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Table of Content:
• Ideology of Pakistan-----definition and elucidation, historical aspects: Muslim rule
inthe Sub-Continent, its downfall and efforts for Renaissance. Movements
forreforms-- Shaikh Ahmad Sarhindi, Shah Waliullah, Sayyid Ahmad
Shaheed,Aligarh, Deoband, Nadwah, and other educational institutions-------
SindhMadrassah and Islamia College Peshawae. Ideology of Pakistan in the
light ofSpeeches and statements of Allama Iqbal and Quaid- i Azam Muhammad
AliJinnah. Land and people of Pakistan------- Geography, Society, Natural
resources, Agriculture, Industry and education with reference to characteristics,
trends and problems…………..1
• Pakistan and Changing Regional Apparatus……………………………………….62
• Nuclear Program of Pakistan, its Safety and Security; International Concern…64
• Regional Economic Cooperation (SAARC,ECO,SCO) and the Role of Pakistan.73
• Civil-Military Relations in Pakistan…………………………………………………..81
• Economic Challenges in Pakistan…………………………………………………..86
• Non-Traditional Security Threats in Pakistan: Role of Non-State Actors………92
• Pakistan’s Role in the Region……………………………………………………….99
• Palestine Issue……………………………………………………………………….101
• Changing Security Dynamics for Pakistan: Challenges to National Security of
Pakistan………………………………………………………………………………103
• Political Evolution Since 1971………………………………………………………109
• Pakistan and US War on Terror………………………………………………..…..118
• Foreign Policy of Pakistan Post 9/11………………………………………………135
• Evolution of Democratic System in Pakistan…………………………………….143
• Ethnic Issues and National Integration……………………………………………144
• Hydro Politics ; Water Issues in Domestic and Regional Context…………….150
• Economic Conditions of Pakistan, the Most Recent Economic Survey, the Previous
and Current Budgets, and the Problems and Performance of Major Sectors of
Economy. ……………………………………………………………………………152
• The Recent Constitutional and Legal Debates, the Latest Constitutional
Amendments and Important Legislations, Legal Cases and the Role of Higher
Courts. ……………………………………………………………………………….190
• The Prevailing Social Problems of Pakistan and the Strategies to Deal with Them,
Poverty, Education, Health and Sanitation.…………………………………..199.
• Pakistan’s National Interest……………………………………………………….200
• Challenges to Sovereignty………………………………………………………..204
• Pakistan’s Energy Problems and their Effects………………………………….208
• Pakistan’s Relations with Neighbors excluding India…………..
• Pakistan and India Relations Since 1947…………..
• Kashmir Issue…………..
• The war in Afghanistan since 1979 and its impact on, and challenges to Pakistan, in
the Post 2014 era. …………………………………………………………………..215

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• Proxy Wars: Role of External Element……………………………………….221.

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What is Ideology of Pakistan Definition
and Elucidation
Definition of Ideology:

Science of ideas, visionary speculations, and manner of thinking, characteristic of a class or

individual, ideas on the basis of some economic, social or political theory or system is called
Ideology. It contains those ideals, which a nation strives to accomplish in order to bring
stability to its nationhood. Defining ideology, George Lewis says:

"Ideology is a plan or program which is based upon philosophy".

Ideology of Pakistan

Pakistan is an Ideological state and the ideology of Pakistan is an Islamic ideology. Its basic
principle being:

"The only sovereign is Allah".

Islam acted as a nation building force before the establishment of Pakistan. Ideology of
Pakistan basically means that Pakistan should be a state where the Muslims should have an
opportunity to live according to the faith and creed based on the Islamic principles. They
should have all the resources at the disposal to enhance Islamic culture and civilization.
Quid-e-Azam once said:

"Pakistan was created the day the first Indian national entered the field of Islam".

From the above statement, it is clear that Ideology of Pakistan is an Islamic one.

Two Nation Concepts:

The fundamental concept of Ideology is that Muslims should get a separate identity. They
should have a separate state where they could live according to Islamic rules and principles,
profess their religion freely and safeguard Islamic tradition .On one occasion Quid-e-Azam
said:

"The Muslims demand Pakistan where they can rule in accordance with their own system of
life, their cultural development, their traditions and Islamic laws."

Thus, this fundamental concept of Ideology led to the concept of two nations in the Sub
Continent and resulted in the formation of Pakistan.

Factors Creating the Idea of a Separate Homeland:

Ideology of Pakistan was created when Muslims of Indo-Pak Sub Continent developed a
specific attitude of mind that they are different from Hindus. This was due to the injustices
done to the Muslims by British and Hindus. Some of these are:

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 1. Anti Muslim Campaign:

The Hindus and British joined hands to destroy the faith,belief,costoms and national
importance of Muslims because Muslims rebillion was creating much problem for both.

2. In acceptance of British Rule:

Muslims had been ruling the Sub Continent for ages.Therefore,they could not resist any
power over them,When Britsh came to rule the Sub Continent ,Muslims were the only nation
who opposed them.Thus,in order to gain power,British had to crush the Muslims collectivity.

3. Hindus Betrayed Muslims:

In the beginning ,Hindus appeared to be on Muslim's side,but later on their hostility was
exposed as they opposed various steps taken by British Government which purely benefited
for Muslims.

4. Refusal of Muslim identity:

British wanted to implement parliamentary system in Sub Continent in which the majority
was the power and authority.Due to Hindu majority it was probablethat if British left India
undivided,it would fall under the Hindus rule.Further more ,Hindus did not accept the
separate identity of Muslims and thus,there were no chances of freedom even after the
British rule.

5. War of 1857

In 1857,Muslims and Hindus tried to expel the British out of India but failed .Later due to
Hindu conspiracies,Muslims were held responsible for it and hence were crushed further by
Britishers.

6. Sir Syed's Idea

Sir Syed for the first time put down the idea that Muslims are a separate nation.He convinced
Muslims to unite themselves in order to have a separate social and political identity.

Basic Points of Ideology of Pakistan:

• Muslims are different Hindus in every aspects,their culture ,civilization,customs and

religion all are entirely different.
• The Muslims need a free state for protection of their separate where they can live in
accordance with their faith,belief and follow the Islamic codes.

Importance of Ideology in National Life:

Ideology is a motivating force for a nation,which is striving hard to bring stability and
homogeneity to its nation hood.Its provide the binding force to the scattered groups in a
societyand bring them close to each other on a common platform.Ideologies impel their
adherence to follow a joint linked action for the accomplishment of their goal.Ideologies give
shape to the revolutions and create new cultures and civilizations.They stress on their

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adherents to insist on the realization of their ideal throught total transformation of society.An
urgent agreement with each other on the ideals is most vital pre-requisite of an ideology.

Conclusion:

The fundamental concept of ideology of Pakistan is that Muslims are a separate nation
having their own culture,literature ,religion and way of life.They cannot be merged in any
other nation.They should be able to develop their culture and religious traditions in an Islamic
State and they should be able to create a true Islamic society for themselves.

Thus the ideology of Pakistan which developed through the period of Mohammad Bin Qasim
and others and followed by political leaders like Quid-e-Azam was materialized in 1947.

Historical aspects: Muslim rule in

the Sub-Continent, its downfall and
efforts for Renaissance.
Babur - The First Mughal Emperor [1526-30]

Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur founded the Mughal Empire in India after defeating Ibrahim
Lodhi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526.

At the age of 14, Babur ascended the throne of the Central Asian kingdom of Farghana. His
greatest ambition was to rule Samarkand. He fought many battles in the pursuit of this goal,
winning and losing his kingdom many times in the process. In 1504, he ventured into what is
now Afghanistan and conquered Kabul.

His position in Central Asia was precarious at best. In order to consolidate his rule, he
invaded India five times, crossing the River Indus each time. The fifth expedition resulted in
his encounter with Ibrahim Lodhi in the first battle of Panipat in April 1526. Babur's army was
better equipped than Lodhi's; he had guns while the sultan relied on elephants. The most
successful of Babur's innovations was the introduction of gunpowder, which had never been
used before in the Sub-continent. This combined with Babur's newer tactics gave him a
greater advantage. Babur's strategy won the war and Ibrahim Lodhi died fighting.

Panipat was merely the beginning of the Mughal rule. Akbar laid its real foundation in 1556.
At the time of the battle of Panipat, the political power in India was shared by the Afghans
and the Rajputs. After Panipat, the Hindu princes united under Rana Sanga, the Raja of
Mewar, resulting in a sizable force. Babur's army showed signs of panic at the size of the
huge opposing army. To prevent his forces retreat, Babur tried to instill confidence in his
soldiers by breaking all his drinking cups and vessels, and vowed never to drink again if he
won. His soldiers took heart, and when the armies met in the battle at Kanwaha, near Agra
on March 16, 1527, Babur was able to win decisively. Kanwaha confirmed and completed
Babur's victory at Panipat. Babur thus became the king of Central India.

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In 1528, he captured Chanderi from the Rajput chief Medini Rao, and a year later he
defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodhi in the battle of Ghagra at Bihar. These
conquests made Babur the "Master of Hindustan". He was not destined to enjoy the fruits of
his conquests as he died shortly afterwards in Agra on December 26, 1530. He was buried at
Kabul in accordance with his wish.

The Mughal age is famous for its many-faceted cultural developments. The Timurids had a
great cultural tradition behind them. Their ancestral kingdom at Samarkand was the meeting
ground of the cultural traditions of Central and West Asia. The Mughals brought with them
Muslim cultural traditions from Turko-Iranian areas, which inspired the growth of the Indo-
Muslim culture.

Humayun’s Rule [1530-40, 1555-6]

Babur was succeeded by his eldest son Humayun. Humayun failed in asserting a strong
monarchical authority. He inherited a freshly won empire with a host of troubles; the Afghan
nobles, the Rajputs and worst of all, his three treacherous brothers. They caused numerous
problems for him. Following his father's advice, Humayun treated his brothers kindly and
appointed them to high positions. Kamran was appointed as the Governor of Kabul, Kandhar
and later even Punjab. Askari was the Governor of Sambhal, and Hindal the Governor of
Alwar. In return, his brothers hindered him at every step and betrayed him in his hour of
need. All of them coveted the throne. This was a curse that each successful Mughal king had
to deal with. Humayun almost lost the empire his father had fought so hard to bequeath him.
In the first ten years of his rule, he faced so many challenges not only from his younger
brothers but also from the Afghan General Sher Shah Suri who had served under Babur.
Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun in the battles of Chausa and Kanauj in 1540. This defeat
was the first setback to the infant Mughal Empire. He lived the next 15 years of his life, from
1540 to 1555, self-exiled in Persia. Later on, with the help of the King of Persia, he captured
Kabul and Kandhar. He was finally able to re-ascend the throne at Delhi and Agra after
defeating Sikandar Suri. After recovering his throne, Humayun devoted himself to the affairs
of the kingdom and towards improving the system of government. He laid the foundation of
the Mughal style of painting. Later on, during the reign of Akbar, a fusion of Persian and
Indian style of painting took place.

Unfortunately, after recovering his empire, Humayun was not destined to rule for long. In
January 1556, he met his tragic end by slipping from the famous building known as Din
Panah. After him his eldest son Akbar took over the rule of the empire.

Suri Dynasty [1540-55]

Sher Khan, known as Sher Shah Suri, was an Afghan leader who took over the Mughal
Empire after defeating Humayun in 1540. Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not
more than five years, but his reign proved to be a landmark in the Sub-continent. He
formulated a sound imperial administration that was inspired by the Safavid regime in Iran.
Sher Shah employed a powerful army, which is said to have comprised of 150,000 horses,
250,000 foot-soldiers and 5,000 elephants. He personally inspected, appointed and paid the
soldiers, thus making him the focus of loyalty and subduing the jealousies between clans and

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tribes. To prevent fraud, he revived the tradition of branding horses, introduced first by
Alauddin Khalji.

The principal reforms for which Sher Shah is remembered are those connected with revenue
administration. He set up a revenue collection system based on the measurement of land.
Justice was provided to the common man. Numerous civil works were carried out during his
short reign; planting of trees, wells and building of Sarai (inns) for travelers was done. Roads
were laid; it was under his rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to Kabul was built. The
currency was also changed to finely minted silver coins called Dam

During his lifetime, Sher Shah commissioned the construction of tombs for his father, Hasan
Khan Suri and for himself. A third one was begun for his son Islam, but remained unfinished
due to the dynasty's fall. Sher Shah died in 1545 by a gunpowder explosion and left his
kingdom to his two sons and grandsons. Unfortunately, his successors were incompetent
and succumbed to old Afghan rivalries. This resulted in the downfall of the Suri Dynasty.

Akbar’s Reign [1556-1605]

Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old when his father died.
Thanks to his exceptionally capable guardian, Bahram Khan, he survived to demonstrate his
worth. Akbar's reign holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually
fortified the foundations of the Mughal Empire. After a series of conquests he managed to
subdue most of India. Areas not under the empire were designated as tributaries. He also
adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them.
Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great administrator as
well. He set up a host of institutions that proved to be the foundation of an administrative
system that operated even in British India. Akbar's rule also stands out due to his liberal
policies towards the non-Muslims, his religious innovations, the land revenue system and his
famous Mansabdari system. Akbar's Mansabdari system became the basis of Mughal military
organization and civil administration.

The reign of Akbar was a period of renaissance of Persian literature. The Ain-i-Akbari gives
the names of 59 great Persian poets of Akbar's court. History was the most important branch
of Persian prose literature. Abul Fazl's Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari were complementary
works. Akbar and his successors, Jehangir and Shah Jehan greatly contributed to the
development of Indian music. Tansen was the most accomplished musician of the age. Ain-i-
Akbari gives the names of 36 first-rate musicians of Akbar's court where Hindu and Muslim
style of music mingled freely.

The Mughal architectural style began as a definite movement under his rule. Akbar's most
ambitious and magnificent architectural undertaking was the new capital city that he built on
the ridge at Sikri near Agra. The city was named as Fatehpur to commemorate Akbar's
conquest of Gujrat in 1572. The most impressive creation of this new capital is the grand
Jamia Masjid. The southern entrance to the Jamia Masjid is an impressive gateway known as
Buland Darwaza.

Like most other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri, the fabric of this impressive gateway is of red
sandstone that is decorated by carvings and discreet inlaying of white marble. Of all the

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Mughals, Akbar's reign was the most peaceful and powerful. With his death in 1605, ended a
glorious epoch in Indian history.

British Arrive in India

In 1583, Queen Elizabeth I dispatched the ship Tyger to the Sub-continent to exploit
opportunities for trade. Sixteen years after the Tyger sailed to India, Queen Elizabeth granted
trading rights to a group of London entrepreneurs. In 1614, the British East India Company
opened its first office in Bombay. The British continued to seek concessions from the Mughal
rulers and enjoyed a unique trading monopoly. By the middle of the 18th century, the British,
in guise of the East India Company, had become deeply enmeshed in the politics of India.
The British and French had both obtained permission to open factories and forts in India. It
was in the guise of defense for their forts that they were able to establish large forces in
India. In the middle of the 18th century the war between France and Britain was extended to
the Sub-continent in order to establish control over India. The British succeeded in their
mission as they took advantage of the constant bickering of the local rulers and the lack of
consolidated power.

In violation of a trade agreement with the Nawab of Bengal, the British started reinforcing
Fort William in Calcutta. This led to a clash between the British and the son of the Nawab of
Bengal, Sirajuddullah, who opposed the British violation and reinforcement of Fort William.
Owing to the treachery of his uncle Mir Jaffar, Nawab Sirajuddullah was defeated in the
battle of Plassey in 1757. After the battle of Plassey, the British began the systematic
conquest of the Sub-continent. It was mainly the Muslims who raised resistance to the British
rule. The other organized group, the Marhattas, periodically sided with the British against the
Muslims. The people of India were not united against the foreign aggressors, which made it
easier for the British to seize power. The Marhattas, threatened by the British challenged
them under the leadership of their Peshwas. This resulted in a series of Anglo-Marhatta wars,
which finally resulted in bringing the Marhatta confederacy under the British rule. Some
Muslim rulers like Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan single-handedly tried to free India from
the British yoke, but were defeated. After minimizing the major threats, the British
systematically expanded their control and by 1823 had become masters of two-thirds of
India. They were proudly able to claim: "The sun never sets on the British Empire"

Jehangir’s Reign [1605-1628]

Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of Jehangir, meaning "Conqueror
of the World". He expanded the empire through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and
consolidated the Mughal rule in Bengal. Although many rebellions arose in the empire,
especially in Bengal and Mewar, Jehangir was able to suppress them all. Jehangir was
renowned for administering impartial justice to his people, irrespective of their religious faith.
Around this time, European traders had started coming to India. The English were able to
find favor with Jehangir and cultivated him through works of art, of which Jehangir was a
connoisseur. The first ambassador to the Mughal court was Sir Thomas Roe. He was able to
secure many trading facilities for his countrymen.

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The Mughal rule reached its climax during Jehangir's reign. In the history of Mughal
architecture, Jehangir's reign marks the period of transition between its two grand phases,
namely the phase of Akbar and that of his grandson, Shah Jehan. The most important
feature of this period is the substitution of red sandstone with white marble. Jehangir had a
deep love of color. The system of pietra dura, i.e. the inlaid mosaic work of precious stones
of various shades, gained popularity towards the end of his reign. He was also fond of laying
gardens. One of the most famous gardens laid by him was the Shalimar Bagh in Lahore. The
Mughal style of art was greatly developed during his reign. The most important feature of the
paintings of this era was the decline of the Persian and enhancement of the Indian cultural
influence.

Mughal paintings lost much of their glamour and refinement after Jehangir's death in 1627.
During the late 17th and 18th centuries this art migrated to regional centers such as in
Rajput and Jaipur, where it prospered under the influence of the local culture.

Shah Jehan’s Rule [1628-58]

Jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628. Khurram took the name of
Shah Jehan, i.e. the Emperor of the World. He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the
north and conquered most of Southern India. The Mughal Empire was at its zenith during
Shah Jehan's rule. This was due to almost 100 years of unparalleled prosperity and peace.
As a result, during this reign, the world witnessed the unique development of arts and culture
of the Mughal Empire. During the reign of Shah Jehan, Mughal architecture reached its
supreme exuberance. He chose marble as the chief medium for all his architectural
undertakings. Elaborate ornamentation, pietra dura, and creation of exclusive landscape
settings, are some important features of the buildings of this period.

Shah Jehan built marble edifices at Agra such as the Diwan-i-Aam, the Diwan-i-Khas, the
Shish Mahal and the Moti Masjid, which have been described as the most elegant buildings
of their class to be found anywhere. But all other architectural creations of Shah Jehan are
nothing when compared to the exquisite conception of the mausoleum of his wife, Arjumand
Bano Begum (Mumtaz Mehal) at Agra. The Taj Mehal is the crowning glory and culmination
of Mughal architecture. Its construction commenced in 1631 and was completed sometime
around 1653. Gulbadan Begum's "Humayun Namah", Jehangir's autobiography "Tuzk-i-
Jehangiri", Abdul Hamid Lahori's "Padshahnama" and Inayat Khan's "Shah Jehannama" are
some of the examples of Mughal literature in the latter period of Shah Jehan's reign.

Aurangzeb Alamgir’s Reign [1658-1707]

Aurangzeb ascended the throne on July 21, 1658 and ruled supreme till 1707. Thus
Aurangzeb ruled for 50 years, matching Akbar's reign in longevity. But unfortunately he kept
his five sons away from the royal court with the result that none of them was trained in the art
of government. This proved to be very damaging for the Mughals later on. Aurangzeb had
three brothers. His father Shah Jehan favored Dara Shikoh to be his successor. Dara Shikoh
was eclectic in his beliefs; therefore Aurangzeb challenged his father's rule. Shah Jahan fell
seriously ill and all his sons proclaimed succession. Contrary to everyone's expectations,

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Shah Jehan recovered. On his recovery, he again backed Dara as his successor. A war of
succession broke out among all the brothers. In the long run Aurangzeb was victorious. But
as Shah Jehan was in absolute favor of Dara, Aurangzeb no longer trusted him, and had
Shah Jehan placed under polite restraint in his own palace.

Aurangzeb, a staunch Muslim, gave many grants for the restoration of Hindu temples during
his reign. He also appointed Hindus to leading and commanding positions in his government.
His chief architectural achievement is the Badshahi Mosque at Lahore, the largest mosque in
the world at the time it was built. In his 50 year, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his great ambition of
bringing the entire Sub-continent under one rule. It was under his rule that in 1687 Bijapur
and Golkonda, the last of the two Shia states surrendered to the Mughal Empire. The
Marhattas continued to fight against Aurangzeb for some time. The last 26 years of
Aurangzeb were devoted to his relentless Deccan campaign for the purpose of which he had
moved his court to Deccan. Under Aurangzeb's rule, the borders of the Mughal Empire
spread out farther than ever before. But due to lack of communication and poor
infrastructure it was difficult to hold the empire together. If the court was in the north, there
was rebellion in the south, and vice versa. Though he ruled longer than any of his
predecessors, yet he could not stop the decline of the Mughal Empire, which hastened after
his demise as none of his sons was trained to rule. Finally in 1858 India came directly under
the control of British government.

Decline of Mughal Rule and the Battle of Plassey:

The death of Alamgir in 1707 is generally regarded as the beginning of the gradual decline,
and ultimately fall, of the once extensive, prosperous and powerful Mughal Empire. Although
it took nearly 150 years before the House of Babur finally disappeared from the scene, the
cracks that had appeared at Alamgir's death widened.

His son Muazzam, who ruled from 1707 to 1712, succeeded Aurangzeb Alamgir. He took for
himself the title of Bahadur Shah. He ruled for five years and momentarily revived the Mughal
Empire. But the Marhatta's power increased and they became the unchallenged rulers of
Deccan. In the province of Punjab, the Sikhs under Guru Govind Singh became a force to
reckon with. One of the reasons that power centers kept springing up outside Delhi was the
frequent change in the succession of Empires. Nearly 17 kings were crowned during the
period spanning from 1707 to 1857.

The weakened Mughal Empire invited havoc in the form of the Persian king Nadir Shah, in
1738-39. On his orders a general massacre of the citizens of Delhi was carried out, resulting
in the death of 30,000 people. Another threat to the Mughal Empire came from the Afghans
of Rohilkhand, lying northeast of Delhi. By the middle of 18th century, the Rohillas became
independent of the Mughal rule. At the same time the Jats also raised their heads against the
central rule.

Taking advantage of this chaotic situation, the East India Company began strengthening its
military capabilities. They conspired with Hindu traders and moneylenders against Nawab
Sirajuddullah of Bengal to take over his principality. The Battle of Plassey of 1757 is
considered a major breakthrough for the British in the Sub-continent. It paved the way for the

13
company's rule in Bengal, and hence the whole of India ultimately came under the
company's rule.

In the 19th century, Muslims like Syed Ahmad Brailvi and Shah Ismail carried out Jihad
against the Sikhs, as did Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan in Deccan against the British. However,
they failed in their efforts to stop the downfall of the Muslim rule. The final crunch came after
the war of 1857 when the Mughal rule officially came to an end and India came under the
direct rule of the British crown.

Causes of the Fall of Mughal Empire:

The Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent in the time of Aurangzeb Alamgir, but it
collapsed with dramatic suddenness within a few decades after his death. The Mughal
Empire owes its decline and ultimate downfall to a combination of factors; firstly Aurangzeb's
religious policy is regarded as a cause for the decline of the Mughal Empire as it led to
disunity among the people. Although the policy did lead to weakening of the empire but the
major cause of decline was the lack of worthy and competent successors after him. The
character of Mughal kings had deteriorated over a period of time. The successive rulers after
Aurangzeb were weak and lacked the character, motivation and commitment to rule the
empire strongly. They had become ease loving and cowardly. They totally disregarded their
state duties and were unable to detain the declining empire from its fall.

The absence of any definite law of accession was another important factor. The war of
successions not only led to bitterness, bloodshed, and loss of money and prestige of the
empire over a period of time, but to its eventual fall. The degeneration of the rulers had also
led to the moral degeneration of the nobility. Under the early Mughals, the nobles performed
useful functions and distinguished themselves both in war and peace. But the elite under the
later Mughals was more interested in worldly pursuit and self-enhancement. The nobles who
had once been talented men with integrity, honesty, and loyalty, turned selfish and deceitful.
Growth of hostile and rival clique in the court also undermined the strength of the
government. Widespread corruption in the administration started and taking bribes became
common.

One of the most potent causes of the fall of the Mughal Empire was the deterioration and
demoralization of the army. The military had not only become inefficient but also lacked in
training, discipline and cohesion. The army was out-dated in regard to equipment. It
consisted of contingents maintained by various nobles, which was the main source of Army's
weakness. As the weakening of the nobles occurred, so did the army. This was because of
the soldiers, instead of identifying and uniting as Mughal Indians, identified themselves with
different ethnic groups like Persian, Afghans and Central Asians. The Mughals had no navy
and only maintained small ships that were no match for the well-equipped ships of the
foreign traders. It was this weakness that the French and the British used to their advantage,
and were eventually able to establish their control over India.

Another factor contributing to the decline was the financial position of the Mughals, which
had become deplorable. The war of successions, rebellions and luxurious style of living had
depleted the once enormous treasury and had led to financial bankruptcy. During the time of

14
Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire had expanded to reach its maximum size. This vast area had
become impossible for one ruler to control and govern from one center. It was during the
later Mughals that Deccan, Bengal, Bihar and Orrisa declared their independence. The raids
by Nadir Shah, and repeated invasions of Ahmad Shah Abdali, resulted in further weakening
of the empire. The already weakened empire faced further encroachment by the British and
the French, which proved to be the last nail in the already drowning empire's coffin. The
British and French, who had initially come as traders, took full advantage of the weakening
empire and soon became masters of the whole of India.

Movements for Reforms-- Shaikh

Ahmad Sarhindi, Shah Waliullah,
Sayyid Ahmad Shaheed
Mujaddid Alf Sani''s Movement [1564-1624]
In the 16th century, during the reign of Akbar, Islam faced overwhelming threats. The
Infallibility Decree in 1579 and Din-i-Ilahi in 1581 were considered to be grave threats to the
religion. The Din-i-Ilahi, as propounded by Akbar, was a mixture of various religions. The new
religion combined mysticism, philosophy and nature worship. It recognized no gods or
prophets and the emperor was its chief exponent. To believe in revelation was considered as
"taqlid" (following authority blindly) or a low kind of morality, fit only for the uneducated and
the illiterate. Akbar's Din-i-Ilahi had literally made the orthodox Muslims outcasts in the affairs
of the state. Akbar was actually influenced by the Bhakti Movement that had started during
the Sultanate period. This philosophy propounded Hindu-Muslim unity. Many sufis, including
Qazi Mulla Muhammad of Jaunpur and Qazi Mir Yaqoob of Bengal, condemned his religious
innovations. However, the man who took it upon himself to revive Islam was Sheikh Ahmad
of Sarhind, commonly known as Mujaddid Alf Sani, or "the reformer of the second
millennium". Sheikh Ahmad was born in Sarhind on June 26, 1564. He joined the
Naqshbandiya Silsilah under the discipleship of Khawaja Baqi Billah. He dedicated his
sincerity of purpose to purify Islam and to rid it of the accretions of Hindu Pantheism as well
as the philosophy of Wahdat-ul Wujud. He gave the philosophy of Wahdat-ush-Shuhud.
Mujaddid Alf Sani wrote Ittiba-al-Nubuwwah. In this pamphlet, he quoted Imam Ghazali
justifying the need for prophet-hood and explaining the inadequacies of human intellect.
Through verbal preaching, discussions and his maktubat (letters) addressed to important
nobles and leaders of religious thought, he spread his message amongst the elite in
particular. He boldly opposed all plans to bring Islam and Hinduism together on the religious
level, knowing that it would loosen the Muslim grip on the sources of imperial strength.
Because of these letters, and general atmosphere in the country, he contributed to the swing
from Akbar's heterodoxy to Aurangzeb's vigorous orthodoxy instead of a return to Babur and
Humayun's policy of laissez faire. Iqbal rightly regarded him as the "Spiritual Guardian of the
Muslims" of the Sub-continent and one whom God had alerted to the great perils inherent in
the syncretism of Akbar.

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