UNIT – 4

FLOW VISUALIZATION

INTRODUCTION:

Visualization is essential for exploring, and understanding fluid behavior and can be both
qualitative and quantitative. The flows described in the first part of this article were considered
as incompressible flows with a constant, uniform density. The other group of flows, i.e.
compressible flows have variable density which depends on flow velocity. The optical index of
refraction n(x,y,z) of a gas is a function of the gas density. For practical purposes, the density
difference of 2% can be considered as an appropriate limit between incompressible and
compressible flows. This occurs if M∞ > 0.2.

Rapid advances during the past decades concerning issues associated with high speed
flights have brought into focus the need for competent treatment of the fundamental aspects of
aerodynamics and the need for application of basic sciences in solving practical problems. The
different physical methods and techniques are employed to measure density, pressure, velocity
and temperature in gas dynamics. The main methods for visualization of these flows are optical
methods. The three principal optical methods are: shadow, schlieren and interferometry. The
optical flow visualization has been expanded due to the innovation of the optical laser. Laser
light is highly monochromatic and coherent with high-energy concentration. The laser light
sources have successfully been used in conventional optical visualization systems, but they have
led to the development of completely new methods. The lasers are attractive as light sources
especially for interferometer.

Compressible air field as an optical object

Airflow around aerodynamical models is a very complex phenomenon. In optical sense,
this flow field is atransparent environment with a complex light refraction index. The light
refraction index in each flow field point is the function of air density in that point, which, on the
other side, is the function of speed, pressure and air temperature. The relation between air density
ρ(x,y,z) and the refraction index n(x,y,z) is called the Gladstone-Dale equation: n = 1 + Kρ The
Gladstone-Dale constant K has a value of ρ-1 and is different for each gas. The Refractive index
for gas, which is a mixture of several components e.g. air, eq. (1) becomes: n = 1 + ΣKi ρi. The
Gladstone-Dale constant for air at a temperature of 288 K varies between 2.239*10-4 to 2.33* 10-
4
m3/kg.
According to Snell's law, a light ray, passing through a nonhomogeneous refracted field,
is deflected from its original direction and a light path is different from that of an undisturbed
ray. If a recording plane is placed in front of the light ray, after disturbing media, three quantities
can be measured: the vertical displacement of the disturbed ray, the angular deflection of the
disturbed ray with respect to the undisturbed one and the retardation of the deflected ray, i.e. the
phase shift between both rays, owning to their different optical path lengths. Optical
visualization methods are based on the recording of one of these three quantities (or a
combination of them). The shadowgraph is used for the first phenomenon, the Schlieren method
is used for the second one and interferometry for the last one.
There are significant differences between these methods, since the shadowgraph is
sensitive to the changes of the density second derivative (or the refractive index) second

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derivative ∂2n / ∂2y, the Schlieren method is sensitive to the changes of the density first
derivative ∂n / ∂y, and interferometry is capable to measure absolute density n changes. If,
using an optical method, the light refraction index n(x,y,z) in flow field is determined, other
physical parameters of tested environment, significant for aerodynamic testing, can be indirectly
determined as well.

SHADOWGRAPH METHOD

The oldest and the simplest of all optical methods for flow visualization is the
shadowgraph. Fig.1 shows a typical setup for shadow methods. A light beam passing through the
wind tunnel test section is parallel. A spherical mirror or lens makes the light parallel. The light
source should be small to ensure good sharpness of the obtained image. Observation and
recording the deflected beam parts are in the perpendicular plane screen at a distance of l from
the test section.

If the test section is large, the recording is impossible without focusing the image onto the
film. For this purpose it is preferable to use a second spherical mirror (or lens). The camera lens
in that case is placed in the focal plane of the second mirror. The recorded shadowgraph is
linearly reduced, but it is identical with that obtained by the arrangement presented in Fig.1.

Figure 1. Schematic arrangement of the shadowgraph system, deflection

of light rays in a field of the variable ∂2n / ∂2y

To understanding the shadow image, it is useful to analyze the paths of three rays in the
section where there are parts with a different amount of ∂2n / ∂2y (Fig.1). If ray 2 passes
through the section with a higher value of ∂2n / ∂2y then along two other ray, 2 will be
deflected to a great extent, so ray 5 on the photographic plate or screen will fall between ray 4
and 2. A darker region appears therefore on the screen between ray 1 and 3 - it represents the
shadow of the disturbance through which ray 2 has passed. The uniform illumination of the
screen is destroyed.

The investigation of these intensity alterations gives a lot of useful information about the
flow field. A shock wave and turbulent motion in a compressible flow can be detected and

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recorded with a shadowgraph. Fig.2a shows the bow shock wave ahead of a sphere in the wind
tunnel T-36 at M∞ = 1.86. The trace of the shock wave in the photo is a band of absolute
darkness bounded on the downstream side by an edge of intense brightness. The exact
geometrical position of the shock front is the other edge of the dark zone. Diffraction effects are
visible on the bright edge of the shadow because the shock wave represents a jump of the
refractive index and because of low gas density in the free stream. The air density increases after
the shock and the incident ray deviates to the inside edge. It is an analog result to that obtained
with a convex lens.

Figure 2. Shadowgraph visualization around a sphere (a), and typical

shadowgraph images showing the spherical tipped cylinder mounted on
the flat plate (b)
Since the density in the disturbance is lower than in the surrounding field, (Prandtl-Meyer
expansion fan at the sharp end of the nozzle) the bright band appears at the beginning of the
shadow. The same result is obtained when the compressible boundary layers is visualized. Its
effect on a light ray can be compared with the effect of a concave lens. Fig.2b is a typical
shadowgraph showing the flow around the spherical tipped cylinder mounted on the flat plate.

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 Shadowgraph methods with short duration light pulses can be used for fine visualization
of turbulent compressible flows.

Figure 3. Numerical and experimental shadowgraph visualization of the

supercritical cascade flow M∞=0.87

The shadow performances can be illustrated by Fig.3. The blade performances were
experimentally confirmed in the Virginia Tech High Speed Cascade Wind Tunnel. The
numerical and experimental methods were performed to reveal the associated flow physics,
particularly the loss mechanisms. Flow diagnostic techniques such as blade surface pressure
measurement, blade surface oil flow visualization, and shadowgraph were used in the
experiments to study the pressure/velocity distribution, shock pattern and boundary layer
behavior.

SCHLIEREN METHOD

As mentioned before, the Schlieren method is sensitive to the changes of the first
derivative of density (or refractive index) and it can record the angular deflection of the disturbed
ray with respect to the undisturbed in a transparent medium with local non homogeneities. Today
the Schlieren method is the most frequently used in aerodynamic laboratories, since it is
relatively simple and very useful.

If a parallel beam of light passes through the air where there is a density gradient normal
to the beam direction, the light travels more slowly where the density is greater and the beam is
refracted towards the region of greater density. The most simple one is the Schlieren system with

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parallel light through the wind tunnel test section. In practice there are different systems with
lenses or mirrors.

Figure 4. Töepler schlieren system

Töepler system as the base of all other modificated systems is illustrated in Fig.3. The
detailed description of the system is given. Today many different systems are used, e.g.:
Schlieren system with finite slit, with lens for projection, double lens system, single mirror
system, system with two mirrors, plane concave mirror system and Twin mirror, (asymmetric
twin mirror system) ,etc.

The new dimension has been introduced into the schlieren system replacing the knife-
edge by a filter consisting of several parallel, transparent, colored strips (most often three colored
sheets, red - blue - yellow or blue - green - red). The color filter can be consist of four differently
colored strips arranged in a square filter to visualize the grad n in two directions. If the flow is
axisymmetric, complementary colors appear for the same event (compression or expansion)
above and below the flow axis. The recorded pure colors and color combinations are a measure
for the local direction of density gradient in the test section. A contemporary modification of the
schlieren system concerns the replacement of the knife-edge by optical elements which influence
somehow the phase of the schlieren light beam. Fig.4 shows scheme of töepler Schlieren system.

Figure 6. Black and white schlieren photos obtained in the T-36 wind

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 tunnel for M∞ = 1.56 (a) and instantaneous image of Bullet and Muzzle
Blast from a 22-Caliber Rifle (b)

Fig.5 shows the parts of schlieren systems in the T- 34 hypersonic wind tunnels in the
MTI. Figures 6 and 7 illustrate schlieren effects recorded with the schlieren system with the knife
edge (black and white schlieren). In order to investigate the interaction between the boundary
layer on the injector plate and the jet, a transverse sonic jet was injected into a supersonic cross
flow (Mach 1.7) [16]. Fig.7a. shows a typical result of schlieren flow visualization. The jet
expansion led to the barrel shock and the Mach disk shown in Fig.7a.

On the other hand, the injectant jet caused interaction phenomena between the cross flow
and the jet itself. In other words, the jet acted on the cross flow as an obstruction. The schematic
of the flow field obtained from the schlieren photograph is shown in Fig.7b. Attempts to increase
the amount of information extractable from the schlieren photography have led to the use of
various opaque filter geometries other than a knifeedge as well as of transparent phase and color
filters A combined holographic interferometer and Schlieren device, has been designed, made
and tested for the T-38 trisonic wind tunnel.

Figure 7. Schlieren photograph of the flow field. (Mach 1.7) a) and

Schematic of the flow field obtained by the schlieren flow visualization b).

It is a basis for various optical flow visualization experiments. The device can be
included in tests either as a schlieren system or as an interferometer. The dimensions of such a
system are out of standard (optical field diameter is Φ = 900 mm, uniform, without aberrations).
It allows to visualize flows in transonic and supersonic wind tunnel test sections. The detection
range of the density gradient is 0,1- 6,52 kg/m4, the refractive index 10-7 to 10-4 and the
resolution in full scale is 10-7.

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INTERFEROMETRY
In most gas dynamics applications, it is useful to know flow density changes in wind
tunnels, shock tubes or supersonic jets. The phase alteration beam passing through a disturbed
section of a tested field can be compared with an undisturbed beam. The effects of interference
make the basis of interferometry. The application of this principle in visualizing compressible
flow fields is as old as the schlieren method.

Classical interferometry

The most used type of interferometers in wind tunnel tests is the Mach-Zehnder interferometer
(MZI). Two light beams (test and reference ones) in the MZI are separated by its four plates.
This instrument is suitable for quantitative density measurements in large wind tunnels. It
requires an extremely high degree of mechanical precision and complexity of construction.
Mechanical and optical tolerances are in order of a wavelength or below. This
makes the instrument expensive and its cost grows rapidly with increasing the diameter of the
desired size of the field of view.

Figure 15. Mach Zehnder interferometer

The basic arrangement of the MZI is shown in Fig.15. The source light is made parallel with the
lens S. The amplitude of the beam is divided into two parts by semireflecting mirrors. The four
plates are situated in the corners of a rectangle and are all parallel in the start. The test section
with its two glass windows is brought into the path of the test beam. In order to compensate the
phase difference in two beams, two identical glass plates are inserted into the path of the
reference beams. After being rejoined, corresponding rays of the two light beams can interfere
and a certain pattern of interference fringes appears on the screen or photographic plate. An non

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homogeneity in the test section produces a certain amount of disturbance of the no-flow fringe
system. It can be quantitatively related to the density distribution of the flow field
The most important quality requirements for an "ideal" MZI are: homogeneity in the
refractive index of the glass of splitter plates, test section, windows, and compensation plate;
constant and equal thickness of each pair of splitter plates and windows; exact plane parallelism
and surface quality of all mirrors, plates and windows; exact coating of the surface of beam
splitters with the prevention of any absorption; a high degree of reflection of full mirrors; exact
mounting which prevents all plates from bending, sagging and other mechanical deformations,
and protection of the instrument from mechanical vibrations and other disturbances. The basic
adjustment is very difficult. It is necessary to align the test beam parallelly to the surface of a
two-dimensional test object to avoid light reflection. The last step in adjusting is always bringing
the achromatic fringe (zero order) into the field of view. Much patience is required while
adjusting the MZI.

The MZI has been applied in practically all cases of gas flow investigations, where
density difference becomes noticeable, such as: thermodynamic data, thermal conductivity of
gases, dissociation, aerodynamic application, turbulence, wave or sonic booms.

Holographic Interferometry

Holographic interferometry is an optical method that enables complete flow field testing.
The method is noncontact (it does not disturb the flow field) and is used for testing different
objects and phenomena. The flow density can be measured directly using interferometry. The
greatest advantage of holographic interferometry, in relation to the schlieren method, is the fact
that it provides complete information stored in a single plate, allowing a postponement selection
of specific types of flow visualization.

This method is based on holography, developed in the last forty five years. The
holography represents a two stage method which, apart to light amplitudes, records light phases
as well. The three-dimensional image recording is performed in the first stage, while its
reconstruction is performed in the second stage (Fig.16). Lasers are used as light sources. The
light from a reconstructed image from a hologram reaching the observer's eye is the same as the
one that would come from an original object. A holographic image has the same depth, parallax
and different perspectives as those available in the actual object scene.

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 Figure 16. Arrangement for holograms recording a) and reconstruction b)

If the image of one object is recorded two times in different moments, in the process of
reconstruction both images (figures) will appear simultaneously and in the same place in space.
Since the object waves are mutually coherent (they originate from the same light beam that
illuminates the hologram) they interfere and the interference effects can be observed in the
reconstructed object image. If no change occurs on the object between the first and the second
exposition, then there is no difference in images and there are no interference fringes. If certain
difference appears, then the reconstructed image contains the system of interference fringes N
that indicate thet change.

Quantitative flow testing using holographic interferograms is performed by determining

the number of fringes N(x,y) in the field image with respect to a reference point of known
density. After that, the index of light refraction n(x,y) and the air density ρ(x,y) can be
calculated. For the isentropic flow, there are relations between N, n,,, ρ, pressure P, temperature
T, velocity V, and Mach number M . The physical basics and mathematical
interpretation of the holographic interferometry are explaned in references. One simple case is
the 2D flow

Review of holographic interferograms

The usage of classical methods of the nozzle edge flow field testing comprises the
introduction of a probe within the expansion region and holes perforation on nozzle surface.
These methods significantly change the flow field and give the erroneous image of processes.
Furthermore, it would be necessary to have very dense grating of measuring points, thus
rendering these methods very inefficient. In realization of this experiment the holographic
interferometer represented in Fig.36 was used. The holographic interferograms were used for
numerical calculation of flow field parameters in the vicinity of the nozzle edge where the
expansion fen is formed (Fig.19). The fringe number N was read from this hologram. The points
in front of the expansion fen have N=0, since the last fringe has N=17. The theoretical and
experimental values of the Mach numbers in the expansion area are in good agreement Mexp =
2.15, Mthe = 2.13.

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 Figure 19. Holographic interferometer of supersonic flow in a twodimensional
model of the nozzle edge (Prandelt-Mayer expansion) M∞ =1,56

The photos in Figures 20a and 20b present holographic interferograms of the flow around
a sphere for M∞ = 0.8 (without shock wave) and 1.06 (bow shock wave is in front of the model).
Fig.20b is a combination of holographic interferograms (upper part) and a schlieren photo of the
same flow. The interferometric photo clearly shows: the stagnation point, the detached bow
wave, the vortex sheet generated past sphere, etc.

Figure 20. Holographic interferogram of the flow around a sphere for M∞

= 0.82 (a) and mixed; hologram and schlieren for M∞ = 1.06 (b)

Other interferometric methods used for flow visualization world wide

The holographic interferometry, today, is one of very important wind tunnel optical
methods for transonic and supersonic flow visualization. In the VTI wind tunnels, the most often
used method is the double exposure method. Other centers apply the real time method, the
average or sendvich methods, the specle interferpmetry, refraction interferometry, differential
interferometry, etc. Optical holography is most frequent by used, with laser light in the visible
spectrum. In standard procedures the interferencial effects are recorded on photo or
thermosensitive emulsions. Electronic holography uses CCD cameras. In some specific cases

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acoustic and microwave holography, with electron beams X – rays, or computer holography can
be used. Besides holographic interferometry, similar possibilities today have speckle
interferometry, moiré interferometry and shearography. Only two methods of them will be
mentioned here as methods used for flow visualization, without pretending to be the best choice.

Laser speckle photography is an optical method which can be applied for quantitative
measurements of fluid flow density fields in a wide dynamic range. In the conventional method,
the density gradient vector map of a density field is reconstructed by the optical Fourier
transform of a double exposed laser speckle pattern recorded on a photographic film.

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NON OPTICAL METHODS:

INTRODUCTION:
In all kinds of fluid flow research, the visualization is an important tool in experimental
fluid mechanics, which can provide the overall picture of the flow field. Flow
visualization has probably existed for as long as fluid flow research itself. Experimental flow
visualization techniques are applied for several reasons:
− to get a picture of fluid flow around a scaled model of a real object, without any
calculations;
− to develop or verify new and better theories of fluid flow or models.

If the flow could be made visible by some kind of flow visualization technique, it would
be possible to observe flow phenomena which are essentially inviscid (e.g., vortex flows, flows
distant from surfaces) as well as those phenomena which are dominated by the effects of
viscosity (e.g., boundary layer flows, separation). In addition to qualitative observations, under
certain conditions it would be possible to make quantitative measurements from flow
visualization data as well.
Flow visualization may be divided into surface flow visualization and off-the-surface
visualization. Surface flow visualization involves tufts, fluorescent dye, oil or special clay
mixtures, which are applied to the surface of a model. Visual inspection of such tufts and
coatings as a function of time or after some time, will give valuable information on such things
as the state of the boundary layer (laminar or turbulent), transition, regions of separated flow and
the like.
It must be remembered in such visualization that what is observed on the surface is not
always indicative of what is happening in these free streams.
The second type of visualization involves the use of such tracers as smoke particles, oil
droplets or helium-filled soap bubbles. Each of these methods requires appropriate lighting and
some device for recording the image such as a still or video camera. If the flow field is
illuminated in a plane by appropriate masking of the light source it is possible to examine
discrete sections or slices of the flow.

Flow Visualization by Tufts

Very frequently, flow visualization in the vicinity of the model in the subsonic flow is
performed using tufts. However, tuft size, distribution on the model's surface and sticking are
important for turbulent flow testing and higher quality boundary layer visualization on complex
models. If tuft diameter is less than 0.1mm, the problem of recording occurs due to a small
amount of reflected light and long exposure time. Tufts can be used for testing the entire flow
field in the wind tunnel. A grid with attached or glued tufts as screen can be used to visualize the
vortex shedding behind the model or in the interaction regime of different fields. The grid should
be placed in the wind tunnel normal to the mean flow direction and the tufts pattern should be
observed or photographed from downstream (Fig.13.) numerous advantages in comparison with
the ordinary silk tufts. By using fluorescent dyes, the tuft diameter virtually increases as well as
the illumination, thus allowing higher quality of recording and using thinner tufts (0.01-0.1 mm).
They can be stuck onto the model surface using very small glue quantities, (0.04 mm), thus
avoiding boundary layer disturbances. Strong centrifugal forces interfering with flow field act on
tufts stuck onto the model surface and their resultant determines tuft orientation.

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 Figure 13. Trailing vortices behind delta wing

Aerodynamic forces are proportional to tuft diameter, while centrifugal forces are
proportional to the square of the diameter. The problem with small size diameter is overcame by
dying tufts with fluorescent dyes and using light source with rich ultraviolet part of the spectrum,
or special filters transmissible to that part of the spectrum. This increases tuft luminance making
it look much thicker and brighter. Hg or Xe lamp with UV filters for λ= 350 nm are used for
steady flow testing. Stroboscopic light sources are most frequently used for unsteady flow.
Visualization effect can be recorded by still or TV camera. Fluorescent tufts are also used for
flow visualization in water tunnels, as well as in-flight flow testing.

Figure 14. Flow visualization with cotton tufts in wind tunnel T-35 for
flow with V= 100m/s

Figures 14 and 15 demonstrate the results of the experiments in T-35 and T-32 wind
tunnels; flow visualization with ordinary cotton and fluorescent silk tufts. Light combat aircraft

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model has surface painted in opaque black with 840 tufts stuck onto it. Tufts are made of silk
0.05 mm and 20 mm long (Fig.15). Fluorescent spray was used for tuft dying. The flow speeds
have been between 20 and 40 m/s and angle of attack altered from -8 to +24o. UV lamp with 100
W has been used as light source. Visualization effects are recorded with still camera Minolta.
Black and white Ilford HP film (1600 asa) is used. Exposure time is from 1/60 to 3 s.

Figure 15. Flow visualization with fluorescent tufts in T-32 wind tunnel

In order to overcome the problem of non defined model edges, fluorescent dyes were
used for marking. Another method for providing the differentiation of model and the background
is to select proper background with different reflexive coefficient relative to model or elevate the
film sensitivity to more than 1600 asa.

SURFACE FLOW VISUALIZATION METHODS

For observation of flow characteristics close to the wall of the model, the body wall can
be coated with a certain material which indicates the local wall temperature, surface pressure, or
the streamline pattern of the flow adjacent to the wall.

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Surface Oil Film

Oil film or dots on the model surface enable obtaining a picture of the flow pattern at the
surface of the model placed in the wind tunnel quickly and easily. The special mixture can be
prepared from an appropriate oil and fine pigment (Al2O3; T iO2, powder, fluorescent dye,
colouring pigments, graphite). The technique allows observation of the lines of separation and
reattachment of the flow to the body. Fig.16a shows the visualization with TiO2 + oil on the
surface around two vertical cylinders fixed on the plate in T-35 for V=50 m/s and around the
sphere used for turbulence test for M∞ = 0,2 (Fig.16b). Fig.17 gives oil flow visualization of the
airflow on the end wall of a turbine blade cascade. Boundary layer flow visualization on the laser
guided bomb model with an oil film, performed in the T-38 wind tunnel, (a) top of the model
with fins and flow on the fin upper surface (b) for M∞= 0.9 are presented in Fig.18.

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Figure 16. Flow visualization around two cylinders fixed on the plate in
the large wind tunnel T-35 for M∞ = 0,5 with oil film (a) and around
sphere for M∞ = 0,2 (b),

Figure 17. Oil flow visualization, airflow on the end wall of a turbine
blade cascade. (Von Karman Institute)

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Figure 18. Boundary layer flow visualization on the laser guided bomb
model with oil film,(a) top of the model with fins and (b) flow on the fin
upper surface for M∞ = 0.9

Figure 19. Flow pattern on the model obtained by the experiment (a) and
by the simulation of the flow for M∞ = 0.3 and α = 8o (side view) (b)

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 Test of the flow field around the axy-symmetrical body – model of the torpedo without
fins and control surfaces, was performed in the trisonic wind tunnel T-38 of VTI, for the speed of
undisturbed flow that corresponds to Mach number M∞ = 0.3 . Aerodynamic forces and
moments were measured by six-component internal strain gage balance. Oil emulsion film with
addition of oleic acid and TiO2 powder was used for flow visualization in the boundary layer
(Fig.23)
The goal of the experiment was to make comparison of the aerodynamic coefficients and
flow pattern obtained by the experiment and by the simulations of the flow possible. Fluent 6
was used for simulating the flow. Analysis of the shown photographs (Figures 19a and 19b)
demonstrates an excellent agreement of flow patterns obtained by the experiment and numerical
simulations. Certain differences are visible in the area behind the model support sting and in its
immediate vicinity because the sting is not included into the numerical model

Liquid crystals and temperature sensitive paints

A surface-temperature distribution can be gained by coating a test model with cholestric

liquid crystals. If they are illuminated with white light under a certain angle of incidence, liquid
crystals reflect only one light wavelength at each viewing angle, depending on small temperature
changes in the crystal sheet. Liquid crystals are able to respond to finer changes of temperature
in the boundary layer, due to laminar-to-turbulent transitions or indicate the place of shock
waves. The colours of liquid crystals are reverse if the temperature changes in the opposite
direction. Therefore, liquid crystals are very attractive for boundary-layer studies. Model to be
tested should be made of a material with low heat conductivity and coated with black paint as
base. Fig.20 demonstrates the application of liquid crystals for hot streams visualization in a little
smoke wind tunnel.

Figure 20. Flow visualization in the small wind tunnel with liquid crystals

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 The surface temperature, the local heat transfer rate and coefficient on a body tested in
high speed flow facility can be measured by means of temperature sensitive paints. An important
difference between liquid crystals and temperature sensitive paints is, that the temperature span
over the liquid crystals colour change is much smaller (a few degrees only) than that of paints
(several hundred degrees).

Pressure sensitive paint (PSP)

The spatially continuous pressure and temperature distribution on aerodynamic test

surfaces is important for understanding complex flow mechanisms and comparison
with predictions of computational-fluid-dynamics models. Conventional pressure measurements
are based on pressure taps and electronically scanned transducers. Pressure taps provide pressure
information only at discrete points.

Figure 21. A comparison of pressure results between PSP (right side of

model) and Computational Fluid Dynamics (left side)
PSP technology has emerged as an alternative for determining static and transient
surface-pressure fields for aerodynamic applications and flow visualization. The pressure
sensitivity is based on the oxygen (O2) quenching of luminescent molecules dispersed in a film
that is coated onto a test surface. In practice, the PSP/TSP (temperature sensitive paint) coating is
illuminated with light of the appropriate energy (colour) to excite the coating-entrapped probe
molecules. The resulting luminescence output is inversely proportional to the surface pressure or
temperature of the test model.

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 The resulting luminescence from the model can be imaged using a CCD camera. Pressure
is correlated with the ratio of PSP images acquired at a reference condition of the known
pressure and temperature (wind-off) and condition (wind on) through a modified form of the
Stern-Volmer relationship. Calibration of this intensity ratio (Iref / I ) , or lifetime (τ) is then
correlated with the output of the CCD, providing a convenient tool for generation of a spatially
continuous pressure map, allowing the entire test surface to be sampled simultaneously. CCD
cameras have a million or more pixels and this technique provides continuous surfacepressure
measurements with high spatial resolution. The output of the CCD array can be visually
represented as a two-dimensional image, with the luminescence corresponding to a grey or false-
colour scale. Fig.21 represents the illustration for PSP applications.

Flow Visualization with Special techniques

Third group of visualization methods is based on two principles: introducing a foreign

invisible substance into the incompressible flow and visualizing the density variations in the flow
by optical methods. The foreign substance in this case is energy transferred to certain portions of
the flow to increase the energy level (spark, electron beam and glow discharge methods) and
make artificial density variations. Such portions of the flow have an altered density and can be
visualized by the optical methods.
They are applied to visualize the rarefied gases that are for several reasons distinguished
from the ordinary compressible flows. The gas flow with extremely high level of kinetic energy
becomes luminous in a stagnation point where the kinetic energy is transferred into heat. That
heat exits electronic transition in the gas and the flow itself is visible (Fig.22).

Figure 22. Flow visualization by electronic beam in hypersonic wind

tunnel for M =10
An intensive hot spot can be obtained by means of a spark discharge across two
electrodes into a gas stream or using a giant pulse laser for producing the luminous plasma (Q-
switched giant pulse ruby laser of 100 MW). Another way of artificially introducing density

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changes in a flow is to seed the flow with a foreign gas of different refractivity (benzene vapour,
CO2).
Very often, methods mentioned as special techniques where the double refracting liquids,
solutions or suspension of certain macromolecules in a neutral solvent are used for flow
visualization. A transparent medium can be birefringent if it consists of optically anisentropic
molecules. An incident light wave is separated into two linearly polarized components with the
planes of polarization being perpendicular to one another. The birefringence in these solutions
can be observed by means of a polariscope. With the isochromates and isoclines recorded on a
photograph, a data field from which shear distribution in a two-dimensional flow field can be
deduced and flow velocity calculated.

Analogous methods are of interest in the flow visualization technique. The hydraulic
analogy has the widest application. For e.g., the formation of gravitational waves of long
wavelengths on the free surface of a liquid is analogous to the pattern of pressure waves in an
isentropic supersonic flow. The hydraulic analogy has been used to investigate the wave pattern
in the supersonic flow around models. Fig.23. shows the flow around a model in free surface
water tunnel that is analogous with the supersonic flow M∞ = 4.1.

Figure 23. 2D model using the hydraulic analogy to simulate supersonic flow ( M∞ = 4.1 )

For the purpose of flow visualization high speed photographic techniques are usually
applied in connection with one of the visualizing methods. High speed cameras with exposure
time of 10-6 to 10-9 s in connection with associated illumination systems can record the shock
wave motion. If a single shot photograph is used, the synchronization between the unsteady flow
pattern and the exposure of the photograph must be made. A high speed cinematographic system
is also very suitable for visualizing application.

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