tape. Example for RAM ~re magnetic disk, floppy disks etc.

Disk drives
A device specially designed to perform the functions of writing on or reading from
extemal storage media is called the disk drive. Data is fed into the PC and written on the hard
disk or the floppy disk by the disk drive. The disk drive also performs this function of reading
the data from the disk. A simple analogy of how a disk drive works is the cassette tape
recorder. A disk drive works in the same way as cassette player like reading and writing
. whenever required. The disk drive is contained within the system unit. The drive for a floppy
disk is called a floppy disk drive, while the drive for a !'lard disk is called the hard disk drive and
the one for CD ROM is CD drive. It is important to differentiate between the storage media
an~ storage devices. While the floppy disk and the hard disk on which data is stored are the
storage media, the disk drives are the storage devices which do the storage on the media.
\ There are 3 kinds of external storage media commonly used. 1. Floppy disk, 2. Hard
disk and 3. Compact disc. Another important medium used for external storage is the cartridge
tape, suitable for large volumes of data. These devices are known as secondary or auxiliary
storage devices.

a. Floppy Disk Drive (FDD)

In this device, the medium used to record the data is called as floppy disk. It is a
flexible circular disk of diameter 3.5 inches made of plastic coated with the magnetic material
This is covered in a square plastiC jacket. Each floppy disk can store approximately one million
cha~acters. Data recorded on a floppy disk is read and stored in a computer's memory by a
deVice called a floppy disk drive (FOO). The disk is normally rotated at 300 revolutions/minute.
5%-inch drive and 3% inch drives are available in the computer.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

b. Compact Disk Drive (COD)

CO-ROM (Compact Disk-Read Only Memory) uses a laser beam to record and read
data along spiral tracts on a 5~
inch disk. A disk can store around 650 MB of information.
CO-ROM's are normally used to store massive text data (such as encyclopaedias) which is
permanently recorded and read many times. Recently, CO writers have come in the market.
Using a CO writer lot of information can be written on CO-ROM and stored for future reference.

c. Hard Disk Drive (HOD)

Unlike the floppy disk that is flexible and removable, the hard disk used in the PC is
permanently fixed. The hard disk used in a higher end PC can have a maximum storage
r
capacity of even 40 GB. The data transferred between the CPU and ard disk is much higher
as compared to that between CPU and the floppy disk. The CPU can use the hard disk to load
programmes as well as to store data. The hard disk is the very important input / output (I/O)
device. ..
In summary, a computer system is organised with the balanced configuration of
different type of memories. The main memory (RAM) is used 'to store programme be currently
executed by the computer, disks are used to store large data files and programme files. Tapes
are serial access memory and used to back up the files from disk. CD-ROM's are used to
store user manuals, large text, audio and video data.

5. Output devices
Output devices are those that take machine coded' output results from the processol
and convert them into a form that can be used by people concerned (e.g. printed or displayec
reports).
a. Monitor
Monitors provide a visual display of data. It looks like a television. Initially there ar
only monochrome monitors. Gradually we began having monitors that display colour. Monitol
are of different types and have different display capabilities. Special circuit called the adaptl
card determines, the c~pabilities of a monitor. Some popular adapter cards are
@ Coloured Graphics Adopter (CGA)
@ Extended Graphics Adopter (EGA)
@ Vector Graphics Adopter 0IGA)
@ Super Vector Graphics Adopter (SVGA)
The smallest dot that can be displayed is called a pixel. The number of pixels that (
be displayed vertically and horizontally gives the maximum resolution of the monitor. l
resolution of the monitor determines the quality of the display. The higher the resolution
batfer is the quality of the display. Some popular resolutions are,
1. 800 x 640 pixels
2. 1024 x 768 pixels
3. 1280 x 1024 pixels
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

b. Printers
Printers are available in a wide rage of capabilities and prices. Some printers work by
printing a dot of little dots on paper to form words and images, others work by striking a formed
character against an inked ribbon Oust as typewriters do}. Some print only text, while others
print almost any image. Some make very good pictures, others very fuzzy ones.

Line Printer
It prints a complete line at a time. Printing speed varies from 150 lines to 2500 lines I

types of line printers are available.

x'
minute with 96 x 160 characters on a 15 inch lin 608 lines I vertical inch are printed. Two
',', "
1. Drum printers - consist of a cylindrical drum.'The characters to be printed. are
embossed on its surface.
2. Chain printers - have a steel band on,which character sets are embossed.
Serial Printer
It prints one character at a time, with the print head moving across a line. They are
similar to typewriters. The most popular serial printer is "Dot Matrix Printer (DMP). Here, a
character to be printed is made up of a finite number of dots. Characters to be printed are sent
one by one from the memory to the printer. Many dot matrix printers are bi-directional, i.e., they
print left to right as well as form right to left on return. This enhances the speed of printing. The
printing speed is around 300 characters I sec.

Letter quality Printer

Here, a short continued line represents the characters and so the output is good
looking. An example for such a printer is "Inkjet Printer" (non - impact printer). A high
resolution inkjet printer has around 50 nozzles with in the height of 7 mm and can print with a
resolution of 300 dots I inch. Currently, colour inkjets are also available in the market The
printing speed is around 120 characters I sec.
'.
Laser Printer
Here an" electronically controlled laser beam traces out the desired character to be
printed on a photoconductive drum. The drum attracts an ink toner on to exposed areas. This
image is transferred to the paper, which comes in contact with the drum. Low speed laser
printers, which can print 4 -16 pages I min are now very popular. Very fast printers print
10,000 lines I min and it is very costly. These printers give excellent outputs. And can printa
Variety of fonts. As these printers do not have a type head striking on a ribbon they are known
as non-impact printers. Currently, colour laser printers are also available in the market.
Apart from printers the other output devices are
Drum plotter
Flat bed plotter
Micro film and micro pitch
Graphic display device
Speech output unit
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

SOFTWARE
Software
A computer program is a set of instructions and one or more related computer
programs ar~ termed as Software.
Different types of Software are:
a) Application Software
b) Compiler Software
c} Operating System Software

I SOFTWARE 1
I Systems SofIware L.... I .1
1. Applications Software 1
.. _

,
QPera1Ing
SystemS .
I...
... AIeMJrnt.
rOOfs
Image
Processors
~

... Word
Processors

I Assemblers ,....... ....,_ Compliers Databases ,

1..0 ~[
""I
SpreadsbeeIs
1
I Oebuggers L..._
~.
~
Utirllles G!¥I1es .... ..... Commooicatim
SoftMtre

a) Application Software

1. Specific Purpose A.pptication Software

Software developed for a specific applICation is called specific purpos,e application
software.
Example:
Statistical Software Packages:
SPSS - Statistica~ Package for Social Sciences
SAS Statistical Analysis System
BMDP - Bio-Medical Data Processing
SX, STATGRAF, MINITAB
Epidemiological Software Packages:
Epi Info, Epi5, EpiStat, Episcope
 Bio Statistics and ComputerApplications

Graphical Software Packages:

Harvard Graphics, Ms-Excel

2. General Purpose Application Software

Software (S/w) that are available for general purpose like Word processing,
Spreadsheet, Presentation and Database management (Ms-Word, Ms-Excel, Ms-PowerPoint
and Ms-Access) fall under the category of general purpose software.
General Purpose S/w under CUI SIw under GUI
Word Processing Wordstar Ms-Word
Spreadsheet l:otus-123 Ms-Excel
- , ,
-,
Presentation Ms-PowerPoint
Database Management Foxpro ~
Ms-Access
Graphics Lotus-123 Ms-Excel, Harvard Graphics
Internet Browsing - Internet Explorer, Netscape Nav_igator
E-Mail - Outlook Express
Anti-Virus - Norton Anti-virus
~ Dbase, Foxpro, Oracle, Sybase, MS-SQL, Ingress are all database management
software.
~ Internet Explorer and Outlook Express software are bundled along with Ms-Windows
operating system software.
~ VIRUS - Vital Information Resol,!rce Under Seige.
N.B: Debugging - Removing the errors (bugs) from the computer program.
b) Compiler Software
Compiler Software is a program that converts the software written in a high level
programming language into a program in a low-level language (Machine Language) which the
computer can understand and execute.
Interpreters
Interpreter is a program that translates a program written in a high level language,
,converting each high level command in to machine understandable instructions. During
execution of a program, if it finds any error in a particular statement it halts (or) stops
temporarily and displace error message on the screen. It will do further execution only after
-that error is getting corrected.
-
High Level
Language
.... Compiler!
Interpreter
.... Low Level Language /
Machine Language

c) Operating System Software

Hardware cannot function without the operating system. The operating system
provides an interface between the hardware and the user. The operating system integrates
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

the various hardware components like the monitor, CPU, floppy disk drives, keyboard etc. into
one system and makes it available to the user.

Functions of Operating System Software

'1} Input I Output Device Management
'1J Memory or Storage Management
The Operating System used in the earlier versIons of the PC is called MS-DOS
(Microsoft Disk Operating System). This is Character User Interface (CUI) software. For using .
this software, the users need to type the commands using the keyboard in the correct syntax.
The latest PC's use the Graphical User Interface (GUI) Operating System software
such as MS-Windows 95, MS-Windows 98, MS-Windows-ME, MS-Windows 2000 and MS-
Windows-XP. After the advent of this software, the computer usage has become very easy.
Interface (CUI/GUt)-
Operating System SIW , I Multi User
Single
CUI
MS-DOS Single
MS-Windows 95 , Single GUI
MS-Windows 98 Sinale GUI
MS-Windows 98SE Single GUI
MS-Windows ME Single GUI
Network Operating Systems Single / Multi User Interface (CUI/GUI)
Novell NetWare Multiple CUI
UNIX Multiple CUI
MS-Windows NT Multiple GUI
MS-Windows 2000 Multiple GUI
LlNUX Multiple GUI
Programming Languages
The function of a computer is controlled by a set of instructions (called a computer
program). These instructions are written to tell the computer what operation to perform? Where
to locate the data? How to present the results? When, to make certain decisions? and so on.
The communication between 2 parties whether they are machines or human beings always
needs a common language or terminology. The language used in the communication of
computer instructions is known as the programming language. The computer has its own :.
language and any communication with the computer must be in its language (or) translated in '
to its language. A programming language defines these symbols, characters and rules for
writing a program. Programming languages ~re classified as below:
Q Machine Languages (Low level languages)
Q Assembly Languages (Symbolic languages)
Q Procedure oriented lan~uages (High level languages)
,
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Machine Languages
Instructions and data in the computer should be written using binary code 1 (or) O.
The binary code is called machine code (or) machine language. This language is not user
friendly.
Assembly languages
An assembly language uses mnemonic codes rather than numeric codes (as used in
machine language). Le. Abbreviations are used for programming in this language instead of
giving codes. \
For example, ADD or A is usechs the symbolic operation code to represent addition
and SUB (or) S is used for sUbtraction. ~~ computer understands only machine code
instructions, a program written in assembly language must be translated in to machine
language before the program is execute,d. This translation is referred to as an assembler. The
assembly language is again machine-oriented language and hence the program has to be
different for different m13chines.

Procedure Oriented Languages (High' Level Languages) .

These are more user centered than the machine centered languages. They are better
known as high level language. The most important characteristic of a high level language is
that is machine independent. As a program written in a high level language can be run on
computers of different makes with little or no modification, the programmer need not know the
characteristics of that machine.
A program written in high level language is known as source program. And can be run
on different machine using different translators.' The translated program is called the Object
program. The main disadvantage of high level language is that it takes extra time for
conversion, thus ~ey are less efficient compared to machine code languages.

• Common high level languages

\
Fortran Formula translation
CbBOL Common Business Oriented Language
BASIC Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction code
PLI/ Programming Language /
Pascal
C,C++
FORTRAN FORTRAN Stands for 'formula translation' was developed at IBM
between 1954 and 1957 for scientific and engineering applications.
COBOL It stands for 9lmmon ~usiness Qriented .banguage. It was developed in
1959 by a committee called CODASLYC (Qonference Qn Qata §ystem
.banguage Qommittee) and was approved by ANSI ~merican National
§tandard Institute) in 196B, It is intended for business application.
PASCAL It is a structured programming language developed by Niklars wirth in
1968 for scientific applications.
BiD Stat~~tics and Computer Applications

'C' language It was developed in 1972 by Dennis Kitchie and Ken Thomson of Bell
laboratories. The popular UNIX operating system has been return in 'Co
language. .
BASIC BASIC stands for ~eginners ~II purpose §ymbolic Instruction g_ode. It
was developed in Dartmouth College, USA under the supervision of J.G.
Kemeny and T.E. Kurtz during mid 1960's. It is easy to learn and it has
powerful additional facilities for advanced uses. It is designed for
interactive use.
 BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

DISK OPERATING SYSTEM

Disk Operating System (DOS)
A more popular way of referring to the operating system is DOS or Disk Operating
System way. The most popular disk operating system used is the MS DOS or Micro Soft Disk
Operating System, which is a product of Microsoft Corporation of USA.

Loading DOS
Since the hardware cannot. function without the operating system, to use the
computer system, the DOS software rnu~st always be present in the computer memory. When
the computer is switched on, the first fhing to be placed in memory is DOS. This is also
referred to as loading of DOS into the compute~s memory. The DOS software may be
available on a floppy or on the hard disk. The process of transferring the DOS from the hard
disk or floppy disk to the main memory is termed as booting. Any machine has to be booted
before it can perform any jobs. A floppy :disk or hard disk which contains the operating system
and can boot a machine is called a boatable diskette. C> is the DOS prompt which appears
when DOS has been loaded from the hard disk (or C drives and A> is the DOS prompt which
appears if DOS has been loaded from the floppy disk in the A drive. Thus, the currently active
disk drive can be identified from the prompt C> or A>. If the currently active drive is the C
drive and you wish to access the files on a floppy disk in the A drive, you can change to the A
drive by specifying A: at the cursor position. Similarly, change to the C drive can be indicated
byC:.

DOS Commands
DOS contains two hidden files viz. IO~SYS and MSDOS.SYS and the command
interpreter, COMMAND.COM. The hidden files are used only by the system and are not visible
to the DIR command. The COMMAND. COM interprets the commands entered by the user and
• executes them. Whenever the system is switched on, the three files are loaded into the internal
memory of the computer. This process of loading the DOS is known as booting. Booting is of
two types, cold or normal booting and warm booting. Normal booting also involves RAM
check, drives check etc. Warm booting is done by pressing <ctrl>, <alt> and <del>keys
simuhaneously and it does not involve RAM ckeck and other processes. DOS commands are
classified as internal and external. Internal commands are those which reside in the internal
memory of the computer and the DOS disk is not needed to execute them. External commands
are programs that reside on the disks as files. DOS prompts the user to enter a command. The
user can enter any of the commands by typing the name of the command and pressing the
Enter key. Some important DOS commands are given below:

1. Date <Enter> Displays the current date

2. Time <Enter> Displays the current time
Bio statistics and Computer Applications

3. Dir<Enter> Lists the files available on the disk with

names, size of files and the date and time
when information last modified, along with
no. of total files, total area occupied and
available free space in bytes
4. Dir/w <Enter> Displays files across the width but not
with file size
5. Dir/p <Enter> Displays files with pause (page by page)
6. Dir *.* <Enter> Displays all the files and directories
7. Dir *.exe <Enter> Displays fil~s with the extension name 'exe'
8. Dir a".* <Enter> Displays files\which have' a' as first letter
\

9. Dir *. <Enter> Displays the files with no extension name

10. Mkdir mvc <Enter> Creates a subdirectory by the name mvc
11. Rmdir mvc <Enter> Re!T1oves the subdirectory mvc
12. CLS <Enter> Clears any display from monitor
13. Copy C:VET.TXT A: <Enter> Copies the file vet.txt available in C drive to
drive
14. Copy C:vet.txt A:phd.txt <Enter> - Copies file vet.txt available in C to A as
phd.txt
15. Copy A:*.* C: <Enter> Copies all files available in A to C
16. Ren vet.txt phd.txt <Enter> Renames file vet.txt available in current
drive as phd.txt
17. Del vet.txt <Enter> Deletes the file vet.brt
18. Erase vet.txt <Enter> Deletes the file vet.txt
19. Diskcopy a: b: <Enter> Copies all files available from A drive to 8
20. Format A: <Enter> Formats the floppy disk i.e. places al
electronic road map on the diskette
Formatting sets up information tracks on i
diskette w!lich will store the data check:
the quality of the diskette and erases a
information previously stored
21. Format A:/S <enter> Formats the disk in drive A and makes the,
disk in a boatable by copying the operating J
system files to the new disk being formatted I

21. Chkdsk a: <Enter> Analyses the health of a disk and

produces a disk and memory status
22. Diskcomp a: b: <Enter Compares the disks in drive A and f
and reports the discrepancies, if any
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Computer file
In a company, which stores its data manually, the data are stored in the form of a file.
For ego A manual employee file has several cards, each with the details of one employee. The
data to be. used on a computer is also stored on storage media in the form of a file.
A computer file is more compact than a.manual file. For e.g., the particulars of each
employee is called as a record. Each piece of data in a record is called a field. A field has two
components, the field name and field content. A field comprises several characters; various
fields' make-up a record and many such records form·\~file ..
"
File Naming Conventions In DOS
"
There are certain conventions that are followed while naming computer files in DOS
based programmes. A file name has two parts namely 1.Primary name and 2.Extension
\YQrn~. It\~ ?rima~ a~d fu~ ~Y.t~n'5\on nam~'5 are '5~?a~t~d h'1 a dct {.}. f\ ?lima~ name can
have a maximum of eight characters and the extension can have a maximum of three
characters. File name is valid even if it has no extension.
The file name that we give must be meaningful. For ego if you want to create a file
containing salary details of the employees, the name given to the file can be 'Emp.sal' or
simply 'salary'. These names indicate that these files contain data relating to salaries of
employees. If we name this file as XYZ.124, we are most likely to forget the name of the file
and besides; the name itself does not convey to you what the file contains. Similarly, if your
file contains a report of the financial status of company, a name like finance.RPT would make
more sense than say ABC. PQR.

Concept,of Directories
There'could be many files on a diSK and this may pose a problem when a particular
file has to be identified. Therefore files must be organised in an orderly manner. Just like the
books are arranged in a library, files in a computer can be arranged on the storage medium.
Let us assume,\h;:lt we have three files. One contains details like names, ages, and addresses
of aU the employees in a finn, another file contains details of salaries of these employees and a
third file contains t~e amount of loan given to these employees. All these files relate to the
employees of the firm. Therefore, it would be desirable to club together all these files under
one unit.
-
To enable the user to arrange files within units, DOS provides structures called
directories on a disk. The user can also name directories. Let us take an example. We have 5
kinds of files on a disk - Establishment files, education files, finance files, extension files and
research files. Within the establishment files, we may have technical staff files and non-
technical staff files. Within the education files, we may have veterinary and fisheries files etc.
Technical staff files can be called as the sub directory of the root directory or the parent
directory.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
Standard Software packages available in the mar1<et are intended for general-
purpose applications. However. the users often require custom-tailored software. for
performing specific data processing or computational tasks. Application software development
is the process of creating such software, which satisfies the end user's requirements and
needs. The processes of developing the application software are called the Software
Development Ufe Cycle (SDLC). SDLC consists of six steps:
a. Problem Definition I Program Analysis
a. Program Design
a. Coding
a. Testing
'& Documentation
'& Maintenance

Program Design
You know you have a problem and .have identified it in the program analysis stage.
Now, you need to plan a solution to meet the objectives you have specified. This second
phase is called the program design stage - it consists of designing a solution.
Structured program design is a method of designing a computer program in such a
way so as to minimize the complexity. Among the tool used in this stage are:
• Top-down program design
• Flowcharts
• Pseudocode
Flowcharts
One of the most widely used devices for designing programs is the flowchart, which
graphically represents the logic needed to solve a programming problem. .
A program flowchart represents the detailed sequence of steps. needed to solve the.
problem. Program flowcharts are frequ~ntly used to visualize the logic and steps in '.
processing. •
There are only a few standard flowchart symbols necessary to solve almost any',
programming problem.
Symbol Description
The input/output symbol is used to reRresent an;

o input or output operation. It may represent thl

point in a program where the data (input) i~
required or where the information (output) is to bJ
displayed .
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

<> The decision symbol represents a logical

comparison operation. Based on the comparison,
one of the two paths will ~e taken

D The process symbol represents some type of

data manipulation or arithmetic operation.

"-
The connector symbol is used when several

o symbols displayed at one point might cause

confusion and reduce understanding. The
symbol directs the reader's attention to another
area ot the flowchart where the program flow
continues.

D
The predefined process symbol is often used to
represent a process that is used several times in
the same program. This process is defined only
once and reference by this block thereafter.

The annotation flag symbol is used to identify

clarifying comments to other symbols. They do

-[ not represent a logical step or calculations in the

program. They are used only for documentation
purpose.
'.
,
\
The terminal symbol represents the start or end
( ) of a program. It is also used to indicate a
program interruption point where information can
enter or leave.

The direction of flow symbols indicates the next

step in the program.

Constant, Variables and Operators

Constant Numerical Quantities are referred as constants. It can be integers or
deCimal quantities.
Variables: It is a name that represents a number or a string. Its value can vary.
Operators: There are three types of operators namely
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

a) Arithmetic Operators (+, -, I, *, **)

b) Logical Operators «, >,=,<>.<=,>=)
c) Rel~tional Operators (AND, OR, NOT)
Expression
Constants and variables are connected using operators to form expression.
Example: X =A + B - (C*3)**4
Hierarchy of Operation
a) The quantities inside a parenthesis
b) Exponentiation
c) Multiplication and Division in the order
d) Addition and Subtraction in the order "-
National Informatic Centre (NIC)
NIC was set up in 1977 as a constituent unit under the Department of Electronics,
Government of India to provide computer based informatics services to
Central Gvoernment Departments
State Government Departments
Union Territory Administration
District Administration .
Since March 1988, NIC has been transferred from DOE to planning commission.
NICNET
It is a nationwide computer communication network set up by NIC. which uses
satellite based technology.
NICNET Services
E-Mail
Access to Internet
File Transfer Facility (FTP)
Electronic Bulletin Board
libraries on computer disk (literature search through CD-ROM)
Computers are being effectively used in the field oflibrary science. Computers have
provided a great facility to research worners and scientists. as they can at a very short time
review the literature available in the WOrld. Earlier one had to scan lot of journals to get
information on developments on a topic particularly. Further, it is not possible for a library to.
procure all the journals published around the world. So the scholar had difficulty in havin~',
access to all literature. CD's containing abstracts on various topics on Veterinary Science:
published in a number of very important journals are now available in the market. BY~
subscribing to those CD's and by using literature search software, we will be able to use the;
vast amount of information stored in the CD.
Sorne of the Literature CD-ROM's available are:
VETCD Veterinary Science and Animal Science
BEASTCD Animal Production and Dairy Technology
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

CABCD Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau

HORTCD Horticulture and Plantation crops

Geographical Information System (GIS)

Many types of data are easier to analyse when presented graphically. A GIS relates
data to maps. Livestock resources such as population, fodder, etc., of a nation, state or region
shown in a map using colours for various,species or types, makes it easy to spot where density
of population is high and low. Policy makers/8esearcher then has knowledge of where density
is lower or higher than expected. Without a GIS'this kind of analysis is so time consuming that
it is not done on a regular basis. Problem areas will remain undiscovered, and actions will get
delayed for months or even years.

Database Management

Database .
A database is an organized collection of related information. It is a collection of
records or a computer base record system. A database may contain many records. Each
record may contain many fields.
Database facilitates storage, retrieval and management of information. Basic feature
of databases is that the data in a database can be organised in a systematic way such as a
tabular format.

Eg. Address database

Field 1 Field 2 Field 3
Field names
Name Place Phone
'. Ramesh Chennai 945678
\ Keerthi Maduarai 239349
Kailash BanQalore 839495
'II, Rama Mysore 929304

In this database file there are 4 records and each record is having 3 fields.
.. For building database one normally uses a generalized software package called
Database Management System (database, FoxPro etc.). As the name suggests, it is used to
bUild and manage the database, i.e., add, change (edit), delete, sort and retrieve information
from the database.

Networks

Types of Networks
. There are many different types of networks. However from an end user's point of
View there are two basic types:
Bio statistics and Computer Applications

Local Area Networks (LANs)

The Computers are geographically close together. LAN is a computer network that
spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of
buildings. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone
lines and radio waves. A system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide area network
(WAN).
Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers. Each node (individual
computer) in a LAN has i~ own CPU with which it executes programs, but it is also able to
access data and devices anywhere on the LAN. This means that many users can share
expensive devices, such as laser printers, as well as data. Users 'can also use the LAN to
communicate with each other, by sending e-mail or engaging in chat sessions.

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

A WAN is a computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area.
Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local area. networks (LANs).
Computers connected to a wide area network are often connected through public
networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines or
satellites. The largest WAN in existence is the Internet.
 8io Statistics and Computer Applications

INTERNET AND E-MAIL APPLICATIONS

What is Internet?
Perhaps, not a single day passes in the life of an average individual without coming
across a reference to the word 'Internet'. 'Internet' is 'a. huge reservoir of technologically
advanced tools and services that serve as an electronic compendium to the world. It is a vast
international network of networks that enables computers of allKinds to share services and
resources and communicate directly with each other as if they were part of one giant seamless
global computing machine.

Internet:
r::r Is the Worlds' largest network
r::r Is a working prototype of the Information Superhighway
r::r Is not·controlled or run by any central authority
o:r Has no nationality though born and bred in the United states of America
rJl" Collects no fee or pay no charges
r::r Is the extrem.e form of democracy and decentralization verging on delightful
anarchy
The Internet is so vast in its scope and application that it is rather difficult to find a
definition that does justice to its many dimensions. However, basically three dimensions of the
Internet mayAle recognised:
~ A network of networks based on the TCP/IP protocol
,
~ A vast ~lIection of resources that can be reached via these networks
~ A growing community of people who use and develop these networks
\. ,
The Internet is the network that facilitates the transfer and communication of
information stored in files, or documents between the computers. The Internet itself does not
contain information; it would be more appropriate to say that information was found on one of
the computers through the Internet.
Brief History of Internet
Interestingly enough, Internet is the outcome of a strategic defense policy during the
height of cold war. The computer communication networks of the early sixties were primitive,
connected to each other in the form of a chain, thus vulnerable to risk of attacks.
» Paul Baran of Rand Corporation - America's well-known Military Think Tank, hit upon the
idea of a network built rather like a 'fish net' than a 'chain'.
» Baran's idea led to the creation of the first net' .ARPANET' .
I »The U.S. Dept. of Defense's Advanced Research project Agency (ARPA) funded the
creation of ARPAnet in 1969 as a wide area communication network for military use to
allow the scientists and engineers across the US to share computers and computer
resources.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

> A technique for exchanging messages via the network was developed in 1972. This
facility, now known as the E-mail, transformed the ARPAnet into anew communication
tool.
> Remote hosts were connected via satellite for the first time using a primitive protocol NCP
(Network Control Protocol) in 1973.
> Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerl (the fathers of Internet) developed what eventually became
the TCP/IP (transmission Control ProtocoVlnternet Protocol) in 1974.
> TCPIIP was declared as the preferred format in 1978.
> ARPANET switched to running only on TCPIIP and ARPAnet split into ARPAnet and
MILNET in 1983. ARPAnet merged with Us~net News (an academic network) and later
became known as the Internet. Since then the Internet has been growing exponentially.
• 1983 - 500 hosts
• 1987 - 30000 host
• 1995 - 5 million hosts
• 2000 - 15 million hosts
> Scientists in CERN, the European High Energy Physics Laboratory, Geneva developed
software for publishing, searching and accessing the information on Internet in 1990. This
came to be known as the World Wide Web CNWW). Web has become synonymous with
the Internet because of its wide popularity.
Internet Management
The internet is merely based on an agreement between different networks. As such
there is no central authority that governs. the Internet. However the ISOC (The Internet Society)
and NSFnet play a significant role in managing the Internet. The ISOC evolves standards
related to technical and operational issues through discussion, collaboration and consensus.
Internel protocols and activities are decided by consensus through RFCs (Request for
Comments). The ISOC has several subgroups and each subgroup deals with certain aspects.
> Internet Architecture Board - oversees the production of standards through a
number of task forces such as Internet Engineering Task Force, Internet
Research Task Force, etc.
~ INTERNIC - provides information about Internet as a whole.

Internet Service Providers (ISP) In India

In India Internet has been there for over a decade now. For a long time the service
providers were primarily government agencies. In recent years many private operators have
also become major players in extending Internet services in the country. The following are
some of the major Internet service providers in India:
> The Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd.
);> The ERNET
> National Informatics Centre
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

~ Satyam Online
~ Dishnet
~ Mantra Online
~ Net Connect

HoW does the Internet Work? ,

There are two aspects to the.'lntemet - the hardware and the applications. The
hardware aspect of it is that it is a huge "computer network made up of thousands of
computers/computer networks worldwide. No one knows exactly how many computers are
connected to the Internet. It is certain, however, that there are millions of them and this number
is increasing at a rapid rate. The other aspect of Internet is its application - the different
services and facilities it offers. '
All the computers and computer networks that make up the Internet work because
they all follow a very simple rule - TCPIIP - for communicating . TCPIIP simply says that all
data transmitted through Internet should be broken up into small packets, and that the first part
of each packet should have the address where the 'packet is meant to go. For transmission of
data, Internet depends on the existing telecommunication infrastructure. ISPs (Internet Service
providers) lease data circuits from ·telecommunication companies and have dedicated
. computers at end points. It is based on client - server model. Computers called "Servers" hold
the content of Internet, which are maintained by organisations, having information to distribute.
When a request comes from a client to a server, At bundles the information in 'small packets
(usually of a fixed size), each packet carrying the address of its destination, and sends them
via the network. A computer can be a client or server depending on whether it is seeking
information or providing information.

The Domain Name System (DNS)

\ The use of TCP/IP for transfer of data from one computer to another also requires an
effective addressing mechanism capable of unique and unambiguous identification of each one
of the 'millions of serves that are connected. The DNS was developed for this purpose. The
major charaCteristic of the DNS is its hierarchical nature. As Internet was conceived and
developed in the USA the top level, domains were defined by the US. These include:
• com For commercial organisations (Le. businesses)
• edu For educational Institutions (Universities, Colleges, R&D Institutions, etc.
• gov For governmental organisations
• mil Military
• net Network resources (e.g. Internet Service provider)
• org Other organisations (e.g. Professional bodies)
With the spread of Internet world wide, the top-level domain names indicating the
individual countries became necessary. The national domain names follow the existing ISO
standard of two letter country codes (e.g. au - Australia; ca-Canada in-India; sg - Singapore).
For e.g., the Internet address of the server at the National Centre for Science
Information (NCSI) will be ncsi.iisc.emet.in. This is known as the canonical address of the host.
Internet also recognises another unique addressing system known as Numerical Internet
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications 96

Protocol Address commonly known as IP address. IP address is also known as Dotted Quad
made up of four numbers separated by three dots. The IP address of the host at NCSI is
144.16.72.129. IP address uniquely identifies an Internet host. This number is assigned by
local network authorities as per InterNlC guidelines. The domain name system referred to
above primarily evolved, as IP addresses are difficult to remember.

What is needed go get connected?

• Computer
• Appropriate application software
• Telecom connectivity
• Modem
• Account with an ISP
What is the World Web and what makes it work?
Often the Internet is considered synonymous with the World Wide Web. Though they
are closely related they are not one and the same. While the Internet is a decentralized global
network of computers and computer networks, the Web is a huge collection of Web documents
that can be accessed via the Internet. Research and educational institutions, governmental
and military entities, businesses, private organizations, and individuals largely contribute to the
content on the Internet. The content on the Intemet includes resources outside the Web also.
When one logs onto the Internet using Netscape or another browser, one is normally viewing
documents on the World Wide Web.

What does the Internet Offer?

Seamless access to a variety of Information Sources
• Education and Research (electronic journals, e-prints, reports, databases, digital
libraries, dictionaries and encyclopedias)
• Business and Commerce (company profiles, yellow pages, Shopping, Stocks and
shares)·
• Entertainment (sports, magazines, music, films)
• Government Information (e.g. Budget)
• Facts and figures (e.g. Censu~ Data)
• Software.Ubraries
• General Information (news, newspapers, weather)
Powerful Communication Medium
\h- E-mail
\h- Chat
\h- Electronic Discussion Forums
Electronic Publishing
a Newspapers/JournalslM~gazines (information on anything)
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

'B.. Online Education (distance learning, e-commerce)

E-mail
The essence of networking is to communicate. Electronic Mail (E-mail) has been the
most used function of the Internet. E-mail allows people to write back and forth without having
to worry about how the message gets delivered. Basically there are two main types of
programs which make E-mail work: a user-agent program and a mail delivery agent program.
Just as the conventional postal system, 'E~mail revolves around an address _ the e-
mail address. The E-mail address of a person contains enough information to get an E-mail
message sent form anywhere to ~imlher. The E-mail address of a person is usually in the form:
User@domain. The domain can have several components _ usually names of each node on
the domain tree. A couple of examples illustrate this. '
To reach Shalini, one would address the E~mail to [email protected]. This means
that Shalin; uses the id 'shaHni' and has an account on (@) on the system 'hotmaiLcom' which
is the domain. Similariy, to reach Raja, one would address the mail [email protected].
where 'raja' is the user name and the rest of the e-mail address following '@' is the domain
name.
There are several e-mail programs such as Eudora, Netscape Messenger, and
Microsoft Outlook Express. In fact E-mail has become one of the most common and routinely
provided add-on service by many Internet-related service providers such as Microsoft, Yahoo,
Rediff.com, mailme_today.com, etc. Almost all of these E-mail services are free and often offer
a range of e-mail-related facilities like composing and sendil)g e-mails, storing of messages
sent, receiving and foiwa~ding, free storage facility for storing received mails, facility for saving
and storing e-mail addresses, attaching and sending files .
•
How to Qpen an account?
9.t Invoke the home page of e-mail service provider
" SO 'qlLck on New User ' , ,.
SO Sign up - give your login 10, choose a password and supply personal information
sought
SO Submit
If your login id and password are accepted, the sign up process will be completed.
Having opened an account with an ~-mail se.rvice prOvider, you are now all set to send and
receive E-mails and also maKe use of the related facilities.

How to work with your E·mail account?

Go to the concerned Web site. Log in using your login id and password; The screen
will display the mails in the inbox. Unopened new mails will be shown highlighted. Open the
mail you would like to view by clicking on that.

The components of an E·mail Message

The line beginning with the 'From' header contains the name and the E-mail address
of the sender. You can save the address to your address book. 'To' lists the E-mail address of
BiD Statistics and Computer Applications

the receiver(s). The ·cc' header lists the additional recipients of the message. The 'Subjecf
header carries a brief subject of the message supplied by the sender of the message. 'The
date' contains the day, date and time the message was sent. The message section of the
screen contains the text of the message. The received mail can be forwarded to others by
clicking on the forward option. Options are there to delete a message, to go to the previous or
next message, or close th,e message.

Sending an E-maif
There are two possible situations. und~r which you may be sending a mail. Either you
are replying to a received mail or composing a il,ew mail to be sent. In the case of the fonner,
click on the reply option and this takes you to ,the message compose screen, with e-mail
address and subject automatically loaded. In case you are composing a new message, click on
the compose option which will take you to the compose screen. Type the E-mail address to
which the message is to be sent. If the message has to be sent to more than one recipient,
type all the E-mail addresses separated by a comma. Copies of the message can be sent to
other recipients by using the CC and BCC facilities (The use of BCC option will result in the
reCipients not knowing the other recipients of the message).
Type the message to be sent in tne message box. Once the message has been
composed, click on the send option and this will deliver the message to the addressee almost
instantaneously. The sent message can be saved by clicking the Save OutgOing Message
option which will be stored in the sent message folder. There is a facility to 'Add Signature'
also. Another important facility offered is to attach files to your E-mail. You can attach any file
to your e-mail. To do this, click on the 'Attachments' option, which will take you to the
appropriate screen. This screen provides options to attach one or more flies to your E-mail.
When the address in an E-mail message is incorrect, the message will bounce back
to the sender and the bounced message will generally-carry the reason for the bounce.

Chat
IRC is the Internet Relay Chat service (developed in 1998) in which participants
around the world can "talk· to each other by typing in real time on hundreds of channels.
These channels are usually based on a particular topic. While many topiCS are frivolous,
substantive conversations are also taking place. To have access to IRC, you must use an IRC
software program. This program connects you to an IRC server and allows you to visit IRC
channels. Chat programms are now common on the Web. They are sometimes included as a
feature of a Web site, wnere users can log into the ·chat room" to ,exchange comments ~nd
information about the topiCS addressed on the site. Chat may take other, more wide-ranging
forms.
For e.g., the Times of India (http://www.thetimesofindia.com) sponsors an online c~at
session on a topical issue with a well known personality. Internet Relay Chat (IRC), a se",,:
available on the Internet lets one chat easily and fast. Two of the most popular and free ch
services are the Yahoo and Ica (I Seek you). To use the Yahoo chat facility: Go to YahOOS
Web site (URL:http://www.yahoo.com).Click on the Chat option; If you already have a Yahfo
10 you can begin chatting right away; else click on sign me up and sign up. Enter the yahOO
and password and begin the chat session by clicking Go to Yahoo Chat.
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Searching The Web

Web is a huge reservoir of information on any conceivable topic. The Web is a very
vast collection of web documents, which are interconnected through hyper links-also known as
Hypertext documents. The Web browsers make navigating through these links easy. The
beauty of the Web is that it enables. users to navigate~ump from one web site to another
seamlessly. Browsers act as an interface~between the users and the web browsers, enable
reading of the web documents and support navigating between documents. Browsers such as
the 'Internet Explorer or 'Netscape NaVigator proVide a friendly interface and anow movement
from one web site to another.

Search Process
Basically there can be two types of searches:
Known Web site search: The User is trying to locate a web page that is known to him.
All that one has to do is to instruct the browser to got the web site by specifying its URL.
Search for web sites on a topic: On the other hand if the purpose is to identify
sources of information on the Web on a topic, it will be helpful to approach the problem in a
logical and structured manner.

Search engines
I

Search engines support searching of very large indexes of Internet resources. Search
engines allow the user to enter keywords that are run against a database (most often created
automatically, by ·spiders" or ·robots"). Based on a combination of criteria (established by the
• user and/or the search engine), the search engine retrieves WWW documents from its
database that match the keywords entered by the searcher. It is important to note that when
~sing a search engine, it is not a live search of the Internet as it exists at that very moment.
Rather, it is a search of a fixed database that has been compiled some time back. While all
searcp engines are intended to perform the same task, each goes about this task in a different
way, which often leads to different results. Factors that influence results include the size of the
database, the frequency of-updating, and the search capabilities; Search engines also differ in
their search speed, the design of the search interface, the way in which they display results
and the amount of help they offer.
Some of the Search Engines are:
AltaVista (http://www.altavista.com)
Excite (http://www.excite.com)
FAST (http://www.alltheweb.com)
Google (http://www.google.com)
HotBot (http://www.hotbot.com)
Infoseek (http://lnfoseek.go.com)
Northern Light (http://www.northemlight.com)

... '..
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

COMPUTERS IN VETERINARY FIELD

In fact, computer can have application in every area one can mention in veterinary
field. Apart from veterinary scientists who would find computers useful in research activities, ..
field veterinarians would also be a~le to use computers for farm management, least cost ..
rationing, feed analysis, disease prevention, disease diagnosis, accounting etc.
Computer-aided diagnosis is an important aspect of veterinary decision support,
because diagnosis is usually the first and critical step in patient management, but it is not an
end in itself. Complete computer-based veterinary support systems should aid the veterinarian
in all areas of medical decision-making, including test selection and interpretation, treatment, .
management and prevention.
For instance, computers could be used as diagnostic tools in veterinary field, by ~
linking the diagnostic test equipment to the computers for an automatic transfer of reSults ..;
Once the data are received, the computers could be made to compare the test measurements·~
with the standards established in the program. If the estimated values fall outside the~
prescribed limits, the program would suggest procedu,res that should be repeated and ~
additional tests to be conducted. The computer may also run an expert system program t01
suggest tentative diagnosis based on the abnormal test results. 1
Computers could also be a boon for hospital administration, case sheet record~
maintenance, retrieval for follow up action, diagnosis, dispensing medicines, problem sOlving~
etc. Computerized clinical records would make it possible to store voluminous data wi~
minute details, and to keep tract of performance of patients. Nowadays, almost all th~
sophisticated equipment are provided with computer facilities. For eg., ECG, EEG, CAT, MRI
etc. have all computer support. The use of computers in veterinary science can never be
compromised and in future, entire gamut of veterinary science is likely to hinge on computer
support. In fact, there is no limit for computer uses especially in the field of veterina~
medicine.

Specific areas of Application

15 Data Base Management System (DBMS
15 Registration of case
15 Classification of case
15 Case history
15 Symptom
15 Test result
.J5 Diagnosis
15 Treatment and Follow up
In a nutshell, the computer may be considered as an essential tool for day toda~
activities and for solving complex problems in the field of veterinary medicine. By efficient use
of the system it would be possible to save precious time, cost and energy.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Some Software for use In Veterinary Field

CARD 10
CARDIO (Stevens, 1986) is a program designed to provide diagnostic assistance in
interpreting electrocardiographic (ECG) examination of canine and feline patients. It analyses
the ECG strip only, not the entire patient, so it does not offer treatment suggestions or
prognoses.

COSREEl
COSREEL (Computer System for Recording Events affecting Economically important
Livestock) is an animal health recording syster1\which has been designed for the management
of cattle, sheep and pigs (Russel and Rowland~~1~83). It can record diagnosis of disease,
symptoms, treatment, vaccination, tests and their result~. It can also be used for recording
management data, veterinary data and production.data.

CRinER
CRITTER is a computer database program for managing research animals. It is
designed especially for institu~ons that operate ,health surveillance plants, such as specific
pathogen free schemes (SPF). Because CRITTER can be used to record any type of test
results in any species of animal, it can be customized to suit any institution. In addition to
maintaining a current inventory of each individual animal and its location, the program retains
historical infonnation on those that have been removed from the colony. Although CRITTER
has been designed for individual research establishments, it could be modified for use in area
health surveillance programs (Le, epidemiology).

EPISCOPE
I
EPISCOPE (Frankena et aI., 1990) is the computer software used to cover
epTdemiological prin~iples and calculations. It can assist both the teaching of epidemiology
and the analysis of field data. EPISCOPE is based on the spreadsheet program and consists
of fou'r.Jllodules for evaluation of diagnostic tests, sample size calculations, analysis of cohort
and case-control studies and models.
\
HEMO .'
HEMO (Stevens, 1986) is a program designed to process a patient's database of
laboratory test results and produce a report that provides a diagnostic analysis of these tests
for the veterinaiian's review and the patient's record.
HEMO allows a computer to make calculations and comparisons, report and
characterize values olitside normal ranges, and' match patterns of test results. Further
assistance is offered in the fonn of lists of possible or potential disease conditions that may
account for given abnonnal test results and lists of additional clinico-pathologic tests that may
help to interpret present abnormalities and I or support or rule out potential diagnosis.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

VIRUS
VIRUS (Veterinary Investigation Recording User System) is capable of storing,
monitoring and analyzing previous and current records (Martin et al., 1982). The results
produced by the program are
~ stock identification details such as herd book no., sire and dam details, date of birth,
breed etc.
reproduction details such as calvings, abortions, lactation no., sire and dam details,
date of birth, breed etc.
~ production data such as milk yield data
~ disease events such as type of disease, organisms isolated, type of lesions etc.
~ fertility events such as non-selVice oestrous, selVice per insemination, identity of bull,
results of pregnancy diagnosis, dry off dates etc.
~ death and cull events with reasons.

Diagnostic Search Programmes

COWCAD
It contains a database of cattle diseases with all recorded clinical features of each
disease.

Consultant
It is similar to COWCAD and in this clinical signs can be entered and the program
responds with a list of possible diagnoses.

Provides
It is the acronym for Problem Oriented Veterinary Information and Decision Support.
When clinical signs are entered, the program generates a list of differential diagnoses in order
of probability, lists of relevant diagnostic te~ts, treatment options and prognostic probabilities.

Computers in Farm Management

The first use of computer as a management tool in dairy farming was in milk recording
selVices started in 1950's in the United States. The organizations using computers for herd
management came to be collectively known as the Dairy Herd Improvement Association .
(DHIA). Most DHI programs now offer, in addition to individual cow production records, somatic
cell count (SCC) data, reproductive performance parameters, nutritional information, and
management work list, which all could be summarized and reported at the herd level with the :
use of computers. ~.
Through a co-operative effort with the University of Melbourne, the MElBREAD herd):
health and fertility reporting scheme was developed by the Veterinary Epidemiology a~d· '. .
Economic Research Unit (VEERU), University of Reading in 1971. Over a several years, Its.:>.
use resulted in extensive research and development into a more integrated system known a5 \ .. :
DAISY (Dairy information System).
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

. The FAHRMX (Food Animal Health and Resource Management System) computer
system was created at the University of Michigan.

Present day programs

A commercial software, Dairy, Herd Management program (DHMP) was found to be
useful tool when implemented as part "of a dairy herd health program. Later the program
khown as Dairy Camp. 305 was developed.' , •
Nowadays, with the help of INTERNET, one can browse and download a large
number of herd management programs and experience the demonstration of the software. For
ego 'lNTERHerd, the herd management program developed by INTERAgri and VEERU, UK
could be downloaded from the INTEAgri website.
_ffi_o_~_at_jst_~_sa_n_d_~_m_p_m_~_A_pp_n_ca_oo_n_s_____________________________j~

WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

WHAT IS WINDOWS?
There are different kinds of software, but, probably the most important and the mo~
widely used software is the Operating System. An Operating System is the software that foons
~ brid~e between the user and the hardware. It performs several ro.utine tasks, thereby making
It easIer for us to work on the computer. 'There are many operating systems available. M&
DOS, Unix, Linux, OS2, MacOS are some examples. Windows 98, a product of Microsoft
Corporation, is also an operating system, which is most popular among PC users. '
EVOLUTION OF THE WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM
Windows 98 is one of the popular versions in the series of Windows products. T1)e,
first version to become reasonably popular was Windows 3.0, which came with f~'
management utilities. Soon, several applications that were meant to be used with Windows
appeared in the market. Within a few years, Windows started being used In offices; homes arid
business establishments, Windows 3.0 was followed by Windows 3.1, which offered better
features. The next major development came with the introduction of Windows 95. Unlike earfief
versions of Windows, Windows 95 was a cOmplete operating system. Windows was no longer
restricted by the conventions of MS-DOS. The Program Manager of Windows 3.1 was hidden
from the user. This was replaced by new ways of starting applications and opening documen~!
After Windows 95 came Windows 98. Windows 98 offers many new utilities, improved
performance and support for the latest hardware and technologies. It also provides severa
features and utilities that allow easy access to and use of th~ Internet. ',:
ADVANTAGES OF USING WINDOWS 98
Windows 98 is a user friendly operating system designed with the follo~
advantages: ~,
The biggest advantage of using Windows 98 is its Graphical User Interface (GUll',
Many other operating systems (including MS-D9S) use Command Line Interface, In this ~tQ~
of interface, we have to remember cryptic commands and type them without mistakes. SQ~
operating systems are also case - sensitive (Is is not the same as LS or Ls or IS). A sim~
spelling mistake or mis~ space will result in an error. But, Windows 98, with its GUI, diSP~
all the information on the screen and all we have to do is point and select using the mouse. ~~
Windows 98 allows us to use several utility programs like ~f~
:;-",
....j
cr Calculator - a program that allows us to perform calculations,
cr Paint - a program that allows us to draw and color pictures,
cr WordPad - a simple word proCessor that allows us to enter and save text, '
cr Internet Explorer - a program that allows us to browse the Internet,
cr Clipart - a gallery of pictures that we can use in our documents and many
There are also a wide variety of other software applications that can be
Windows 98. The most popular of these is Microsoft Office, which includes Word
processor), Excel (a spreadsheet program), Access (a database management
BiD statistics and Computer Applications

powerPoint (a presentation software) and many more. Other applications like Foxpro,
Netscape Navigator, Adobe PageMaker are some others that can be used on Windows 98.
Windows 98 allows us to run multiple applications at the same time. It also allows us
to easily switch between them and transfer data between them: For example, we can write a
report using MS Word, move to MS Excel, draw a graph in Excel, return to Word and paste the
graph in our report, stop our work to play a g~me of cards with Solitaire, retum to MS Word
and continue our report.
The easy-to-use online He~p facility of Windows 98 is always available to guide us.
Using Help, we can find infonnatiorl'on.__,a topic based on category, index and search using
keywords or phrases. Windows 98 Help also jncludes an online version of the manual "Getting
Started". Windows 98 has an excellent Internet interface. With Windows 98, we can easily
access and browse through web pages from anywhere on the computer. Internet Explorer and
Outlook Express, which had to be purchased and installed separately, are now a part of
Windows 98. They are always available on the screen.
MOUSE
Windows 98 uses GUI. That is, all infonnation are displayed on the screen. One can
use it by simply pointing to it and selecting. To do this we use the mouse. The mouse is an
input device that we move on a flat surface (usually a moue pad). When we move the mouse,
a pointer moves on the screen. This pointer, called the Mouse Pointer, is used to pOint to
things on the screen. The mouse has either two or three buttons on the top. The left button is
most often used. Described below are four mouse actions that we need to know to use
Windows 98 effectively.
I. Move: Moving the mouse is simply dragging the mouse on the mouse pad so that the
mouse pointer moves in the direction we want, without touching the buttons. This action allows
us to point to things on the screen.
II. Click: Clicking is used to select objects on the Windows screen. To click, ensure that
the mouse is pointing to what-we want and press the left button of the mouse once and release
the button immediately. .
III. Double Click : Double - click 'is most often used to start applications. To double -
CliCk, point to what we want and press the left button of the mouse twice in quick succession.
IV, Click and dra9': This mouse action is used to move an object from one place to
another, when we click and drag an object, the object moves along with the mouse pointer. To
c!ic~ and,drag, hold the left button. of the mouse down and move the mouse.
WORKING WITH WINDOWS 98
When we switch on our computer, Windows 98 automatically starts loading from the
hard disk. While loading, it perfonns a series of diagnostic tests to check the memory and
hardware components. Once the diagnostic tests are over, Windows 98 starts loading files and
graphics necessary for the GUI interface. This takes a few minutes, after which it displays th.e
Opening screen of Windows 98, the Desktop. The appearance of the desktop can also be
Changed using Windows 98 according to the wish of the user.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

DESKTOP
In Windows S8, \he basic working platform is \he Desktop. Let us understand the
desktop with an example. When we study, we use a table. Usually, we keep all the books and
note books that we may need on the table in front of us. We may also keep our pencil box
colors, a dictionary and a few other things on the table. When we want a particular book, w~
simply reach out to that book and pick it up. Window's desktop is very similar to the tabletop.
All the programs in the computer are available on the desktop. Here, instead of our hand, We
use the mouse painter to point to things and select them.
The desktop has several Icons. Icons are small pictures/images representing
applications. Each icon has a label telling the name of the application it represents. My
computeT, Recycle Bin and Internet Explorer are some of the standard icons that we can see
on the Windows desktop. Each of thes~ icons· represents an application tI1at is frequently used.
For example, My computer allows we to. see the contents of our computer, install and use new
software and hardware. Apart from the· standard icons provided by Windows, we can also.
create icons for the applications that we use frequently and place them on the desktop.
The desktop also contains the Taskbar. The taskbar is usually C:1 narrow strip present
at the bottom of the screen. On the left, it has Start button. When we click on the start button,
we can start any application that we want. Next to the Start button is the Quick Launch
Toolbar. One advantage of using Windows 98 is the easy access it provides to the Internet
1he qU·lck launch too)bar conta·lns ·Icons \hat anow us to select some common", used 'nternel-
related applications. On the extreme right is the Systems Tray that contains the Clock and
icons for the utilities like Volume and the task scheduler. The empty space between the Quick
Launch Toolbar and the Systems Tray is used to display buttons for the applications currenHy
being used.
"

START MENU ~<

The start menu acts as a launch pad for most of the things we want to do ~: j
Windows 98. Using this menu, we can start applications, change the settings of our compute!!:... ~.'
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

find files, get help and do much, much more. The Start menu appears when we click on the
start button on the taskbar. We can select an option from this menu by using the mouse. As we
move the mouse pointer over the options, they get highlighted. Simply click the mouse when
the option we want is highlighted. Some options on the menu have a small arrow on the right.
This arrow indicates the presence of one or more levels of submenu. To select an option on
the submenu, slide the mouse pointer sideways. One option on the submenu will get
highlighted. Now, move the mouse pointer up and down till the option that we want is
highlighted and click. Note that some of the options in the submenu also have an arrow.
Selecting these optiOl)s will display another submenu.
STARTING AN APPLICATION" . .
. "
Windows 98 allows us tQ start' an application either by using icons on the desktop or
by using the Start menu. The easiest way to start an application is to use its icon on the
desktop. When we want to start an application, look for its icon on the desktop. If we find the
icon, dauble-click on it to start the application. Though Windows 98 gives us a few icons on the
desktop and allows us to create our own icons for other frequently used applications, it is not
possible to have icons for aU applications on the desktop. To start applications, for which icons
are not available on the desktop, we can use the Start menu. Click on the Start button on the
taskbar and select the option that we want from anyone of the menus or submenus that
appear.
WINDOWS
When we are using a table to study, we keep all the books we need on the table.
Each book occupies some space on the table. Smaller books occupy less space and bigger
books ~ke up more space. The books may even overlap each other partially or completely.
We can use these books by moving them around, closing some, opening others and so on. By
doing this, we can ensure that the book we want is easily available to us. Windows 98 allows
us to work with applications in the same way. When we start an application, it occupies a
rectangular area on the desktop. This rectangular area on the desktop that is used by an
application is called a Window. We can have several windows on our desktop at the same
time. These windows may be big (as big as the desktop) or small (as small as a button on the
taskbar), overlapping others or one beside the other.
PARTS OF WINDOW
For us to work efficiently with windows, it is important to learn to manage them well.
Windows 98 allows us to move them around, change their size, and hide them from our view
and so on. Let us use the application Word Pad, a simple word processor to understand how to
manage windows well. Word Pad is one of the applications that come as part of Windows 98. It
is a word processor - we can enter and store text u?ing it. To start WordPad, click on Start,
Programs, Accessories and WordPad. Windows 98 is designed in such a way that all windows
are similar. The methods used for sizing, moving and closing these windows are also the
same. At the top of each window is the Title Bar. As the name indicates, the title bar tells us
the name of the application. It also contains three of the following four Sizing buttons.
Minimize Button: The minimize button is used to reduce the size of the window to a
button on the taskbar. Remember that minimizing a window does not close a window. It simply
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

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hides it from us. The contents of the window remain in memory and we can get them
(restore) whenever we want. To restore a minimized window, click on its button on the ___..___ .....
Maximize Button: Clicking on this button enlarges the window to fill the entire aeskto~'.~
Restore Button: This button is used to restore the window to its original size (that is, to;
the size before we maximized it). :::'
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Close Button: This button is -used to close a window. Remember that cloSing a-::
window will remove its contents from memory and screen. .
Below the title bar is the Menu Bar. This displays the different menus available to us.
When we click on a menu option, say Edit, all the sub-options appear as a drop-down menu.
We can select any of them by pointing to it with the mouse pointer and clicking.
One or more toolbars appear below the menu bar. Toolbars consist of icons
representing shortcuts for the most frequently used commands. For example, save a file, we to
can click on the File menu and select Save tram the drop-down list. -An easier method would
be to click on the Save icon on the toolbar.
MOVING A WINDOW
Often, while working with multiple windows, we need to move a window to a different
area of the desktop to see one of the underlying windows. We can do so by clicking and
dragging the title bar of the window.
CHANGING THE SIZE OF AWINDOW
Every window has a border that can be used to change its size. Point to the window
border with the mouse. The mouse painter changes into a double-headed arrow. Click and
drag this arrow to increase or decrease the size of the window.
WINDOWS DIALOG BOXES
Windows 98 is an inter-active operating system. Its GUI attempts to display as much
infonnation on the screen as possible. It uses dialog boxes to display the information and
Bio statistics and Computer Applications

alloWS us to either type in our response or select from a list of choices. Listed below are some
of the controls used in dialog boxes.
Text Boxes: Text boxes are used to allow the user to enter some text! data. Every text box is
accompanied by a prompt or label that tells us what should be entered in that box.
List Boxes: These boxes display a list of choices. We can select the one we want by simply
Clicking on it.
Drop-down List Boxes: These are list boxes which have a small black inverted triangle at one
end. When we click on this triangle, a list of options drops down in front of us. We can select
an item from this list by clicking bllJt.
l ,

Radio Buttons: These buttons are use~ to display multiple options. We can select one by
clicking on the 'small white circle to the left of the option. A black dot appears at the center of
the circle to indicate a selected op,tion.
Check Boxes: These boxes are used to enable or disable options. The options in these boxes
have small white squares to their 'left. Clicking on a square enables the option and clicking on it
again disables. A tick mark in Utis square indicate~ that the option is enabled and a blank
square indicates that the option is disabled.
Buttons: The OK and Cancel buttons are the most frequently used buttons in Windows 98.
When we click on the OK button in a dialog box, Windows will accept our choice and close the
dialog box. Clicking on cancel will make Windows ignore the changes and close the dialog box.
Some buttons are also used to display another dialog box.
Tabs: Tabs are used to display different sets of options in dialog boxes. Clicking on each box
displays an entirely different set of options.
I

Sliders: Sliders are used to enter a value by physically moving a marker over a slide.
USING HELP
Windows 98 has extensive on-line help. To use this help, click on the start button and
choose help from the menu that appears. The window is divided into two panes. On the left the
topics are listed, based on their contents. Click on the Index tab to see a list of index entries or
on the search tab to search for a keyword or key phrase. Point to the topic of your choice. Note
that the mouse pOinter changes to a pointing finger. Click and the corresponding topic will be
displayed in the right pane of the window. The back and forward buttons on the toolbar allow
us to move to the previous and next topic.
CUSTOMIZING WINDOWS 98
One of the most attractive features of Windows 98 is that it allows us to customize the
desktop. We can change the appearance of the desktop by changing the background, adding
icons, moving icons, moving and resizing the taskbar and so on. We can also add screen
savers that prevent damage to our monitor during periods of inactivity.
CUSTOMIZING THE TASKBAR
The taskbar is usually at the bottom of the desktop. But we can move it easily to any
of the four sides of the desktop. Point the mouse pointer to any empty area on the taskbar.
Click and drag the taskbar to wherever we want it to be. We can also change the size of the
~,_Bt_o_St_at_ist_ics_an_d_Co_m_'P_ut_e_rA_P_p_'ic_at_io_ns_ _ _ _ _ _ _-:-_ _ _ _ _ _~

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taskbar. Point to the edge of the taskbar. The mouse pointer will change into a double-heac(:
arrow. Click and drag the mouse to increase or decrease the size of the taskbar. &d
CHANGING THE WALLPAPER
Wallpaper is the background display that appears on our desktop. We can choo
fr~m sever~1 standard wallpapers that are available as part of Windows 98. We can also use~
picture that we have drawn, scanned or copied from somewhere. Browse through the list 'o~
wallpapers and click on the one you want. .A preview in the top half of the window shoWs US
how the wallpaper will look. Click on apply and then on OK.
USING SCREEN SAVERS
In older monitors, if we left the images on the screen unchanged for long,. #Ii
characters would bum-in, leaving a permanent impression on the screens. Screen savers
which displayed constantly moving pictures or characters, prevent this from happening. Today'
monitor technology has improved so much that screen savers are no longer necessary. B~
they are still popular mainly because !hey are fun. To use a screen saver, click on Sc~n~
Saver button in the Display Properties dialog box. Click on the drop-down list box just bekli' .
the Screen Saver prompt. A list of avail~ble screen savers appears. Select one. A previeW.
appears in the top half of the window. We can specify in the Wait text box, the number;of
minutes the computer should wait before displaying the screen saver. Windows will wait fofl.{
minute before displaying the screen saver. Click on Password Protected and then on Change·
to password protect our screen. Enter a password of your choice in the dialog box whioh
appears. Click on Apply and OK. Now, whenever our computer is idle for some time, WindoWs
will automatically activate our screen saver. To remove the screen saver, just move the mouse
or press any key on the keyboard. If you have password-protected our screen saver, ~ dialOg
box appears prompting us to enter the password. ..
CONTROL PANEL
The Control Panel allows us to install and manage the different hardware compvYiti~
attached to our computer. We can open the Control Panel window by clicking on the S~
button, selecting Settings and then Control Panel. We can also access Control Panel from M1
computer window. Double - click on the My 'computer icon on the desktop and select control"
panel from the icons displayed in the My comRuter window. :
The Control Panel window opens in front of us. Control Panel window displ~~
several icons. Using these icons, we can modify the system and hardware settings of .9~~
computer. listed below are some of the functions we can perform here: .
Adding new hardware to our computer.
Allowing us to install new programs and.create shortcuts for them.
Allowing us to change the date, time and the time zone settings.
Allowing us to personalize our computer with attractive wallpapers, sound
Allowing us to change display properties like Background, Screen Saver
Allowing us to view, add and remove fonts on our computer.
 Bio Stat;stics and Computer Applications

Allowing us to change the mouse settings. Using this icon we can interchange the
functions of the mouse buttons. This is useful if you are a left handed person.
Allowing us to assign and change passwords and set up security options.
Allowing add, remove or change the setting of print
Allowing change the display of numbers, currency and date and time.
Allowing us to set up and manage multiple user for out computer.
SHUTTING DOWN WINDOWS 98
It is very important to shut down Windows 98 properly before switching off. the
computer. To do so, click on the Start button and select Shut Down from the Start menu. The
Shut Down dialog box appears on the screen. This dial99 box has four options. We can select
an option by clicking on the small white circle to the left of the option. Click on the first option.
Stand by, when we want the computer to idle for a short time without switching it off. In the
Stand by state, the computer consumes considerably less electric power. But, remember, while
the computer is in this state, the contents of the computer's memory are not saved on the disk
and we will loose them if the power fails or is switched off. The second option, Shut Down, is
used when we have ,finished working and want to switch off computer. In this case, Windows
saves any setting that we have changed and the contents of the memory. Wait till we get the
message "It is now safe to tum off your computer" before switching off the computer. The third
option, Restart, shuts down the computer as in the Shut down option but automatically restarts
it after a few seconds. The last option, Restart in the MS-DOS mode, shuts down the computer
but restarts it in the DOS mode instead of tile Windows mode.
APPLICATIONS IN WINDOWS
All information in Windows are stored as files. These files are broadly classified into
two categories: Application Files and Document Files. Application files (also called Program
files) are files that allow you to draw and paint, enter and save text, calculate and play game
are application files. Document files are files that are created by the user using an application.
We can start an application by clicking on its icon on the desktop or by using the Start
menu. When we do that, the application appears on the screen in a window. At the same time,
a button representing the application also appears on the taskbar. This button stays on the
taskbar as long as the application is active and disappears only when we close the application.
We will now learn how to start multiple applications, how to switch between them and how to
transfer data between them.
!Jsing Applications in Windows
Several useful applications come as part of Windows. Using them, you can perform a
wide varlety of tasks. Discussed below are some of the commonly used ones.
MS·DOS
Till recently, MS-DOS was a very popular operating system among PC users.
I HUndreds of DOS-based applications were available in the market. To start such programs or
to Use any DOS command, the MS-DOS option of Windows can be used. Click on Start,
Programs, and select M$-DOS from the list. The MS-DOS window is like any other window;
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

you can move, minimize, maximize or close it like any other window. Notice that after the
copyright message, the window displays the familiar C:\> prompt. You can use any DOS
command here.
CLOCK AND CALENDAR
Windows has an in-built clock, which is usually displayed on the taskbar. To change
the date or the time, double-click on the clock on the taskbar. The Date I 'Time properties
dialog box appears on the screen. On the left half of the dialog box, the current month's
calendar is displayed. To view the calendar for some other month, click on the month and year
drop-down list boxes and select the month and year you want. To change the time, click on the
digital clock seen on the right Highlight the hour, minute or second by dragging the pOinter
over it. 'Increase or decrease the highlighted value by clicking on the up and down arrows in
the box. Note that the time in the analog clock also changes correspondingly. Click on the OK
after you finish. \
..
CALCULATOR
The calculator is a useful application that comes with Windows. It can be used to
p~rforrn mathematical and scientific calculations. To start the Calculator, click on Start,
Programs, Accessories and Calculator. We can use the keyboard and the mouse to enter
number and operators. To use the Calculator in the Scientific mode, click on the View menu
and select Scientific.
PAINT
Paint is an application that lets us draw and color pictures: To start Paint, click on .
Start, Programs, Accessories and Paint. The Paint window appears on the screen. It has a
Toolbar and a Color Box. The Toolbar has various tools that we can use to draw and color. To
use any of the tools in the toolbar, first click on the tool to select it. Then, move the mouse to
the drawing area and click and drag to draw the figure you want. The Color Box contains the
colors that you can use. Click on the color of your choice and use the fill with color tool. You
can close Paint by clicking on the Close button on the title bar or clicking on the File menu and
selecting Exit.
WORD PAD
WordPad is a simple word processm that comes along with Windows. A Wo~
Processor is a program that alloWS you to type and store text. To start Word Pad , click on S~,'
Programs, Accessories and WordPad. The WordPad window appears on the screen. The.
WordPad window has a title bar, menu bar, toolbar, work area and a status bar. Use the
keyboard to type the.text. Note that as you type the text, the cursor moves. When you re~ch
the end of a line. WordPad automatically moves the cursor to the beginning of the next line.
This feature is called Word wrap. The Enter key on the keyboard is used to start a ne~
paragraph. After you have finished typing the text, you an correct it, add or delete text Ji.
close WordPad, click on the Close button on the title bar or select Exit from the File menu. _:,':
WORKING WITH MULTIPLE APPLICATIONS .,i.,t:.
When you are using multiple applications, it can be very time consuming if y?u ~~:

1
to close one application before starting the next one. Moreover, transferring information t~:
another application is very difficult Wnot impossible. For example, In MS-DOS, a file
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

using a word processor cannot contain a graph created using a spreadsheet program.
Windows overcomes this problem by allowing the user to work on multiple applications at the
same time. In Windows, a Word Pad flle can contain data or a graph created using Excel, a
picture created using Paint and so on.
Starting multiple applications is very simple. start one application. The application
appears on the screen in a window. At the same time, a button with the name of the application
appears on the taskbar. Now, start the second application. The window of the second
application appears on the screen overlapping the first window, the button of the second
application appears on the taskbar and the title bar of the firSt:~pplication and its button on the
taskbar become dim. ' ",,-
~

The buttons on the taskbar are used to switch between the different applications. The
button of the application you are currently using is highlighted and its window is called the
Active Window. To switch to another application, click on any part of that application's window
that is visible. If no part of the window is visible, click the button of the application on the
taskbar. lhen the applIcation WIndow concerned is moved in tront ot an the other windows and
its button is highlighted.
TRANSFERRI~G INFORMATION BElWEEN DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS
Windows allows you to transfer data between the different applications you are
running simultaneously. To do this, Windows uses a temporary storage location called the
Clipboard. You can use the clipboard to store any kind of data. The information being
transferred is first copied from the source application to the Clipboard and from there to the
destination application. Windows also gives the option of eit~er copying or moving a file. The
difference between copying and moving files is that moving removes the files or folders from
the source location and places them in the destination location. Copying leaves the source files
or folders unto~~1ied and makes a new copy in the destination location.
WINDOWS EXPLO~ER
Windows Ex'plorer is a program that helps you to manage your files and folders. To
start Windows Exploreri\ click on Start, Programs and Windows Explorer. Like any other
window, the Explorer window also contains a title bar, a menu bar and a tool bar. Below the
tool bar is the display area. As we can see, this area is divided into two panes. The left pane
displays a list of folders and the right pane displays the contents of the currently selected
folder. At the bottom of.the win~ow is the status bar.
WORKING WITH FOLDERS "
A small yellow icon represents each folder. Note that the disk drives on your computer
are also treated as folders. A plus sign to the left of the folder icon indicates the presence of
sUbfolders within this folder. You can click on the plus sign to display a list of the subfolders.
When you do this, the plus sign changes to a minus sign. Clicking on the minus sign will hide
the details. Scroll bars in this part of the window allow you to browse through the list of folders.
To see the contel)ts of a folder you have to select the folder. To do so, just click on the folder.
~e yellow file icon next to the folder changes to look like an open folder. The selected folder is
highlighted and its contents are displayed in the right pane of the Explorer window.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

CHANGING THE VIEW

Windows Explorer allows you to change the way in which information is displayed in
the right pane. You can change the view by clicking the Views icon on the toolbar. You can
display the list of files and folders using any.of the following four views.
Large icons -It displays the contents with large icons.
Small icons - This displays the files ffolders with small icons.
List - This view retains the small icons but displays the files and folders one below the
other in columns.
Details - This view displays details like file size, type, last modified date and time
along with file names and small icons.
CREATING A NEW FOLDER \,
Often, you may want to create a new folder to store some of your files. Creating new
folders using Windows Explorer is very easy. First, select the drive or folder under which you
want to create the new folder. Then, right click anywhere in the empty space in the right pane
of the Explorer window. Click on New from the menu that appears. Select Folder from the
submenu that appears. A new folder with the temporary name "New Folder" is created. Simply
type the name you want to give this new folder and press Enter.
SELECTING FILES AND FOLDERS
Windows Explorer allows you to Copy, Move, Delete and Rename files and folders.
But, before you can do any of these, you have to select the files or folders that you want to
copy, move, delete or rename. Selecting one file or folder is very simple. Just click on the file
or folder and it gets highlighted. If you want to select more than one file or folder, you can do
so in one of the following ways:
i. If the files or folders to be selected appear consecutively on the screen, then, click on
the first file or folder. USing the scroll bars (if necessary), point the mouse pointer to the last file
or folder in the list, hold the Shift key down and click. '
Ii If the files or folders to be selected are not displayed consecutively, then, click on the
first file, move the mouse painter to the second file to be selected and click while holding the
Ctrl key down. Repeat the procedure for each of the other files to be selected.
COPYING AND MOVING FILES AND FOLDERS
Once the files are selected, you can copy or move them using Cut, Copy and p~ste
icons either on the toolbar or on the Edit menu or on the menu which pops up when you nght
click on the selected files or folders. The difference between copying and moving files .is ~at
moving removes the files or folders from the source location and places them in the destination
location.
RENAMING FILES AND FOLDERS .
To rename a file or folder, right click on the file or folder. Select Rename from ~
shortcut list which pops up on the screen. Now, type the new name and press Enter .
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

DELETING FILES AND FOLDERS

Windows Explorer uses a special folder called the Recycle Bin to hold deleted files.
The recycle bin is like the garbage can in your house that you empty once it is full. In the same
way, you can empty the recycle bin when you want. Using the recycle bin gives you a chance
to get back files that you have deleted by mistake. To delete files, first select them. Then right
click on the files and the shortcut menu appears. Select Delete from the shortcut menu and the
files will get deleted. The Recycle Bin folder is available on the Desktop and can be used like
any other folder. Double-click on the icon to open it and'ch~ck if the deleted files are present.
To empty the Recycle Bin, click on the File menu and choose E!'1Pty Recycle Bin. Remember
that once the Recycle Bin has been emptied, you cannot get back the deleted files.
CREATING SHORTCUTS
Among the many applications available on your computer, there will be a few that you
use frequently. For example, suppose you enjoy painting and frequently use Paint. To start
Paint, you should click on Start, programs, Accessories ~d, then, Paint. It would be more
convenient if you could start Paint directly from the desktop. Windows 98 allows you to create
such shortcuts .for frequently used applications. When you create a shortcut, Windows 98
creates a link which 'points to the physical location of the program.
FINDING FILES OR FOLDERS
The hard disk of your computer can contain several folders. Each folder, in tum, can
contain several other folders, often, at mUltiple levels. In such cases, locating a file can be a
little difficult. The File Find or Folders feature of Windows 98 makes your job easier. The File
Find option is available both on the Start menu and on Windows Explorer's menu bar. To start,
click on the .,&tart menu. Select Find from the menu and click on Files or Folders from the list
which appears. You can also right click on the start button and select Find from the menu
which pops up. The Find window appears on the screen. Find allows you to search for files or
folders based on tJ:lree criteria:
Name &Location : Using this option, you can find files whose partial or complete file
name you know. To 'do so, enter the partial or complete file name in the Named box. For
example, to find all files ~tarting with Win, type Win in the Name box. Click on the Find Now
button to start the search. The Containing text box allows you to enter some text that appears
in the file if it is known to you. The Look in box allows you to specify the drives or folders where
Windows should search. -.
Date : The Date option can be used to find files which were created or modified
between two known dates or within the last few days or month.
Advanced: This option allows you to find files based on file type. Click on the inverted
triangle in the type box. A list of file types appears. Select the type you want and click on Find
Now.
~ RUN COMMAND
The Run command on the Start menu offers an alternate method to start applications
or open data files. The Run command is most often used to install new software or games form
aCD or a floppy disk. The Browse button lets you search for a file or folder.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

WORD PROCESSING USING MS-WORD

Microsoft® Word is a Windows based word processing program. It can be used to
produce documents ranging from a short letter to a big report. These documents can be
produced and printed out in any style that is required. It is also possible to add graphics
tables, and diagrams to the document. These can either be generated by Word itself or els~
imported from another Windows program such as Excel. One of the great advantages of a
computer based word processor over a simple typewriter is that the documents produced by a
word processor can be stored in a file format. These documents can be retrieved and edited
whenever necessary. The word processor also provides many additional sophisticated effects
such as various text types that cannot be produced on a typewriter. This course will take you
through the main features available in Word. We will now learn how to type, format and print
out documents.
STARTING WORD
The first step is to start the Word program. To start Word, locate the Word icon on the
Desktop and double click on the Word icon with the mouse.
FEATURES OF THE WORD SCREEN
The picture below shows some of the main features of the Word window. Notice that
the Word window consist of a program parent window enclosing a maximized document or
child window. It is therefore possible to see parent and child control boxes. In the picture you
can also see the parent maximize and minimize buttons and the child close button. The title
bar indicates the name of the program and the active document window. The menu bar
contains 9 different headings which are selected using the mouse or by typing Alt + the
underlined letter.
The toolbar consists a row of buttons with picture icons on them. Clicking any of these
buttons will activate that particular tool. For example clicking on the printer icon document on
the toolbar will print the current document. The status bar along the' bottom of the window
provides information about the current page and the location olthe cursor.
CREATING A DOCUMENT
Starting a new document is very simple. In the text window you will initially see a
simple black flashing cursor bar at the insertion point in the top left hand comer. Any text you
type on the keyboard will appear at this point. As you enter text the cursor will move to the right
across the page. At the end. of the line it will automatically move down to .th_~ beginning of the
next line - this is called word wrap. Text is typed using the keys and space bar. Capi~ll~tters
are produced by holding down the shift (ft) button while typing the letters to be capitalized.
Alternatively the Caps Lock key can be used when a number of capital .Ietters need to be
typed. The Tab button inserts an additional space between text. It is useful for indented t~.xt
which needs to be insert by a fixed amount. The enter or return (.J) key marks the end of aline
and is used to move the cursor down to the next line.
EDITING THE TEXT
Now you have created a simple document. However, it is still possible. to make
changes to the text by deleting existing text or adding additional text. This process IS termed
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

as editing. There are a number of ways in which the text can be deleted. One of the easiest
ways is to use the backspace (~) key which deletes the letter to the left of the cursor - i.e. the
last character typed. This key can also be pressed a number of times to delete the whole
word.
The ,Del (delete) key, in contrast to the backspace key, erases the text in front of the
cursor. It is possible to locate the cursor in a section of text in order to delete some text. It is
possible to use the arrow keys to move the cursor through the typed text However with a long
,ection of text this can take some time. It i~ much quicker to use the mouse to move the
nsertion point bar (I) to the correct place in th~ t~,-xt and then click once with the left mouse

button - the clJrsor will then jump straight to this point. Then. either the Del key or the
backspace key can be used to delete the text.
SAVING YOUR DOCUMENT
One great advantage of using a computer is that it can store your documents - but
yoU have to instruct it to do so first. Everybody who has used a computer can tell you stories
of how they have lost valuable documents - and it will happen to you too unless you are very
careful. The solution is to save your documents at regular intervals and not just at the end of
the day's work. In this way if some disaster strikes such as a power cut, then you will only lose
the material typed since the last save. The first time a document is saved it needs to be given
afile name. This is done by choosing the Save As ... Option on the File menu (Do you know
What the three dots represent? It means that clicking this will display a box). This will display
the Save As dialog box in which you can allocate a file name to the document and decide
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

which drive and directory the file is to be saved in. Word documents are automatically given a
.doc extension unless you choose otherwise.
After the document lias been saved once, it is no longer necessary to allocate a new
name, so the Save command on the File menu is sufficient - this will save the document
without even opening a dialog box. Instead you will see a string of blue boxes in the status bar
indicating that saving is taking place. There are two quick cuts available when you want to
save a document - you can use the shortcut keys CtrI + S or simply click on the Save tool on
the toolbar.

PRINTING DOCUMENT
Now you have written edited and saved your document the time has come to print it
out. Printing a dOCument is as simple as clicking on the print button on'the toolbar. Within a
short space of time the printer would start printing and your print out-will appear. Check it for
any errors and if need be make necessary corrections to your document and reprint.
Occasionally you may find that the printer fails to print your document. If so, check the
following:
* The printer is turned on and the green on line button is illuminated.
* The printer has not run out of paper
* The print cable connecting your computer to the printer has not become detached.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

EXITING WORD
You have now successfully produced a document, edited it, printed it and saved it. It
only remains to exit the Word program. There is more than one way of doing this. One method
is to open the. file menu and select the Exit option at the bottom of the drop down list. If you
have not saved your document since you have made changes to it, Word will prompt you with
the display. Now is your last chance to save your latest version by clicking Yes. Remember
that once you hav(l exited there is no way Qf retrieving any unsaved material. The other
method of exiting word is by clicking the close button..in the title bar.

MOVING BETWEEN AND WITHIN DOCUMENTS

We will look at opening a number of different documents at the same time and leam
how to switch from one document to another. We Will also discover how to move around in the
document quickly and precisely.

OPENING A DOCUMENT
It is possible to retrieve a saved document by clicking on the File Open button on the
toolbar. This will display a dialog box. Then the directory where the files are stored is selected
and the file itself is selected.
Other way of opening a file
Word keeps track of the last four documents worked on. Therefore, you will find the
file names listed near the bottom of the File menu. Clicking on any of these file names will
Open that file directly without displaying the Open dialog box.
Opening more than one Document
It is possible to have a number of Word documents open at the same time, which
makes it convenient to refer to other documents at the same time. You can switch from one
document to another by opening the Window menu to reveal a list of open documents. Then
Click on the document you want to switch to. "
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications 12(

Opening a New Document

Now it is possible to retrieve saved documents. If you want to open a new document,
you can do so by opening the File menu and choosing the New... option. Here you can
choose which type of template you want to use. For most simple documents we choose the
Normal template. Clicking on OK confirms the choice. Other templates are designed to create
certain types of documents such as a Fax, a Curriculum vitae or a Calendar. It is also possible
to open a new document by clicking the New File tool on the toolbar.

MOVING THE CURSOR

The simplest way to scroll down or across the. screen is to use the arrow keys. These
are useful when you want to move the cursor (and hence the text) a little. However it is a
rather slow and tedious technique if you have to move through a lot of text. The mouse can
also be used to relocate the cursor anywhere in the docuiylent using the scroll bar.
SHORTCUT KEYS
There are a number of shortcut keys which can help you to move quickly from one
place on the screen to another without having to move in stages using the arrow keys or the
mouse. The following key combinations are worth remembering because they will speed up
your work and prevent you getting wrist strain from over use of the mouse or key board:
Key Combination Effect
PgUp Moves the cursor up one screen full of text
PgDn Moves the cursor down one screen full
End Cursor jumps to end of current line
Home . Cursor jumps to start of current lin~
Ctrl + Home Jump to beginning of document
Ctrl + End Jump to end of document .
Ctrl + G Jumps to a specific page
Ctrl + +- Jumps one word left
Ctrl +-+ Jumps one word right

STATUS BAR
When moving through the document the values on the status bar changes. These
values provide a useful indication of where you are in the document at anyone time. It is also
possible to get an indication of where you are in the document by looking at the position of try~
scroll box on the scroll bar. .
FORMATTING YOUR DOCUMENT
With Word it is simple to format documents in an eye catching way. We will disco~r.
how to reposition text, make a word stand out from the text and how to adjust the layout of ttJ~
document. ~
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Selecting text to format

For formatting text, one needs to select the text that is to be formatted and then
perform the formatting function such as underlining or centering. In word the mouse can be
used to select text. This involves moving the mouse to the beginning of the text to be selected,
holding down the left mouse button and then dragging the i bar to the end of the text before
releasing the mouse button. The selected text will appear highlighted in black colour. .
There are a few shortcuts that will be useful:
* To select a single word double....click on it with the mouse
"-
* To select a whole sentence hold down the Ctrl Key whilst clicking on a word
in the sentence.
* A paragraph is selected by double clicking in the left hand margin of the
paragraph.
* The whole document is selected by holding down the Ctrl button whilst
double clicking in the margin! .
Creating Bold, Underlined and Italic text
Now after knowing how to select text, formatting it is a simple task. Any selected text
can be turned into bold style by clicking once on the Bold button on the toolbar. When it is
pressed, the button appears in ·sunken profile- to indicate that the feature is turned on. Click
on the button again to tum it off. To tum standard text into italic style, simply select the text
and then press the italics button on the tool bar. To underline text, select the text and then
press the underline button on the toolbar.
F9lJ!latting New Text
All the format buttons also work on text that you type in after they have been pressed.
For ex~.mple, if you press the Bold button then any text you type in after this will be in bold
format. ·If you then press the underline button new text will be in bold. and underlined style
because y~u have both buttons selected. You have to click these buttons again to tum off
these styles: '
It is also possible to convert formatted text to its original style. Select the text to be
changed and then click the relevant button to tum off that feature. Using these simple format
tools can increa~e the impact of any document.
Changing the text font
It is possible to change the font of the text. Word has a large array of different font
types available. These notes are written in Arial Narrow font. Below are a few examples to
show you the differences between fonts.
This is an Arial font
This font is called Times New Roman
This one is called Albertus Medium
This one is Book Antiqua
This is a Comic Sans MS font
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

You can select and change the font of any text in the document. To select a different
format you have'to click on the Font drop down arrow which is found on the formatting toolbar.
The font drop down list will then he displayed. Using the scroll bar you can move through the
list of fonts until you find the one you want. Click on the name and this font will be selected as
the new default font. Different fonts can make different impacts. However, as a general rule,
stick to just one font for each document. Arial is a good one for writing official documents and
thesis.
Changing the Font Size
Most fonts come in a number of different sizes or point sizes. For example this
document is written in 11 paint text. Look at some of the examples below:
This is 6 point Arial Narrow Text

This is 14 point Arial Narrow Text

This is 26 point Arial Narrow Text

Font Dialog Box
Apart from using the toolbar, it is also possible to change the text format in Font
dialog box. It offers a larger number of alternative format styles. However, it is better to use
the buttons on the toolbar, as using Font dialog box takes time. To open Font dialog bo~, click
on Format menu and select Font... option.
Other Font Settings
It is also possible to change the colour of text using the Color drop down box in the
Font dialog box. Though this option can be effective in enhancing the impact of a document,
this would be useful only when. there is a colour printer. Special text effects can also be created
using the Effects section of the Font dialog box. ~he following are examples of each effect::
StFiketAFO lI9A
Supersc"pt
SubScript
SMALL CAPS
ALL CAPS
There is a Preview box which indicates how the text will look with the current font
settings.
Positioning Text on the Page
All the text that we type in would line up along the left hand margin with an uneven
right margin. This is called left justified or ragged right. To align the text on both left and right
margins, we need to do a full alignment. This is done by selecting the text and then clicking the
full alignment tool on the formatting. Right alignment is also possible. There is an option to
center align the text also, which is used to center titles and headings. Obviously these four
buttons have mutually exclusive roles and so no more than one of the four can be on or
depressed.at anyone time - and one button is always turned on.
 Bio Statistics and C9mputer Applications

Indenting Text
It is often effective to indent a section of text or a paragraph in order to separate it
from the main body of text. Word provides two simple tools on the Formatting Toolbar to
enable indenting. The indent button moves the paragraph to the right by a set amount called a
tab space on each press of the button. Therefore three presses of the button will move the text
3 tab spaces.
Bullets and Numbers \, ,
Bullets are an effective wayotdrawing attentiOn to a paragraph. It is also possible to
number points when they appear together'in,sequence. Below are two examples of how these
features are used:

* Tum up for work Ion Vme

* 'Never leave earty

* Phone in when sick

1 Tum on the computer
2 Type in your name
3 Insert the floppy disk
Text to be bulleted or numbered can either b~ selected and then the bullet button or
the number on the formatting toolbar selected. Alternatively, the buttons can be pressed to
tum them on and pressed again to tum thE;lm off whilst text is being typed in.
CHANGING THE PAGE LAYOUT
We will go on to see how we can make'changes to the page layout of the document
to ensure a smart and well put together document. We willieam how to insert page numbers,
include headers and footers etc. We will also discover how to view our document before
printing and to print it out in a number of different ways.
, Inserting Page Numbers
We know how to tell which page of a docum~nt we are now on from the Status bar.
However, this does not mean that the document when printed would have page numbers.
These have to be added to the document. To add page numbers, simply select the Insert
menu heading and then choose Page Numbers ... dialog box. From the Position drop-down
box, we can choose where the page number should appear - at the top as a header or at the-
bottom as a footer.
The Alignment drop down box gives five options of where the page number will be
placed. The current selection will be shown in the pr~view diagram. Finally, we can choose
whether the first page is to be numbered or not. The Format button enables to change the
style of the page numbering.
Page Layout View
Normal Screen view does not display features such as page numbering. To be able
to view these numbers we have to switch to a Page Layout view which shows exactly how the
page will be printed out. To change to a Page Layout view, select Page Layout on the View
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

menu. Notice that the current setting (Normal) is indicated by a small bullet. To return to a
Normal view is simply a, matter of opening the View menu and sel~cting Normal again.
There is a quicker way to switch between views in the bottom left hand comer of the
document window you will see three buttons. Clicking on each of them selects that particular
view of the document.
Zooming
It is possible to change the scale or magnification of the text to see more or less of the
document. This can be done using the Zoom command which is found on the bottom of the
View menu. Selecting this command will display a dialog box. We can then check the scale
that we want. Alternatively it is possible to change the zoom setting using the zoom button on
the standard toalbar.
DOUBLE SPACING TEXT
Double spacing makes it easier to read and correct the document. However, typing
the original document with double spacing could be inconvenient as we would only see half the
amount of text on the page. Therefore, the solution is to type the document with single line
space and then format it to double spacing before printing. To change the line spacing, the
Format menu is opened and the Paragraph command is selected. This reveals the dialog
box. Then the Line Spacing: drop down box is opened and the Double option selected. The
choice is confirmed by clicking the OK button. This same box can be used to set the spacing
between paragraphs and the paragraph indent. The Preview box gives you an example of
how the current settings will affect the text.
HEADERS AND FOOTERS
Sometimes we may want to include some information such as the date or the
document title as footer or header. In this case we need to select the Header and Footer
command from the View menu. This will automatically switch the document to Page Layout
view and display a small toolbar like the one on the left next to the Header box in the
document.
MARGINS
Word starts off with a standard 2.5 cms. margin at the top and bottom of the page and
3.17 cms. margins on the left and right sides. These settings are generally acceptable for
letters and other documents. However, for something like a thesis which will be bound you
need to create wider inner margin to allow for the 'binding'- ... - .
To change page settings you need to open the Page Setup dialog box. This is opened
by selecting the Page Setup ... command on the File menu. You will notic,e that this box has 4
tabs along the top. The Paper Size, Paper Source and Layout tabs each open a different
box. However, we n.eed to use the Margins box'which is currently active. The Preview
provides an example of how the settings will affect the text on the page.
PRINT PREVIEW
Before printing IT is a good idea to make one last check that everything is correctly laid
out. To do this we can use the Print Preview command on the File menu - or even quicker
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

just click on the Print Preview button on the Standard toolbar. The Print Preview screen
displays the document as it will be printed.
PRINTING
Word has a number of ways that a decument can be printed .out. Selecting the
Print... command en the File menu .opens a dialeg bex. In this box you can set what is to be
printed~ Number .of caples to be printed and the specific pages to be printed can be set. It is
even possible just to print odd or even\'p~ges - for example when you want to print on both
sides of the paper. The Options ... button 'allo~ you to set ether print options. The Printer ...
button enables you select different printers. "
EDITING DOCUMENT
The next and last step in creating a document is to perferm a final edit of the
document to check for ~rrors and make last correctiens. We will new leam how to make
changes to the text, how to use the spell. checker and thesaurus and how to cut, copy and
paste text and find and replace words in the decument, in addition te creating tables and using
berders.
Using the Spell Checker
One very useful feature of Werd is the spell checker which can detect spelling
mistakes and suggest corrections. The Spell Checker can be activated by clicking on Tools
and Spelling... or by clicking on the spelling butten en the standard tool bar. This will reveal a
dialog bmC The checker will go through the text and detect any word it dees net recegnize and
suggest suitable altematives. We then have the optien of pressing Ignere te overrule the
~" correction or 'Change to accept the correction. The Ignore All and Change All repeat the
selected action for all.future occurrences of the word. Add will add the selected word te the
-dictionary selected in the Add Words To: Box. The AutoCorrect button will memorise the.
correction and automatically correct whenever we make the same mistake again.
UsiQg,the thesaurus
"

The other useful tool available in Word is a comprehensive Thesaurus. The

Thesaurus suggests a number of possible altemative words. To use Thesaurus, select the
word you want to change and then open the Tools menu and select Thesaurus... The
meaning :of the selected word is displayed and a number of synonyms are presented.
Selecting a synonym and preSSing Replace will replace th~ selected word.
Cutting and pasting
If you want to move text from the beginning to the end of a long document or from one
file to another you would need to use the technique called Cutting and Pasting. The text to be
cut is selected in the usual way. Then a special short cut menu is opened by clicking the right
mouse button (one of the rare uses for this button) whilst the curSor is on the highlighted area.
Then click on the Cut option to cut the text. Even though the text disappears a copy of it is
saved in the Clipboard application. Then the cursor is moved to the new position for the cut
text and the right button clicked once. The same shortcut menu is opened and the Paste
option is selected to ·paste" the text from the Clipboard to its new pOSition.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

The Cut command can also be selected by clicking .the Cut button on the standard
toolbar, choosing Cut from the Edit menu or using the shortcut keys Ctrl + X. The Paste
command can also be selected by clicking the Paste button, choosing Paste from the Edit
menu or using the shortcut keys Ctrl + V.
Copying and pasting
When we need to copy text to a new location in the document or to a new file without
deleting the original text, Copy and Paste functions Could be used in a similar way to Cut and
Paste. Text to be copied is selected in the usual way. The short cut menu is then opened and
the Copy option selected. Alternatively, the copy command can also be selected by clicking
the Copy button on the standard toolbar, choosing Copy from the Edit menu or shortcut keys
Ctrl + C. This command makes a copy of the text which is put in the Clipboard. The Original
text is left untouched. The cursor is then mov~d to the location where the text is to be copied to
and the copy can then be retrieved from the clipboard using the same Paste procedure that is
used with the Cut function. '
The undo feature
There is always the danger when working with a word processor that some mistake
will lead to losing a lot of your work. You can prevent this to some extent by saving your work
at regular intervals. Word also has a special Undo feature which enables you to cancel your
last actions. Therefore if by accident you deleted a paragraph instead of fonnatting it you can
get it back by undoing this last action. Word actually keeps a record of all these actions and so
you can undo any command that you have ~sed since the program was started.
To undo the last action you can click on the Undo button on the Standard toolbar.
Clicking on the down pointing arroW next to the Undo button will reveal a scrollable list of all the
past actions. Any of these can then be cancelled by selecting it from this list.
It is also possible to undo Undone commands - this is called Redo! For example, ~
you Undo a delete command but then realize that the deletion was correct in the first place
then you can Redo the command by clicking the Redo button. The Redo button also has a .
drop down list for previous ·commands which is also opened by clicking the down pointing a -.
arrow.
Find and replace words
With word it is 'possible to search through document to find any word or group of
words. If necessary these can be replaced by any other text that we want to use. For
example, we might have used the initials MVC for Madras Veterinary College. We can the
instruct Word to find all cases of MVC and replace them with Madras Veterinary College - this
might save us a lot of typing! To Find a word you can select the Find command on the Edit
menu. This displays a dialog box in which you can type in the word you are looking for - this
dialog box works in a similar way to the Replace box which we will cover next.
The Replace dialog box is displayed by selecting the Edit menu and the Replace
command. The text to be found is typed in the top text box and the replacement text is entere~
in the lower text box. Click the Find Next button to search for the text and then click Replace,
to replace it with the new text.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Inserting tables
Word has a Table menu dedicated to creating tables. This will create a table frame in
the document which you can then fill with data or text. This can either be typed in directly or
cut and pasted into the table cells. The contents of these cells can be formatted. For example
the contents could be centered within each cell by selecting the cells and then pressing the
center button.
Editing tables
It is possible to change the format and style of a table quite easily. The width of a
column can be modified by dragging its borders using the mouse. In this way we can adjust
each column so that it is just wide enough to take all the contents. To change the format of a
number of cells you first select ·them by dragging the mouse across the range of cells to be
formatted. Then you can use any of the'standard format tools on the format toolbar. Selecting
the Table AutoFormat. .. option will display a dialog box from which you can choose a number
of preset format types. This menu will also allow you to modify the table size by inserting rows
or deleting cells.
Adding borders
It is also possible to choose your own styles of border for a table or even for a
paragraph. This is often useful when you want to emphasise a certain paragraph of text. To
add Borders, you can select the Borders and Shading ... command on the Format menu or
click on the Borders button on the formatting tool bar. The button reveals a simple Borders
floating toolbar (the menu option displays a slightly more complex). This toolbar has three
levels. The top one is a drop down box which allows you to set the border style or thickness.
The second level has a number of possible options controlling which sides of the selected area
will be given borders. The lowest level drop down box allows you to set the amount of shading
within the box.
To place a border around a paragraph, the paragraph is selected with the mouse and
then the full border button on the Borders toolbar is selected. To place internal borders
between cells in a table the whole table is selected and then the internal borders button is
selected.
OTHER FEATURES
You have now almost reached the end of the Word module. You have learnt most of
the principal features of Word. However, there are many other additional commands available
which you can also investigate if you have time. You should be able to use the Help system
and trial and error to experiment with these other features. One useful trick is to use the Help
button to find out about differenHools. You may also want to run through some of the other
Examples and Demos that have not been covered. For example you could go through the
Working with Tables examples. Try an example and then have a go at doing the same thing
yourself on your own document.
 ..,.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

SPREADSHEET OPERATIONS IN MS EXCEL

Although developed primarily for book keeping, spreadsheets are also useful for
scientifIC calculations, data manipulation and for producing graphs. A spreadsheet program
allows you to type in numbers and formulae to represent any system which can be described
numerically. Spreadsheets are of use to perform the following tasks:
1 To make repeated calculations on numbers and automatically recalculate when values
change.
2 To analyze a situation and discover any Significant patterns in the results.
3 To make a projection into the future. To find out "what would happen if I give these
animals a little more concentrate feed each day" and see the effects.
4 To present numerical results in a graphical form, to make theril,easier to understand.
Spreadsheets also include some statistical functions. Spreadsheets can also sort
data. There are several spreadsheet packages available. The most popular one is Microsoft
Excel. All spreadsheets. have much the same layout and approach, so it is relatively easy to
use one package, having learnt another.
STARTING EXCEL
Click the Start menu on the desktop, go to programmes Microsoft Excel or simply
double click on the Microsoft Excel icon on the desktop.

THE EXCEL SCREEN

You will then be presented with an empty spreadsheet, as below, ready to enter your
data:
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

In the top line of the screen is the name of the application, Microsoft Excel. Excel has
given your work a name, Book1, which can comprise a set of related data sheets and charts.
This will change later when you come to save your work in a file, at which time you will be
asked to supply a real name. The second line contains the command menus. The next two or
three lines form the toolbar with its buttons (pictures). These offer a convenient way of issuing
commonly used commands. The top toolbar is known as the Standard Toolbar, the second as
the Formatting Toolbar. When you point to a button a help balloon appears, telling you what
that button does. Below the toolbar is the command line. This is where you enter information
to store in the main worksheet below. Currently the space is empty apart from the letters A1,
which denote the active cell.
\ "
WORKSHEET
The main body of the screen contains the works~eet. You are currently using Sheet 1
of Book 1, as denoted at the foot of the screen. The worksheet has numbers down the side,
representing rows, and letters across the top representing columns. Each intersect\oo of a row
and column is known as a cell and has a unique name. The cell in the top left comer is A1 (the
intersection of Column A and row 1) and is the active cell. This is denoted by a darker border
surrounding the cell. Any information you type is stored in the active cell.
Moving to the far'right of the screen, you will see a vertical strip with arrows in a box
at each end. This is called the Scroll bar. It is used for moving up and down. Currently, you
are positioned at the top of the worksheet, which is indicated by the small square at the very
top of the bar. As you move down the worksheet you find that this square gradually moves
down the bar. Click be'low the small square and you move down the worksheet, one screen at
a time; click above it and you move up. To scroll continuously, point to one of the arrows at the
top or bottom of the scroll. bar and hold down the mouse button. There is also a horizontal
J

scroll bar:-~t the foot of the screen which allows you to move left and right across the
worksheet. '
At th~.J()ot of the screen is the status bar with the word Ready. This line is used by
Excel to display messages from the system. For example, whenever you point to a toolbar
button or highlight~ command in a menu, this line tells you what the command does.

MOUSE CURSOR \
The mouse cursor appears as an outlined cross within the cells. Using the mouse,
point to any cell, clickJlie mouse button and that cell will be made as the active cell. Note that
the name of the cell on the command line has changed accordingly. You can also move
around using the arrow key of the keyboard. .

LABELS, NUMBERS AND FORMULAE

Cells can hold a label, a number or a formula.
Type the word Income and press the <: Return> (or altematively the < right arrow»
key. The word Income is a label. Pressing < Return> (or < right arrow>) denotes that you
have finished typing information into the cell. When pressing an arrow key, the active cell
moves in the direction of the arrow. To correct a typing error, simply move back to the cell in
question and retype the information.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

N.ext, make 81 as the active cell and enter 22000. This is taken a number on which
the spreadsheet can perform calculations. Move down to A2 and type Costs, then in 82, type
15000. Next move down to A3, type Profit and then move to 83. In this cell you are going to
store a fonnula to subtract costs from income. Type in "=B1-B2". When you press < Return>,
you are presented with a number rather than the formula itself, namely 7000. Note that though
Excel displays the answer, it is the formula which is stored in the cell.
Spreadsheets are designed to recalculate as they go along, so see what happens
when you change one of the original numbers. Move, to 61 and type 25000. Watch as you
press < Return> and note that the Profit is recalculated as 10000. The formula =81-82 knows
that 81 has changed and the display in 83 gets adjusted accordingly.
Next extend the example and bring tax into the model. The profit was calculated
before tax so you need to subtract the tax to get the after- tax profit. First, change the label in
A3 - move to the ceU and enter Pre-Tax Profit instead. On pressing < Return> you will find the
label is truncated. Don't worry about this, the column will be widened alter. Move to cell A4
and type the label Tax, then press < right arrow> to move to 84. Assuming that tax is levied at
=
30% of Pre-Tax Profit, the formula for this cell is 83*.30. Press < Return> and the tax figure
will be worked out for you.
Now see if you can work out a label ;3nd a formula to put in cells AS and 85 to show
the After-Tax Profit, assuming that this is Pre-Tax Profit minus Tax. If you have got the formula
right, the screen should look like this:
Try altering the Income or Costs figure and notice how the results of the Pre-Tax
Profit, Tax and After-Tax Profit formulae are updated automatically. Reset the values to 25000
and 15000 respectively afterwards.

-_.; __ ---~-t -.
. . _J .. - -_. J
1

--=-1 .

1 I
! -~

CHANGING COLUMN WIDTH

T9 do change the width of column A, move the mouse pointer to the line between the
columns A and B, you should find t~at the cursor becomes a double-headed arrow. Hold
the mouse button and drag the column divider to the right. When you release the button, e
dO:
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

column is resized. To fit the data to the column exactly, move the mouse pointer to the dividing
line between the column headings and then double click the mouse button.

COMMANDS
In Excel, the commands are found in the menus along the top of the screen. These
are opened using the mou~e. You can also hold down the < Alt> key and type appropriate
underlined letter; once a menu is opened, you can issue a command simply by pressing the
underlined letter. The most commonly-used Commands are also available from the toolbars
and you could use these whenever possible.

CHANGING THE FORMAT

Change the Income figure in B1 to 24444. You will see that the resulting Tax and
After-Tax Profit figures are now displayed with a single decimal place. This looks a bit untidy
as the other figures have no decimal places. It would be neater if all the numbers were shown
as a currency, either with two decimal places or as whole. numbers. To do this, you first need
to select the entire column by clicking once on the letter B at the top of the column. The
column should go darK (except for Cell B1).
Seve~1 formats are available from the Formatting Toolbar. To increase the decimal
pOint, Simply click on the increase decimal button. Note that you have only changed the
,¢Spl~y format. A format does not affect the data or accuracy to which calculations are carried
out. A wider range of cell formats is available via Cells ... in the Format menu. Columns C,D,E
and ,F also need to be formatted similarly. The Simplest way to do this is to copy the format
from ~Iumn B to the other columns.
INSERTI~G BLANK ROWS AND COLUMNS
Next add a title to your work. Unfortunately, there is no row available at the top of the
sheet for this~ so you will first have to insert one blank row. Keep the cursor on the first row.
Now click on t~e Insert menu and then rows. If you repeat the process, a second blank row
will appear. ·Correspondingly, the delete command can also be found in the Edit menu to
delete rows or columns. -
AU the formulae will be adjusted by Excel to take account of their new positions.
When you insert or delete rows or columns, or do anything else which causes formulae to be
moved into a new place, Excel automatically changes them to reflect their new poSitions.

CHANGING THE STYLE OF TEXT

The make the title more impressive (bigger and bolder), move to the corresponding
cell and then click on the [Bold], [Italic] and or [Underline] buttons. Note that these (and other)
styles are also available via Cells .. in the Format menu. The letters could also be made bigger
by selecting appropriate font size. The current font is defined in [Font] box on the Formatting
Toolbar. To change this, use the [list arrow] to the right of the font box and choose from the list
which appears.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

STORING NUMBERS AS TEXT

Use single quote (') at the beginning of the cell content, and this would tell Excel that
the content is a label, although it may be a number. This will prevent the number (for ego 1995)
being displayed as number.
COPYING AND PASTING
To have the same formula in one or more than one cells, you do not have to retype
the formula again and again, but just copy it and paste it wherever needed. To do this, first
move the mouse pointer to the .cell where the formula is available, click on the Copy button on
the Toolbar or use Copy from the File menu. The selected cell should now be surrounded by a
moving border. The Computer holds a copy of the ceil in memory ready to paste somewhere
else. Move to the destination cell and click on the Paste button on the tool bar and this will
copy the contents of the previous cell to this. You can also use Paste from the Edit menu.
Excel takes the formulae, modifies it for- the new location, pastes it and perform the
calculations. The copied formula is still in the computer's memory and it could be moved to
any other cell. Sometimes you might want to copy the values themselves rather than the
formulae. This you can do with the Paste Values button.
When you want to copy the formula from a cell, point to the handle (very small dark
square in the bottom right comer of the cell) - the mouse cursor changes shape to a + and hold
down the mouse button and drag across to destination cells. When you release the mouse
button, the formula will be copied.

REALIGNING TITLES
To line up the titles property or to center the titl?s in bold, select the row (by clicking
on the row number on the left hand side) then click on the Bold and Center buttons.

FUNCTIONS
Various useful facilities in spreadsheets are provided by functions. Imagine you want
to work out four-year totals, so that your model look like this:
Begin by typing the heading Totals into F2.- Next you need to add up the figures
across each row-move down to F3 ready to insert the Income total. One way of calculating this
would be to use the formula =B3+C3+D3+E3. This works- but imagine if you had twenty it~ms
to add up, or a thousand! Instead, you can use a function to work out the value. To Specify a
function you type its name then, in brackets, the cell or range of cells to which it is to be
applied.
Here, instead of using =B3+C3+D3+E3 you can use = Sum (B3:E3). T~iS means
calculate the sum of all the values from cell B3 to cell E3. Try this now in F3 (don't m~ss ~ut r~
colon in B3:E3) then press < Return> to carry out the calculation. The SUMO function IS as
available from the Standard Tool bar.
What would happen if, in 1998, there was an exceptional costs bill of £35,O~O (f~;
example, to purchase new equipment or expand the premises). Income for 1?98 ISel~~4
£34,650 so the company would make a loss. Type the new figure of 350~O mto ~ever,
and press < Return>, Note that the Pre-Tax Profit is correctly shown as negative. Ho
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

the Tax figure is also negative - as if the tax collector was giving the company money for
making a loss. This doesn't usually happen! To make the model behave correctly you need to
type the following function into the 1998 Tax cell E6:

... < Return>

=IF (ES>O, E5*taxrate,0) and'p(ess
This means that if the content ot'ES (the Pre-Tax Profit) is more than zero, the tax
paid is equal to 30% 9f Pre-Tax Profit, otherwise, the tax is zero. This produces a zero tax
figure when the Pre-Tax Profit is in fact a loss, but a positive tax when there is a real profit.
This example should teach you that spreadsheet models, even if they behave correctly in most
circumstances, may break down under special conditions.
SAVING YOUR WORK
It is important to save your work often. To save your worksheet, click on Save button
on the Standard Toolbar or use Save As from the File menu. Up until now your work has been
known as book1; you are how asked to give it a proper name. Type a name into the File
Name: box and set the needed drive and directory. Note that once the file has been saved, the
new name appears at the top of the spreadsheet. If you want to save your work periodically
while you are still working on it, press < Ctrt S>, which automatically overwrites the working
copy of the file.

ADDING AN OUTER BORDER

To put a border around a set of cells you must first block them. Select cells B3 to G8
(so that they go black) then use the Pist arrow] attached to the [Borders] button (third button
-"from the right on the Formatting Toolbar). Choose the bottom right Border button in the
window that appears. Release the selected cells by clicking on another cell and the screen
should now look like above
 -"
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

ADDING SINGLE LINES

Next try putting a solid line below the top line of headings. Select cells B3 to G3 and
again use Pist ~mow] attached to the [Borders] button. This time choose the second border in
the top row, which gives a thinner line. Next, select cells G3 to G8 and give them a left border
by choosing the third border type on the top line. Finally, select cells B3 to B8 and add a right
i border (the last type on the type line). The screen should now look like this:

PRINTING YOUR WORK

Print Preview
Before printing, it is always worth checking how your work will look. Click on the Print
Preview bllttoo or use .Print .Prey-iew .from 1he Fj)e me/))). A scree!) snDwing nDw the pnnteJJ

-_

document will appear is depicted. You can !T\ove up and down through the pages with the
scroll bar.

Page Setup
Open Page Setup... from the File menu. You will view various options grouped under
four tab headings:
o [Page] includes the paper orientation Which can be portrait or land~ape.(sideways).
[Margins] controls the left, right, top and bottom margins. You can.also use Center on
Page to center your work [Horizontally) and / or [Vertically] on the page - click on both
these to set them.
o [Header/Footer] is where you can change Excel's default header and footer.
o [Sheet] lets you define the area to be printed, allowing you to split up your worksheet
into appropriate blocks and omit cells ~ou do not want.
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

Print
Click on Print button - or use Print option from the File menu. The options here
• include the number of copies required and the range of pages.

GRAPHS AND CHARTS

In this section, we try to present the data graphically. To plot a graph in Excel, select
the data to be plotted and then ask for the graph.
,
Selecting the Data
....
When s\electing data for a,graph, it i~ important to select the column and row headings
, (if there are any) as these are used for the category (x) and value (y) names. Let's see how
this works on the profit and loss data. To plot the changes in the values over time, select from
83 to Fa.
Plotting the Graph
Now that the data is selected, you can plot it on a graph. This is done via the Chart
Wizard. Click on the Chart Wizard button. Note that if you choose Chart from the Insert menu,
you have the option of putting the graph either on the data worksheet or on a new (chart)
sheet.
The Chart Wizard takes you through different steps before it draws the graph. The
stages are:
1. Checking the data area to be plotted. Note how the cells are defined using a $
notation (=$B$3 : $F$8). This is used as a prefix to fix the column and / or row and
can be used as an altematjve to naming cells.
2. Selecting the graph type (there are 15 different types to choose from).
3. The Wizard draws a Sample Chart - here you can select whether the data is to be
graphed.
\ ,
4. To add titles, click inside the Chart Title box then type Financial Statistics 1995/98.
\ Next press the <Tab> key (or use the mouse) to move to the Axis Titles. In the
Category (X): box type in year, then again press <Tab> to move to the Value (Y): box
and type in Pounds. Finally press <Retum> or click on [finish].
If you were to alter any of the Original data, the graph would immediately be updated.
There are over a hundred different styles of graph which Excel can produce. Using the mouse,
select some of these to see what is available.
Customising your Graphs
Before you can customise your graph, you must first double click on it to change the
top menus. Excel now offers various facilities, including adding or changing text (titles, axis
labels etc.) or the legend; modifying the axes (their range, the tick marks etc.); and changing
line and shading patterns. You can also select different font, foreground, background and fill
colors.
Bio statistics and Computer Applications

Changing text
Begin by modifying the main title. To do this, double click on the words Financial
statistics 1995/98 on the graph. A Format Chart Title window will appear in which you can
change: -
o [Patterns] allows you to box the title or have a different coloured background
[Font] lets· you change the lettering. Select a different Font, change the
Size: and also reset the Colour: '
[Alignment] allows you to change the text orientation and position within the
text box.
Changing the Legend
To change the legend double click anywhere inside the box. The Format Legend
window appears - here you can again change [Patterns] and [Font], but also the position of the
legend on the page.
Modifying the Axes
To change the settings on an axis you simply double click on it. A Format AXis
window will open, allowing you to modify:
o [Patterns] allows you to change the axis width, style and colour and tick mark
settings
o [Scale] lets you set the range {maximin values} and tick mark intervals.
o {Font] and [Alignment] give you the same options as before
.~

[Number] lets you set the number of decimal places shown in the lab~ls

...
SORTING THE DATA
There are two sort buttons on the Toolbar (shown as [A-Z] and [Z-A), using which you \
can sort the data.
FURTHER FUNCTIONS
Finding average (= AVERAGE (C2:C51)}, MAX, MIN, SORT, LOG/LN (logarithms), SIN, COS
and TAN (the trigonometric functions); and RAND (a random number).
TREND LINES
Excel gives you the opportunity of fitting best-fit lines through your data. To do this,
click one of the points to select a data set. Next, open up the Insert menu and choose
Trendline ... You now have a variety of Trend/Regression Types to choose from, while
[Options] tab allows you to [Display Equation on Chart] and [Display R-Squared Value on
Chart1 amongst other things. Set some of these if you like, then press <Return> for [OK].
ANALYSIS TOOLS
Although Excel is not a comprehensive statistical package, it does provide some
analytical tools - including Anova, simple Regression and T-tests. To carry out a regression
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

analysis, set op the Input Y Range: as C1:C51 then press <Tab> to move to the Input X
Range: and type 81:851. Click on [Labels], as the input ranges include the column headings.
To get a graph of the results, click on [Line Fit Plots] under Residuals. Now press <Retum> for
[OK] and watch what happens. The regression results are displayed on a new worksheet
(Sheet 1), with a graph plotted at the side.
PASTING CHARTS AND WORKSHEETS INTO OTHER DOCUMENTS
If you want .to incorporate information from Excel, into a word processor, such as
Microsoft Word, the p'rocedure is as follows:
a) Charts can be copied to another documents by using Copy. The picture is then held
on the Clipboard and can be pasted directly into a Word document. Note, however,
that if this chart is subsequently opened from Word (double click on it and Excel
automatically load~) then problems may arise. When you copy a chart from a Chart
Sheet, these probjems do not occur.
b) Worksheets can be copied across to Word with Copy. The data is displayed as a
table with any formatting preserved. Such tables can be edited as normal text.
. CLOSING A FILE
After completing the work, close the current work. This you do by opening the File
menu and choosing Close.
LEAVING EXCEL
To get out of Excel, choose Exit from the File menu. Excel now asks you if you want
to save the changes you have made to your worksheet. This is a built-in safety feature to
ensure you don't lose any new work. '
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

MS·POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

PowerPoint enables you to make a point in a powerful way. Basically one should
learn the following:
.:. Selecting the approach and basic layout for the presentation
.:. Building the text backbone of presentation
.:. Structuring text and numeric data with tables
.:. Visually expressing the hierarchy of the facts
.:. Converting numeric data tOI~ye-catching column and pie charts
"

STARTING A PRESENTATION
After starting the PowerPoint application (from the Start menu or a desktop shortcut),
you are presented with a dialog box that asks how you want to begin building your
presentation. Your three choices for creating a new presentation are as follows:
• AutoContent Wizard - This Wizard asks you a series of questions about your
presentation. The wizard then compiles this information into a presentation for you,
with a number of slides that matches the presentation length you indicated.
• Design Template - Like hiring a decorator to tell you what colors to use in your
house, PowerPoint's Design Templates make it to get started with the content of your
presentation. If you start with a Design Template, you don't have to worry abo~! ':,.
designing a ~lide background or which fonts and colors to use.
• Blank Presentation - Some users prefer to work with a truly blank slate - no
background, no colors, and the default font (Times New Roman) for all their slides. If
you used this approach, you'll have to apply a slide Design Template later, unless you
want simple slides with no background content.
CHOOSING A DESIGN
After selecting Design Template from the opening PowerPoint dialog box, the New
Presentation dialog box opens. The Design Template tab is automatically in front, and a series
of templates is displayed. You can choose any template you want.
SELECTING A SLIDE LAYOUT
After you choose the DeSign Template for your presentation, your next task is to
select the layout for your first slide in the New Slide dialog box.
You can choose any layout for your first slide, although PowerPoint's default (Title
Slide) is your best choice. The first slide in a presentation typically shows the presentation
name and a subtitle. Your first slide appears in Normal View, awaiting the entry of your title
and subtitle.
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

PLANNING YOUR CONTENT

You start the presentation building process with a plan, normally in the form of an
outline. You can build that outline in Word or by simply writing your list of topics on paper.
1 After you've created the outline, you can start typing in MS PowerPoint.
CREATING PRESENTATION CONTENT
Your presentation's content needs to be informative, accurate, and interesting to look
at. It should not be detailed or complex and also not crowded with too many charts, graphics,
or other distractions. To ensure this, keep bullet points to a minimum, avoid complete
sentences, express numeric data with charts and keep everything simple.
ENTERING BULLETED TEXT
Nearly every slide in your presentation will have text on it, and it will usually be in the
form of bulleted text. Bulleted text lists the major points that are discussed while a slide is
onscreen. These points can be numbered, or they can appear as separate paragraphs with no
bullets or numbers preceding them .. To change from bullets to numbers, select the list and
click the Numbering button. To eliminate bullets or numbers from a list, click the button again
(either Bullet or Numbering) to tum them off. It shows a combination of bulleted, numbered
and paragraph text on a slide. As you type your bulleted list, you get a new bullet each time
you press enter at the end of a line.
After you start to build your presentation, be sure to save.
FORMATTING SLIDE TEXT
Although the Design Template you chose for the presentation dictates the size, font
and color of your text, you might want to change it. PowerPoint offers a Formatting toolbar for
making quick and easy changes to the appearance of your text. You'll recognize most of the
buttons from Word's Formatting tool bar.
1. On the slide in Normal view, select the text you want to reformat.
2. Click the Formatting button you want to use. Only Font and Size require a selection
'\ from a drop-down list - all the other buttons have an immediate effect.
3. Click away from the formatted text object to view your results.
To quickly increase or decrease the size of your text (rather than choosing a specific
point size), use the Increase Font Size and Decrease Font Size buttons. The text is reSized "in
four-point increments.
ADDING AND DELETING SLIDES
Assume that your presentation requires more slides than you created, and that it
requires specific slide layouts for these additional slides. You'll often discover the need for
additional slides in the process of building a presentation, or you'll want to change the layout of
" your existing slides to accommodate content you hadn't planned on when you started the
process.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

To add a slide and select a special layout for it follow these steps:
1 Click the New Slide button or choose Insert, New Slide. The New Slide dialog box
opens.
2 Click the needed Jayout. The new sMe js added.
CHANGING SLIDE LAYOUT
If one of your slides is currently set to a layout that doesn't include an object that you
need (such as a chart or table object), you can change the layout.
To change the slide layout of an existing slide, ·follow
\
these steps:
1. Click anywhere on the slide in Normal or Slide view.
2. Choose Format, Slide Layout. The Slide Layout dialog box opens.
3. Click the desired layout once and click Apply. The displayed slide changes to reflect
the new layout.
WORKING WJTH TABLES
Tables give structure to slide content by providing a grid of cells into which short text
strings (words, phrases), paragraphs, and numeric data can be typed. To put a table in a slide,
1. Add a new slide.
2. Select the table layout. Table dialog box opens, into which you can enter the
dimension of the table (columns and rows).
3. To enter text into the table's cells, click in the first cell and type. To move to the
next cell, press Tab or click in the cell in which you want to type.
4. To reposition the table, click on its border and, when the mouse turns to a four-
headed arrow, click and drag to move the table.
CREATING AN ORGANIZATION CHART
An organization chart is a series of boxes that are connected by lines to show the
hierarchy of the organization., You can create organization charts that show departmental
hierarchies, with department names instead of people listed in the boxes, or that show the
actual structure of your company's staff/with, people's names and titles· in each·box;-
ADDING CHARTS TO 'ILLUSTRATE NUMERIC DATA
It's not advisable to fill your slides with numbers for the same reason that it's not a
good idea to generate slides that are filled with text. When a slide appears onscreen, an
abundance of text or numbers can quickly put audience to sleep. The problem of too much
text is easily solved by breaking text topics into multiple slides, and placing clip art or
photographs on the slides to create visual interest. When it comes to numbers, however, the
best way to share them with your audience is by converting them to charts - a picture that
goes a long way in maintaining audience attention and giving your presentation an overall
professional and visually polished appearance.
For e.g., instead of a list of numbers, you will create a column chart. After that chart,
you will also take a portion of the same data and create a pie chart.
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

To build the column chart, follow these steps:

1 Go to Slide view, and select the chart layout. A Datasheet appears, and the toolbar
changes to offer charting tools.
2 Note that the Datasheet contains sample data, which is also represented on a chart
on the slide. This sample~ata must be removed and replaced with your data.
'. "
3 As you make your entries, the .chart is built on the slide. When your entries are
complete, click on the slide, outside of the chart - this brings back the normal
PowerPoint toolbars, and the Datasheet disappears. It shows the finished chart.
After it is created, your chart can be formatted (to change the appearance of the
chart's elements), .and moved or resized (to accommodate other objects on the slide).
FORMATIING CHART APPEARANCE
The colour of your columns and the fonts used in your chart's axis labels and legend
are dictated by the template you choose for your presentation. There might be times that you
want to adjust these settings. Perhaps you don't like a particular color, or may be two of the
contiguous columns (or bars or pie slices) are too similar and you want to choose a different
color for one of them.
You can adjust the appearance of virtually any chart element, for whatever reason. In
the following procedure, you will change the color of the columns in one of the data series and
move the legend to a different location on the chart.
First, to.change the color of a data series, follow these steps:
1 Click once on any bar in the series you want to recolor. Handles appear on all the
columns in the series.
\, ,2 Choose Format, Selected Data Series. The Format Data Series dialog box opens.
3'\ Choose a different colour. Click OK to apply the color to your chart and close the
dialog box.
T.~,~change the location of your legend, follow these steps:
1 Click once on the legend. Handles.appear on its perimeter.
2 Choose Format, Select Legend. The Format Legend dialog box opens.
3 Click the Placement Tab, and select location.
4 Click OK to apply the change and close the dialog box. It shows the legend in its new
location on the chart.
Adding Chart Titles
Adding chart titles can help the audience to better understand the content and
intended message of your chart. To add chart titles, choose Chart, Chart Option while the
chart is active; on the Titles tab, type a title for the entire chart and add titles for the category
and value axes as needed.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

CREATING A MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATION

We use graphic images, drawing tools, and the application of sound and animation to
create a dynamic slideshow. This effort covers adding graphic images (clip art and
photographs) to your slides! using PowerPoint's drawing tools to create your own shapes and
lines. choosing effective animation and sound effects for your slideshow and automating your
slideshow with preset timings and recorded narration.
INSERTING AND WORKING WITH GRAPHICS
Just as a chart can tum potentially boring numeric data into an interesting graphic
image, the use of graphics - that is, clip art, photographs and scanned drawings - can
enhance your presentation by replacing an excess of text. Even if you can't find a graphic
image that conveys your message to the extent that you can eliminate some of your text, you'll
find that clip art, cartoons, photographs, and other graphic items can help maintain audience
attention. Just having pictures on your slides can keep people interested.
ADDING CLIP ART IMAGES
Office 2000 comes with an extensive collection of clip art. Furthermore, you can find
thousands of free images available at various Web sites on the Internet. Why so much clip
art? Because it's effective, it can be fun, and it breaks up the monotony of text documents.
After you have decided where to use a piece of Clip art, you have to add it to your
slide. To insert Clip art into your presentation, follow these steps:
a. Move to the slide that will contain the clip art image.
b. Choose Insert, Picture, Clip Art. The Insert ClipArt dialog box opens.
c. On the Pictures tab, choose an image Category. The images in that
category are then displayed.
d. When you've selected your image, right-click it and choose Insert from
the short-cut menu.
MOVING AND RESIZING CLIP ART
The inserted clip art appears in the middle of your slide, where it is probably
obscuring text or some other slide content. The Picture toolbar also appears, but typically, you
won't need it for clip art images. To move the clip art to a more appropriate location on the
slide, point anywhere in the image itself and drag it to a new spot. Your clip art might also
require resizing. In this case, you want to make it a little bigger. To change the size of your
clip "art image, use the handles to change the width or height ofthe image. . -
INSERTING A GRAPHIC FILE
Similar to the process of insertion of clip art, graphic files could also be inserted. The
image appears in the mid~le of the active slide. In most cases, this requires that you move the
image to somewhere else on the slide, and perhaps that you resize the image as well. The
same techniques that are employed for moving and resizing Clip art also apply to pictures -
drag the image to move it, drag the handles to resize it.
If there are any parts of a photograph that you don't want, use the Crop tool. With the
Crop tool activated, drag from the handle closest to the spot you want to cut away. Drag
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

toward the center of the image until the dashed line appears where you want the new edge of
the image to be. You might have to crop from more than one side or from a comer to cut away
everything you want to get ride of.
USING POWERPOINT'S DRAWING TOOLS
PowerPoint's drawing tools are not for creating elaborate or complex drawings. Their
simplicity works to your advantage, however, because they don't require you to be an artist.
Before you begin using the Drawing toolbar tools, it's a good idea to identify each one and
learn more about their use. Table lists the drawing tools.
Button Name Button Function
" ""-
Click this button to display a menu of commands that enable you to
Draw manipulate the placement af and relationship between your drawn
objects.
Use this arrow tool to click on drawn objects. Using this tool tells that
Select Objects you're dealing with your drawn objects and not the work sheet's cell
content.

Free Rotate Click this tool and then the abject you want to rotate and drag the
object's handles in the direction in which you want to spin the object.
Click this button to display a list of AutoShape categories, such as
AutoShapes Basic Shapes and Flowchart. From these categories, choose
shapes from a palette of drawing tools.
Use this tool to dry3w straight lines of any length. You can later
Line format the lines to varying lengths and styles, as well as add
arrowheads to make the line point to something.
........ If you know your line will be an arrow, draw one using this tool. You
Arrow
can later select arrowheads for one or both ends of the line.
\
.Rectangle This tool enables you to draw simple rectangles and squares.
Qval Draw elliptical shapes and true circles with this tool.

. When you need a text object that can be placed on top of your cells
and placed anywhere on the worksheet, use this tool to create the
Text Box
box and type the text.
Create artistic text headlines and banners with this tool. The
WordArt program, with its own toolbars and menus, opens to give
Insert WordArt
you the capability to create text objects with a wide variety of color,
shape, and fill options.
Click this button to view and insert objects from a categorized list of
Insert Clip Art
clip art images that were installed with Office 2000.
Fill Color Choose from a palette of solid colors to fill our drawn shape.
Line Color Click this button to display a palette of colors that you can use to
.~

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Bio Statistics anq Computer Applications

Button Name Button Function

-
colour your line, arrow, or the outline of a shape.
Font Color Apply a color to text box text or to text within your work sheet cells. .
line Style Choose from various line weights and styles for double and triple
lines.

Dash Style If you want your line to be dashed, dotted, or a combinatiqn thereof,
click this button and select a style from the palette.
Tum a Simple line into an arrow, or change the arrowheads on your
Arrow Style
existing arrow line. Choose from ten different styles.
Shadow Choose from 20 different shadow settings, each with a different light
source and angle. Apply a shadow gives your object depth, and it
can be applied to shapes or lines.
3D Apply up to 20 different 3D effects to your shapes. Unlike a shadow,
which merely repeats th~ object in a flat 2D state behind the original.
3 settings add sides and depth to your object and shade the sides for
a true 3D effect.

DRAWING SHAPES AND LINES

Drawing closed geometric shapes (AutoShapes) is very simple. Select the shape you
want to draw by clicking the Rectangle or Oval button or by choosing the shape from
AutoShapes palette, and then click and drag on the slide to draw the shape. It shows the
AutoShapes menu and the Stars and Banners palette. When drawing your shape, drag away
from your starting point in a diagonal direction. The distance from your starting point and the
angle at which you drag detennine tlle dimension of your shape. • '~
Drawing lines is equally simple. Select the Line or 'Arrow tool from the Drawing
toolbar, and then click and drag away from your starting point. The lines (for Lines or Arrows)
remain straight even though they might appear jagged onscreen if the line isn't drawn at an
exact 90-degree angle. You can adjust the thickness· of your selected line by Clicking the Line
Style button and choosing a thickness from the palette. . .
Manipulating Drawn Objects.
In most cases, however, the placement and size of the shape need to be adjusted.
Resizing shapes and lines employs the same techniques that are used to resize clip art or
other graphics - drag the item to move it, and use its handles to resize it. Resizing a line is
very Simple - drag the handles at either end of the line to lengthen or shorten the line. You
can also drag the handles (one at a time) to change the direction in which a line or arrow
points.
ADDING TEXT TO AUTOSHAPES
Your AutoShapes can perform two tasks: add graphical interest to your slides and
provide infonnation. To make your AutoShapes infonnative, add text. By typing when an
AutoShape is selected, you insert text into the shape, thus turning it into a text box. By default,
 Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

the text is centered both horizontally and vertically within the shape, and the font is dictated by
the Design Template you're using for the presentation.
PREPARING A SLIDESHOW
The purpose of creating PowerPoint slides is to create a slideshow. If a projection
panel can be attached to your computer, you can run an animated slideshow. Furthermore, if
you have a sound card and speakers on your computer, you can integrate sounds into your
'presentation, set to play at specific times during the show. PowerPoint was designed for this
type of multimedia slideshow, combining the visual (charts, graphics, animation, video) effects
with sound. A multimedia presentation is much more effective than a static show
(transparencies, slides) because'it involves more of the viewer's senses and enables you to do
more things to keep their attention',
APPLYING SLIDE TRANSITIONS
I

The first and easiest way to add movement and sound to your presentation is to apply
slide transitions. A slide transition is the animated effect that occurs as the slide appears
onscreen. Slide transitions are applied to your slides in Slide Sorter view. You can apply a
transition to all your slides at once by pressing CtrI + A to select all your slides. By pressing
Shift key and clicking on the slide you want to select, different transition can be applied to each
slide.
After making your choices in the Slide Transition dialog bax, you can click Apply to
apply the selection to the selected slides, or you can choose Apply to All to apply the selection
to every slide in your presentation, regardless of which slides are selected at the time.
CUSTOMIZING ANIMATION AND SOUNDS
You can adjust the settings usi!)g the Custom Animation dialog box, which is
accessed through the Animation Effects tool bar. To access this toolbar and the controls for
customizing each slide's animations and sound, follow these steps:
1 Switch to Normal or Slide view for the first slide you want to customize.
2 Click the Custom Animation on the Slide Show tool bar to display the Animation
\ . Effects toolbar.
3 Click the element on the slide that you want to animate.
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4 Choose an animation effect and an appropriate sound effect.
,RUNNING YOUR SLIDESHOW
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1 Choose Slide Show, View Show. The shortcut key is F5.

2 The first slide appears onscreen, including transitions, and animation effects you
applied. If you choose to have your animations occur automatically, you need to set
the timings. If you leave the default setting (on mouse click) in place, you'll have to
click the mouse for each animated element to appear in the order you specified.
3 At the end of the first slide (when all its elements have appeared), click your mouse to
move to the next slide.
Bio Statistics and Computer Applications

4 Continue clicking through your slides. After the last slide, Power Point returns
automatically to Slide Sorter view.
AUTOMATIING YOUR SLiDESHOW
Throughout the animation customization process, you have the opportunity to
automate your slideshow - you can choose how many seconds are to elapse between
animated elements, or you can opt to have the elements appear only when you click your
mouse. You can achieve a greater.degree of automation through:
• Rehearse Slide timings - In slide Sorter view, click the Rehearse Timings button.
PowerPoint records the amount of time each slide is onscreen, as well as the amount
of time between animated elements. Go through your entire show, running it at the
pace at which you want it to go when it runs on its own. At the timings you've
rehearsed. It shows a slide onscreen with the Rehearse TImings timer running.
RECORDING A NARRATION
If your presentation will be self-running - with timings set for each slide - you might
want to completely remove the human elem~nt by recording a narration to accompany the
slideshow. This is especially helpful for people who have stage fright; or, if you don't like the
sound of your own voice, you can have someone with a great voice record your narration for
you!
To record a narration for your slideshow, you'll need notes if you'll be doing the
narration, or a complete script if you're asking someone who is unfamiliar with the content to
provide their voice for the narration. Also, make sure that your microphone and speakers are
functioning properly before you begin recording. After you've prepared these tools, you can
begin:
1 In Slide Sorter view, click on the first slide in the show.
2 ~hoose Slide Show, ReCord Narration. The Record Narration dialog box opens.
3 Click OK to begin recording. The slides how begins onscreen, and you can begin
speaking.
4 Click your mouse to move through the slides' elements, moving at a pace that
matches you~ narration - as long a s you're. discussing a certain element that element
needs to be onscreen. .
5 When your show'and narration are complete, press Esc; or, if you're ending with the
actual last slide, allow the show to end naturally. After the last slide, a prompt
appears. Click Yes to save the slide timings, along with your narration.
Now that your narration has been recorded and saved, it plays as soon as you start
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