Week3 Lecture4 PDF
Week3 Lecture4 PDF
Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibrium
dG dG A dG B ( i ,B i , A )dni
Change taking place at constant T, p
Substance i flows spontaneously from a phase with higher
chemical potential to a phase with lower chemical potential .
Partial molar Gibbs free energy
Partial molar Gibbs free energy
For a binary system:
G G T , P, n A , nB
G G G G
dG dT dP dn A dn B
T P,n A
,n B
P T ,n A
,n B
n A P,T ,n n B P,T ,n
B A
G n A A nB B
In general:
dG SdT VdP i dni
i
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Gibbs‐‐Duhem Equation
Gibbs
G p ,T n11 n2 2 n
i
i i
dG p ,T dn n d
i
i i
i
i i
dG p ,T dn
i
i i
At thermal and
mechanical equilibrium.
At constant p and T
n d
i
i i 0 Gibbs‐Duhem Equation
Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibrium
Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibrium
G
i
Chemical potential for a component in a mixture: ni p ,T ,n j
(Chemical Potential) for pure substance = Gm = G/n
Chemical potential for substance in
the phases that are in equilibrium
At equilibrium, the chemical potential of a substance is the same
throughout a sample, regardless of how many phases are present.
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Heating Curve
Three Dimensional Phase Diagram
(courtesy F. Remer)
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How to construct one‐component phase diagrams
A typical phase diagram Thermodynamic stability
Metastable states
F?
F? Phase boundary/Coexistence
F? curves
F? Boiling/melting point
1 atm Normal boiling/ normal
F? melting point (1 atm)
F? Standard boiling/ standard
melting point (1 bar)
Triple point
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Location and shape of phase boundary
Location and shape of phase boundary For point “a”
One component (pure) system (p, T) = (p, T)
For point “b”
(p+dp, T+dT) = (p+dp, T+dT)
(p, T) + d = (p, T) + d
d = d
d Vm dp S m dT
Vm dp
p – Sm dT = Vm dp
p – Sm dT
dp/dT = (Sm ‐ Sm) / (Vm – Vm)
(i) Solid to Liquid Phase Boundary
) Solid to Liquid Phase Boundary dp S trs H fus
dT Vtrs Tfus Vfus
If T1 is melting point at p1, and T2 at p2
p2 H fus T2
dT
dp
p1 Vfus T1 T
H fus T2
p ln
Vfus T1
T2 T2 T1 T2 T1 T
for, T2 T1, ln ln(1 )
T1 T1 T1 T1
H fus
p T
T1Vfus
T1Vfus
T p
H fus
Melting point (linearly) rises with pressure
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(ii) Liquid to
(ii) Liquid to Vapour
Vapour Phase Boundary dp S trs H vap
dT Vtrs TvapVvap
Vvap = Vm (g) ‐ Vm (l) Vm (g) = RT/p (for ideal gas)
dp H vap H vap
dT TVm T ( RT ) / p
dp 1 H vap Clausius ‐Clapeyron
Equation
p dT RT 2
d ln p H vap
dT RT 2
p H 1 1
ln 2
vap
p
1
R T T
2 1
(iii) Solid to
(iii) Solid to Vapour
Vapour Phase Boundary dp S trs H sub
dT Vtrs Tsub Vsub
d ln p H sub
dT RT 2
p H sub 1 1
ln 2
p1 R T2 T1
p2 p1 exp( ),
H subb 1 1
R T2 T1
H fus H vap 1 1
R T
2 T1
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Location and shape of phase boundary
One component (pure) system
dp S trs
Clapeyron Equation dT Vtrs
dp S trs H fus
f s
Solid to Liquid Phase Boundary dT Vtrs Tfus Vfus
dp H vap H vap
Liquid to Vapor Phase Boundary
dT TVm T ( RT ) / p
d ln p H vap
Clausius ‐Clapeyron Equation
dT RT 2
Phase Diagram of CO
Phase Diagram of CO2
Melting point of solid CO2 rises with pressure
At normal atmospheric pressure, CO2 cannot be liquefied (dry ice).
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Phase Diagram
Phase Diagram of H
of H2O
Temperature Dependence of Chemical Potential
dG Vdp SdT
d VmdP SmdT
Sm
T P
S m (solid) S m (liquid) S m (gas)
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(isothermal) Pressure dependence of Chemical Potential
G p
G p
G p
2
2 2
V dG Vdp G2 G1 Vdp
p T 1 1
p 1
p2
for one component system, 2 (T ) 1 (T ) Vmdp
p1
Case 1: liquid or solid; V weakly dependent on p
2 (T ) 1 (T ) Vm ( p2 p1 ) for one component
system
Case 2: ideal gas; V is dependent on p,
p2
2 (T ) 1 (T ) RT ln
p1
p o = standard chemical potential, the
(T ) o (T ) RT ln
po chemical potential of the pure
gas at 1 bar at temp T.
(T ) o (T ) RT ln p
p expressed in bar.
Effect of pressure on Melting Point
dG Vdp SdT
Vm
p T d VmdP SmdT
Vm (solid) Vm (liquid
q ) Vm (ggas)
Melting point increases with Melting point decreases with
pressure when Vm(l)>Vm(s) pressure when Vm(l)<Vm(s)
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Vapour Pressure of Solutions
Pressure of Solutions
Some of the solute particles
will be near the surface
Block solvent molecules
from entering the gas phase
Effect of solute on boiling and melting points of solvent
A *A RT ln x A
A *A RT ln a A
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The Gibbs Energy of Mixing of Ideal
The Gibbs Energy of Mixing of Ideal Gases
Gases
i (T ) i o (T ) RT ln pi pi = partial pressure of ith gas in bar.
Before mixing:
Gbefore mixing n (T ) RT ln p
i
i
o
i
After mixing:
Gmixture ni i ni i o (T ) RT ln pi
i i
ni i o
(T ) RT ln xi p
i
Dalton’s law of partial
pressure, pi= xip
The Enthalpy of Mixing of Ideal
The Enthalpy of Mixing of Ideal Gases
Gases
G mix nRT x i ln x i
i
G mix
S mix
T
p ,n
nR x i ln x i
i
H mix G mix T S mix 0
Ideal gases show no intermolecular interactions and
hence change in enthalpy is zero
Perfect gases mix spontaneously in all proportions
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Equilibrium: Overview
Describing Chemical Equilibrium
– Chemical Equilibrium – A Dynamic Equilibrium (the link to Chemical Kinetics)
– The Equilibrium Constant
– Heterogeneous Equilibria; solvents in homogeneous equilibria
Using the Equilibrium Constant
– Qualitatively Interpreting the Equilibrium Constant
– Predicting the direction of a Reaction
– Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations
Changing Reaction Conditions: Le Châtelier’s Principle
– Removing Products or Adding Reactants
– Changing the Pressure or Temperature
– Effect of a Catalyst
Chemical Equilibrium –
Chemical Equilibrium – A Dynamic Equilibrium
• Upon addition of reactants and/or products, reaction occurs until
a constant amount of reactants and products are present =
q
equilibrium
• Equilibrium is dynamic since product is constantly made (forward
reaction), but at the same rate it is consumed (reverse reaction)
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Chemical Equilibrium –
Chemical Equilibrium – A Dynamic Equilibrium
N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)
[NO2]2
K = = 4.63 x 10‐3
[N2O4]
aA + bB cC + dD
[C]c[D]d
K = Law of Mass Action
[A]a[B]b
Equilibrium Will
K >> 1 Lie to the right Favour products
K << 1 Lie to the left Favour reactants
Homogenous equilibrium applies to reactions in which all reacting
species are in the same phase
2
PNO
[NO2]2 2
Kc = Kp =
[N2O4] PN2O4
In most cases
Kc Kp
aA (g) + bB (g) cC (g) + dD (g)
Kp = Kc(RT)n
n = moles of gaseous products – moles of gaseous reactants
= (c + d) – (a + b)
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Chemical Equilibrium
aA+bB cC+dD
Gr0 G 0f G 0
f
pdts reactants
If ΔrG o > 0 then the reaction will not go as written (the reverse reaction
will go); if ΔrG o < 0 then the reaction will go as written.
Gr0 cC0 d D0 a A0 b B0
Gr0 0 Chemical reactions are not equilibrium processes
Chemical Equilibrium
Criterion for equilibrium at constant p and T
dG p ,T 0
dG p ,T i dni 0
i
Let the reaction proceed by an amount dn (dn>0)
dnC cdn
dnD d dn
dn A adn
d B bdn
dn bd
dG p ,T cC dn d D dn a A dn b B dn
(cC d D a A b B )dn
dG p ,T Gr dn 0 Gr cC d D a A b B
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Chemical Equilibrium
Gr0 cC0 d D0 a A0 b B0
If the components are not in their standard states:
Gr cC d D a A b B
Write a general form of the chemical potential of component i in
terms of the activity ai – choose system e.g. ideal / real gas etc.
i i0 RT ln ai
Gr Gr0 RT (ln aCc ln a D
d
ln a aA ln a Bb )
ac ad
Gr Gr0 RT ln Ca D
a A a Bb
Gr Gr0 RT ln Q
Chemical Equilibrium
Stoichiometric numbers i
Gr i i
i
Gr 3C D 2 A B
2A+1B 3C+1D
Gr0 RT ln aii
i pdts reactants
Gr0 RT ln Q Q aii
i
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Chemical Equilibrium
K aii Thermodynamic equilibrium constant
i equilibrium
Gr 0 Gr0 RT ln K a
Gr 0 Gr0 RT ln K
Gr0 RT ln K a
ai
Practically approximated by G 0
numerical values of molalities / K a exp RT
H 0 TS 0
by molar concentration /
K a exp RT
numerical values of partial
H 0 S 0
pressures
K a exp RT
exp R
Applications of Equilibrium Constants
Predicting the Direction of Reaction
• If Q > K then the reverse reaction must occur to reach equilibrium
• If Q < K then the forward reaction must occur to reach equilibrium
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