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Week3 Lecture4 PDF

Chemical potential and phase equilibrium are governed by the following principles: 1) At equilibrium, the chemical potential of a substance is equal throughout all phases present. 2) Substances will spontaneously flow from regions of higher chemical potential to lower chemical potential. 3) The Clausius-Clapeyron equation describes the slope of phase boundaries in pressure-temperature phase diagrams for one-component systems.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
89 views16 pages

Week3 Lecture4 PDF

Chemical potential and phase equilibrium are governed by the following principles: 1) At equilibrium, the chemical potential of a substance is equal throughout all phases present. 2) Substances will spontaneously flow from regions of higher chemical potential to lower chemical potential. 3) The Clausius-Clapeyron equation describes the slope of phase boundaries in pressure-temperature phase diagrams for one-component systems.

Uploaded by

Abhishek Sonu
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 16

8/16/2018

Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibrium

dG A  i , A (dni ) and dG B  i , B dni

dG  dG A  dG B  (  i ,B   i , A )dni
Change taking place at constant T, p

If i , A i , B , then dG  0 •Spontaneous transport of i from 


phase A to phase B
If i , A i , B , then dG  0 •Spontaneous transport of i from 
phase B to phase A
Iff i , A i , B , then
h dGd 0 •Phase Equilibrium

Substance i flows spontaneously from a phase with higher 
chemical potential to a phase with lower chemical potential .

Partial molar Gibbs free energy
Partial  molar Gibbs free energy
For a binary system:
G  G T , P, n A , nB 

 G   G   G   G 
dG    dT    dP    dn A    dn B
 T  P,n A
,n B
 P T ,n A
,n B
 n A  P,T ,n  n B  P,T ,n
B A

dG   SdT  VdP   A dn A   B dnB

G  n A  A  nB  B

In general:
dG   SdT  VdP   i dni
i

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8/16/2018

Gibbs‐‐Duhem Equation
Gibbs
G p ,T  n11  n2  2    n 
i
i i

dG p ,T    dn   n d
i
i i
i
i i

dG p ,T    dn
i
i i
At thermal and 
mechanical equilibrium.
At constant p and T

 n d
i
i i 0 Gibbs‐Duhem Equation

For a binary mixture, n1 d1 + n2 d 


Chemical potential of one component 
Hence, d = ‐ (n2/n1) d of a mixture cannot change 
independently of the chemical 
If n2>n1, a small change in  causes a  potentials of other components. 
large change in 

Chemical Potential and Phase Equilibrium
Chemical Potential and Phase  Equilibrium
 G 
i   
Chemical potential for a component in a mixture:  ni  p ,T ,n j

 (Chemical Potential) for pure substance = Gm = G/n

Chemical potential for substance in  
the phases that are in equilibrium

i (p, T) = i (p, T) 


At equilibrium, the chemical potential of a substance is the same 
throughout a sample, regardless of how many phases are present.

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8/16/2018

Heating Curve 

Three Dimensional Phase Diagram

(courtesy F. Remer)

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8/16/2018

How to construct one‐component phase diagrams

A typical phase diagram Thermodynamic stability 

Metastable states
F?
F? Phase boundary/Coexistence 
F? curves

F? Boiling/melting point

1 atm Normal boiling/ normal 
F? melting point (1 atm)

F? Standard boiling/ standard 
melting point (1 bar)

Triple point

Phase Rule: F = C ‐ P + 2 Critical temperature


C: # of components
P: # of phases Vapor pressure/ Sublimation 
F: # of parameters that can be varied independently vapor pressure

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8/16/2018

Location and shape of phase boundary
Location and shape of phase  boundary For point “a”
One component (pure) system  (p, T) =  (p, T) 
For point “b”
 (p+dp, T+dT) =  (p+dp, T+dT) 
 (p, T) + d =  (p, T) + d
d = d

d  Vm dp  S m dT
Vm dp
p – Sm dT = Vm dp
p – Sm dT
dp/dT = (Sm ‐ Sm) / (Vm – Vm) 

dp/dT = Sm,trs /Vm, trs dp/dT = Strs /Vtrs


The Clapeyron Equation:  Applies to any phase 
dp/dT = Strs /Vtrs
equilibrium of any pure substance.

(i) Solid to Liquid Phase Boundary
) Solid to Liquid Phase Boundary dp S trs H fus
 
dT Vtrs Tfus Vfus
If T1 is melting point at p1, and T2 at p2
p2 H fus T2
 
dT
dp 
p1 Vfus T1 T
H fus T2
p  ln
Vfus T1
T2 T2 T1 T2 T1 T
for, T2  T1, ln  ln(1  )  
T1 T1 T1 T1
H fus
p  T
T1Vfus
T1Vfus
T  p
H fus

Melting point (linearly) rises with pressure 

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(ii) Liquid to 
(ii) Liquid to Vapour
Vapour Phase Boundary dp S trs H vap
 
dT Vtrs TvapVvap
Vvap = Vm (g) ‐ Vm (l)  Vm (g) = RT/p (for ideal gas)

dp H vap H vap
 
dT TVm T ( RT ) / p
dp 1 H vap Clausius ‐Clapeyron
 Equation
p dT RT 2
d ln p H vap

dT RT 2
p H  1  1 
ln 2

vap

p
1
R T T 
2 1

(iii) Solid to 
(iii) Solid  to Vapour
Vapour Phase Boundary dp S trs H sub
 
dT Vtrs Tsub Vsub

Vsub = Vm (g) ‐ Vm (s)  Vm (g) = RT/p (for ideal gas)

d ln p H sub

dT RT 2
p H sub  1 1 
ln 2     
p1 R  T2 T1 
p2  p1 exp( ),
H subb  1 1 
   
R  T2 T1 
H fus  H vap  1 1 
   
R T 
 2 T1 

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8/16/2018

Location and shape of phase boundary
One component (pure) system
dp S trs

Clapeyron Equation dT Vtrs
dp S trs H fus
f s
 
Solid to Liquid Phase Boundary dT Vtrs Tfus Vfus

dp H vap H vap
Liquid to Vapor Phase Boundary  
dT TVm T ( RT ) / p

d ln p H vap
Clausius ‐Clapeyron Equation 
dT RT 2

d ln p H sub H fus  H vap


For Solid to Vapor  
dT RT 2 RT 2

Phase Diagram of CO
Phase Diagram of  CO2

Melting point of solid CO2 rises with pressure
At normal atmospheric pressure, CO2 cannot be liquefied (dry ice).

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8/16/2018

Phase Diagram 
Phase  Diagram of H
of H2O

Temperature Dependence of Chemical Potential

dG  Vdp  SdT
d  VmdP  SmdT

  
   Sm
 T  P
S m (solid)  S m (liquid)  S m (gas)

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8/16/2018

(isothermal) Pressure dependence of Chemical Potential
 G  p

G p
G p  
2

2 2
   V dG Vdp G2 G1 Vdp
 p T 1 1
p 1

p2
for one component system, 2 (T )  1 (T )   Vmdp
p1

Case 1: liquid or solid; V weakly dependent on p

2 (T )  1 (T )  Vm ( p2  p1 ) for one component 
system
Case 2: ideal gas; V is dependent on p,  

p2
 2 (T )  1 (T )  RT ln
p1
p o = standard chemical potential,  the 
 (T )   o (T )  RT ln
po chemical potential of the pure 
gas at 1 bar at temp T.
 (T )   o (T )  RT ln p
p   expressed in bar.

Effect of pressure on Melting Point

   dG  Vdp  SdT
   Vm
 p T d  VmdP  SmdT
Vm (solid)  Vm (liquid
q )  Vm (ggas)

Melting point increases with  Melting point decreases with 
pressure when Vm(l)>Vm(s) pressure when Vm(l)<Vm(s)

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8/16/2018

Vapour Pressure of Solutions
Pressure of Solutions

Some of the solute particles
will be near the surface
Block solvent molecules
from entering the gas phase

Effect of solute on boiling and melting points of solvent

 A   *A  RT ln x A

 A   *A  RT ln a A

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8/16/2018

The Gibbs Energy of Mixing of Ideal 
The Gibbs Energy of Mixing of Ideal Gases
Gases
i (T )  i o (T )  RT ln pi pi = partial pressure of ith gas in bar.

Before mixing:

Gbefore mixing   n  (T )  RT ln p
i
i
o
i

After mixing:

Gmixture   ni i   ni i o (T )  RT ln pi 
i i
  ni i o
(T )  RT ln xi p 
i
Dalton’s law of partial 
pressure, pi= xip

Gmix  nRT  xi ln xi Gibbs free energy of mixing of ideal 


gases is always negative, and hence 
i spontaneous

The Enthalpy of Mixing of Ideal 
The Enthalpy of Mixing of Ideal Gases
Gases

 G mix  nRT  x i ln x i
i
   G mix  
 S mix   
 T

 p ,n
  nR  x i ln x i
i
 H mix   G mix  T  S mix  0

Ideal gases show no intermolecular interactions and 
hence change in enthalpy is zero

Perfect gases mix spontaneously in all proportions

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8/16/2018

Equilibrium: Overview
Describing Chemical Equilibrium
– Chemical Equilibrium – A Dynamic Equilibrium (the link to Chemical Kinetics)
– The Equilibrium Constant
– Heterogeneous Equilibria; solvents in homogeneous equilibria

Using the Equilibrium Constant
– Qualitatively Interpreting the Equilibrium Constant
– Predicting the direction of a Reaction
– Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations

Changing Reaction Conditions: Le Châtelier’s Principle
– Removing Products or Adding Reactants
– Changing the Pressure or Temperature
– Effect of a Catalyst

Chemical Equilibrium –
Chemical Equilibrium – A Dynamic Equilibrium
• Upon addition of reactants and/or products, reaction occurs until 
a constant amount of reactants and products are present = 
q
equilibrium
• Equilibrium is dynamic since product is constantly made (forward 
reaction), but at the same rate it is consumed (reverse reaction)

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8/16/2018

Chemical Equilibrium –
Chemical Equilibrium – A Dynamic Equilibrium
N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)

[NO2]2
K =  = 4.63 x 10‐3
[N2O4]

aA + bB cC + dD

[C]c[D]d
K =  Law of Mass Action
[A]a[B]b

Equilibrium Will
K >> 1 Lie to the right Favour products
K << 1 Lie to the left Favour reactants

Homogenous equilibrium applies to reactions in which all reacting 
species are in the same phase

N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)

2
PNO
[NO2]2 2
Kc =  Kp = 
[N2O4] PN2O4
In most cases
Kc  Kp
aA (g) + bB (g) cC (g) + dD (g)

Kp = Kc(RT)n

n = moles of gaseous products – moles of gaseous reactants
= (c + d) – (a + b)

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Chemical Equilibrium

aA+bB cC+dD
Gr0   G 0f  G 0
f
pdts reactants

Gr0  c f GC0  d f GD0  a f G A0  b f GB0

If ΔrG o > 0 then the reaction will not go as written (the reverse reaction 
will go); if ΔrG o <  0 then the reaction will go as written.

can also be written in terms of chemical potentials of the components


can also be written in terms of chemical potentials of the components. 
Gr0 All components are in their standard states

Gr0  cC0  d D0  a A0  b B0

Gr0  0 Chemical reactions are not equilibrium processes

Chemical Equilibrium
Criterion for equilibrium at constant p and T
dG p ,T  0
dG p ,T   i dni  0
i

Let the reaction proceed by an amount dn (dn>0)
dnC  cdn
dnD  d dn
dn A  adn
d B  bdn
dn bd
dG p ,T  cC dn  d D dn  a A dn  b B dn
 (cC  d D  a A  b B )dn
dG p ,T  Gr dn  0 Gr  cC  d D  a A  b B

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Chemical Equilibrium

Gr0  cC0  d D0  a A0  b B0
If the components are not in their standard states:
Gr  cC  d D  a A  b B
Write a general form of the chemical potential of component i in 
terms of the activity ai – choose system e.g. ideal / real gas etc.

i  i0  RT ln ai
Gr  Gr0  RT (ln aCc  ln a D
d
 ln a aA  ln a Bb )
ac ad
Gr  Gr0  RT ln Ca D
a A a Bb
Gr  Gr0  RT ln Q

Chemical Equilibrium

Stoichiometric numbers i
Gr  i i
i

Gr  3C   D  2  A   B
2A+1B 3C+1D

Gr   i ( i0  RT ln ai )  i i0  RT  i ln ai


i i i

Gr0   i  i0  G 0f   G 0


f

 Gr0  RT ln  aii
i pdts reactants

 Gr0  RT ln Q Q   aii
i

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Chemical Equilibrium

Gr  Gr0  RT ln  aii  Gr0  RT ln Q Q   aii


i
i
At equilibrium:

 
K   aii  Thermodynamic equilibrium constant
 i  equilibrium
Gr  0  Gr0  RT ln K a
Gr  0  Gr0  RT ln K
Gr0   RT ln K a
ai
Practically       approximated by  G 0

numerical values of molalities /  K a  exp RT

H 0 TS 0
by molar concentration /  
K a  exp RT
numerical values of partial 
H 0 S 0
pressures 
K a  exp RT
exp R

Applications of Equilibrium Constants
Predicting the Direction of Reaction
• If Q > K then the reverse reaction must occur to reach equilibrium
• If Q < K then the forward reaction must occur to reach equilibrium

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