The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (1996) 25.

3 and 4: 177–206

Ships fastenings: a preliminary study revisited

Mike McCarthy
Department of Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Maritime Museum, Cliff Street,
Fremantle WA 6160, Australia

Introduction 1782 Contract for building of a 24 gun RN

During the inspection and/or excavation of Frigate.
1780s Le vaisseau de 74 cannon (Boudriot,
a wooden-hulled shipwreck, the archaeolo- 1977) and the 1986 English translation.
gist will often come across a wide variety of 1793 Allgemeines Wörterbuch de Marine
ship’s fastenings. These can vary greatly in (Röding, 1793).
size, form and material and can be found 1798 The Frigate Essex papers (Smith, 1793).
in place on hull timbers, or out of context 1815 Universal Dictionary of the Marine
(Falconer, 1815).
on, or under, the sea floor. Some of these 1822 The Shipwright’s Vade Mecum (Steel,
are illustrated below. 1822).
Not only are there many fastening types, 1862 Specifications for shipbuilding (Com-
but the terms used to describe them can missioner of Patents, 1862).
vary, and can cause confusion in the read- 1874 Australian Lloyds, Rules and Regula-
tions (Australian Lloyds, 1874).
ing of artefact registers, shipbuilding texts 1874 Naval Architecture (Thearle, 1874).
and catalogues. With respect to transla- 1877 Illustrated Marine Encyclopaedia
tion, David H. Roberts (Jean Boudriout’s (Paasch, 1877).
English-language translator) was led to 1920s Wooden Shipbuilding (Desmond, 1919).
comment that ‘such terms are [often] im- 1940s–60s International Marine Dictionary (de
Kerchove, 1961, First Edition, 1948).
possible to translate, each country having 1966 HMS Victory, Building (Bugler, 1966).
its own peculiarities’ (Boudriout, 1986: 1966 Boatbuilding (Chapelle, 1966).
140). This also poses real problems for
those interested in comparative studies. The literature available at the time was
A preliminary study, intended to pro- obviously limited, as was the range of
mote discussion on the subject by identify- fastenings themselves. A notably absent
ing ship’s fastenings and the terminology source was data taken from intact hulls,
generally used to describe them was pre- such as the Edwin Fox in New
sented but not widely disemminated Zealand. The practice of sewing or lacing
(McCarthy, 1983). This article presents planks was also not included in the 1983
that study to a wider audience in the hope study. Entitled ‘Ships fastenings (a prelimi-
that it will stimulate discussion and interest. nary study)’, the 1983 article initially ident-
ified nearly 90 English-language terms
The 1983 study specifically relating to ship’s (as opposed to
Two major sources were used in the origi- boat’s) fastenings (Appendix). Omitted
nal study. These were the collections of the from the study were those terms normally
Maritime Archaeology Department of the used only in small craft such as ‘wire
Western Australian Maritime Museum nail’ or ‘carriage bolt’. A ‘wire nail’, for
and the literature which was then available example, is defined as a ‘round shank nail
to this author. The latter was: occasionally used in boatbuilding when
1057–2414/96/030177+30 $25.00/0 ? 1996 The Nautical Archaeology Society
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

the planking is made of softwood or is the bolt was said to have 1/8 inch ‘drift’
under 5/8 inch (15 mm) in thickness (de (Falconer, 1815: 127). To have a degree
Kerchove, 1961: 922)’. The terms found of drift was standard practice. However,
were then arranged in a chronologically- 20th-century American use (Desmond,
based table which attempted to reflect the 1919: 204; de Kerchove, 1961: 243;
use of contemporary terminology, rather Chapelle, 1966: 173–175) indicates that the
than the date of publication. This was done term came to be used for a specific fasten-
in order not only to ascertain, what were ing, as in ‘drift-bolt’. The term is now
the most commonly used terms over the found elsewhere. In translating Jean
period, but also as an attempt to gauge Boudriout’s work, for example, David
their period of origin. Bugler generally Roberts uses the term ‘drift’ to denote the
refers to repairs done to HMS Victory in body or shank of a bolt (Boudriot, 1986:
the 1960s and his terminology does not 140).
necessarily reflect 18th-century usage. The table also showed that many terms
Boudriot, on the other hand, appears to such as treenail, nail, spike, spike nail, deck
use contemporary terms in his French- nail, clinch nail, bolt, rag bolt, eyebolt,
language description of the 74-gun ship ringbolt, hook bolt, clinch bolt, butt bolt,
and de Kerchove covers the early to mid chain bolt, preventer bolt, plate and staple
20th century up to the printing of his (a keel fastening) persist throughout the
second edition in 1961 (First Edition, 200-year period. These terms, by virtue of
1948). Chapelle, though concentrating on their longevity, self-evident nature, and
boatbuilding, provides a useful modern (apparently) widespread application are
focus in that he also refers to shipbuilding clearly appropriate for use in modern reg-
techniques. In the main, the author used isters and catalogues and are easily trans-
English-language sources, but the works of latable, while others appeared less suitable
Boudriot (1977), Röding’s Wörterbuch for various reasons, as discussed below.
(1793), and de Kerchove’s Maritime
Dictionary (1961) were also consulted for The re-presented study
some European-language equivalents. There are some changes from the original
The original table, which appears in study in what follows. Other texts have
abridged form below as Table 1, listed been consulted, though they are but a
most of the terms found. It also illustrated small indication of the possibilities.
the evolution of some terms and the Another change is in the form of the
decline of others over the relatively short suggestions for future research. Those fas-
200-year period under scrutiny. One tening types used in the process of ship
example is the ‘penny’, a term initially used construction, but removed at some stage
at the beginning of the study period as an before launching, such as ‘ribband nail’,
indicator of cost per hundred and size, to ‘clamp nails’, ‘wrain (or wring) bolts’, are
then become solely an indicator of size omitted. Similarly, ‘toggle bolts’ (used to
(Sickels, 1972: 69). Other examples are secure the ensign staff) or ‘pump bolts’
the terms ‘dump’ and ‘drift’. The former (being bolts that act to secure the pump
appears to have entered the literature spear to the pump brake or to act as a
around the mid 19th century and the latter fulcrum for the pump brake itself), do not
had traditionally been used in shipbuilding appear. These are found described by de
to signify the difference between the size of Kerchove (1961), Falconer (1815), Steel
a bolt and the hole into which it was to be (1822) and others in the reading list.
driven. For instance, if a bolt be 1/8 of an The original fastenings table has been
inch larger than the hole intended for it, abridged to include only those fastening
178
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

types found on more than one occasion Nails

in the 1983 literature (Table 1). It has been Nails can be described by cost, weight or
augmented, however, with an Appendix size, or by terms which could include pur-
which contains a list of all the fastening pose, material and mode of manufacture
types encountered. (Mercer, 1960: 235).
As can be seen from the table, not only (i) Cost: Five for a penny (Röding, 1793:
did terminology evolve in the period of 653).
study, but it is evident that the fastenings (ii) Weight: ‘30 pound nails’ (Röding,
found could be subdivided into two main 1793: 653), where 1000 of the type weigh 30
categories: metallic and organic pounds (approx. 15 kg).
fastenings. These could then be distilled (iii) Size: Nails of ‘Thumbs’ (Röding,
further into surprisingly few subsections. 1973: 653), where a ‘thumb’ (French,
Metallic fastenings, for example, can be pouce, Dutch, duym), is around one inch
divided into nails, bolts and miscellaneous. or 25 mm long. Boudriot (1977: 140) refers
to ‘Clous de 7 pouces’, that is nails 7
Metallic fastenings thumbs long, or about 7 inches (180 mm).
(i) Nails: Nails, spikes, sheathing nails. As indicated, the cost of a nail came
(ii) Bolts: Short bolts, through bolts, to be used synonymously with its length.
bolts with specially designed heads Falconer (1815: 291) states that two
and ends, specific purpose bolts, shilling or ‘Twenty four penny nails’
threaded bolts, and screws. (Clous de trois pouces et demi) . . . [are] . . .
(iii) Miscellaneous: Staples, plates and about three inches and a half in length’
rudder braces. (87 mm). Here he is apparently referring to
the cost per hundred (Sickels, 1972: 69).
Falconer also provides a scale in which
Nails 2-penny nails are about 1 inch (25 mm) in
The American shipbuilder, Charles length; 6-penny nails are 1Y inches
Desmond, defined a nail as a ‘small (37 mm); 10-penny are 2X inches (56 mm);
pointed piece of metal, usually with a head, 24–penny (about) 3Y inches (90 mm). As
to be driven into a board or piece of indicated, the practice has continued into
timber, and serving to fasten it to the other modern times and into regions where the
timber (Desmond, 1919: 207); they can be penny is not a recognized item of currency.
‘square or round in section and made Chapelle (1996: 242), for example, states
of either iron, copper, or mixed metal’ that ‘penny’ is an expression of length and
(Falconer, 1815: 291). Later, they were that the standard penny lengths and inch
made of iron or copper/zinc alloys. In (c. 25 mm) equivalent are: 2 penny equals 1
shipbuilding, large square-sectioned nails inch; 3 penny equals 1X inches; 4 penny
are called ‘spikes’. In the mid to late 19th equals 1Y inches; 5 penny 1Z inches; 6 penny
century, the equivalent large round- equals 2 inches and 10 penny equals 3
sectioned nails were known as ‘dumps’. inches. The penny equivalent also appears
With the exception of ‘dumps’ (which can in the context of WWII wooden ship-
also be categorised as a ‘short bolt’) nails building methods (Lankford & Pinto,
generally fall into two main categories, 1969). The term is also used in the con-
nails and spikes, each of which can be struction industry. Sickels (1972: 69), for
subdivided further. Small nails (those used example, indicates that 50 penny nails were
in fastening sheathing) are called ‘sheath- 5 inches (125 mm) long and 60 penny nails
ing nails’. Those used for metallic sheath- were 6 inches (150 mm) long. The slight
ing could be called ‘sheathing tacks’. variations in size for the various penny
179
 Table 1. Fastenings commonly appearing in the 1983 literature

180
1782 1864
Contract 1790 1793 1799 1815 1822 1862 Australian 1874 1890 1919 1948 1966 1966
of 1782 Boudriot Roding Smith Falconer Steel Patents Lloyds Thearle Paasch Desmond de Kerchove Bugler Chapelle

NAILS x x x x x x x x x x x
Nails described by:
(i) Cost x x x x
(ii) Weight x x
(iii) Size x x x x x x
(iv) Purpose and form
Brads x x x x x
Clasps x x x
Clinch nails x x x x x x
Copper nails x x
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Dumps x x x x x x
Doubling nails x x x
Filling nails x x x
Flat nails x x
Lead nails x x x
Plate nails x
Port nails x x
Round headed nails x x
Rudder nails (bolt) x x x
Scupper nails x x x
Sheathing nails x x x x x
Spikes x x x x x x x
Boat nails x x
Boat spikes x
Deck nails x x x x
Double deck nails x x
Single deck nails x x
Spike nails x x x x
Weight nails x x x

Bolts x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Short Bolts x x x x
Blunt bolts x x
Dumps x x x x x x
Lost point bolts x x x x
Rag bolts x x x x
 Table 1. Continued

1782 1864
Contract 1790 1793 1799 1815 1822 1862 Australian 1874 1890 1919 1948 1966 1966
of 1782 Boudriot Roding Smith Falconer Steel Patents Lloyds Thearle Paasch Desmond de Kerchove Bugler Chapelle

Through bolts x x x x x x
Forelock bolt x x x x
In & Out Bolts x x x
Rivet x x
Span Shackle x x
Clinch bolt x x x x x x x
Bolts with special head
Eye bolt x x x x x x x x x x x
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

Fender bolt x x
Hook bolt x x x x x
‘P’ bolt x
Ring bolt x x x x x x x x x
Shoulder bolt x
Stopper bolt x x
Specific purpose bolts
Bilge bolts x x
Butt bolt x x x x x
Chain bolt x x x x x x x
Drift bolt x x x
Frame bolts x x x
Preventer bolt x x x x x x x
Throat bolts x x x x
Threaded bolts
Lag bolts x x
Screw bolts x x x
Stud bolts x
Through bolts with nuts x
Screws x x
Miscellaneous
Staples x x x x x x
Plates x x x x x
Treenails x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

181
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

equivalents between Falconer and Chapelle Brad: A particular kind of nail ‘without
is to be expected over time and across a head or shoulder on the shank. Used
geographic boundaries. when the nails are driven entirely into the
(iv) Form and purpose: By the 20th cen- wood’ (de Kerchove, 1961: 94). Desmond
tury, the names used to describe nails came (1919: 207), on the other hand, states that
to ‘express for the most part the uses to a brad is a ‘long thin nail with a flattish
which they are applied’ or ‘their form’ head’. Falconer (1815: 291) indicates that
(Desmond, 1919: 207). The naming there are also ‘filling brads’ for the same
conventions (some of which were purely purposes as ‘filling nails’ described below,
regional) produced such a large variety of that is to say they have a head.
terms that Desmond identified ‘about 300’ Bradded or clasp headed nail: These nails
sorts of wrought or forged nails alone ‘are used for clasping when driven into the
(1919: 207). When it is considered that wood that their heads shall not be seen and
wrought or forged nails were only one of thereby render the work smooth so as to
his three categories (the others being, cut admit a plane over it’ (Falconer 1815: 291).
or pressed nails, and cast nails) it becomes Röding (1793: 653) refers to them as
apparent that there is a myriad of possible ‘clasps’. Paul Revere is noted in 1799 as
terms for nails alone. In reducing this supplying brads for nailing on the rudder
number to those generally used in early braces’ for the frigate Essex (Smith 1974:
shipbuilding applications (as opposed to 75). This appears anomalous.
boatbuilding and the construction indus- Clasp: See brad above.
try) many categories of nails become Clinch nail: This is a term for nails of
irrelevant to this study. It needs to be malleable metal which, after being driven
noted, however, that they can be found in through from the outside, are bent over on
maritime archaeological applications, as the inside of the frame (de Kerchove, 1961:
cargo or as fastenings for furniture and 152).
fittings. Clout nail: de Kerchove (1961: 155) de-
Descriptions, such as diamond-head, fines a ‘clout nail’ as a flat circular-headed
round-head, rose-head, button-head or nail with a partly round and partly square
nail-head, and square shank chisel point, section.
are found in the shipbuilding literature (de Doubling nail: Doubling is the process of
Kerchove, 1961: 763). A number of these covering a ship’s bottom or sides, without
descriptive terms are used in Figures 6 and taking off the old planking (Desmond,
7. The shanks of fastenings can also appear 1919: 204). This occurred in repairs or
‘ragged’ by the process of obliquely strik- where the planking was too thin, or where
ing the shaft of a nail or bolt with a sharp the shipwrights did not wish to remove
tool to make a series of raised indents or existing fastenings (Steel, 1822: 101).
barbs (Figs 2, 5, 11). As indicated, the form Dump: A dump is a large round,
often reflected the purpose, though there circular-section nail with a solid head (Figs
was often disagreement in terminology, as 8–10). Thearle (1874: 230) refers to
is evident in the discussion which follows. ‘dumps’ as ‘nails of mixed metal’, varying
in length from 7 inches long [180 mm] in 2
Brad Lead nail and a half inch plank [c. 55 mm] and in-
Clasp Plate nail creasing one inch [25 mm] in length of
Clinch nail Port nail every Y-inch increase in the increase in the
Dump Pump nail
Coopers flat Rudder nail thickness of the plank up to 12 inches
Filling nail Scupper nail (300 mm). A 5 inch (125 mm) plank would
Flat nail Sheathing nail be fastened with a dump 12 inches
182
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

Figure 1. Rudder nail (Possibly Lively, c. 1815, British).

[300 mm] long for example. According to Vergulde Draeck (1653–1656) excavated by
Thearle, dumps are generally between 5/8 Jeremy Green.
(20 mm) to 1 inch or 25 mm thick. They Flat nail or Coopers Flat: These have
are also described as short bolts. See small flat shanks nearly one inch long and
the following. were used to fasten tarred paper to the
Filling nail: ‘These are generally of cast bottom of ships before the sheathing was
iron and driven very thick [close together] applied (Falconer, 1815: 291).
into the bottom of planks or sheathing Lead nail: These are ‘small round headed
board instead of copper sheathing’ (Steel, nails for nailing of lead’ (Steel, 1822: 119).
1822: 118). Falconer (1815: 291) indicates Plate nail: ‘Plate nails have round heads,
that they ‘have large clout heads, are one are 2 inches (50 mm) in length and are used
inch thick and chiefly used for filling ships chiefly to fasten bill plates to the bill-
bottoms . . .’ The remains of iron, square- boards and to hang scuttle hinges to the
shanked, round-headed sheathing nails port lids (Falconer, 1815: 291). A ‘bill-
were visible on a small portion of hull board’ or ‘anchor bed’ is a ‘sloping support
found at the wreck of the VOC ship or platform on the forecastle on which a
183
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Figure 2. Ragged rudder nail (Star, 1876–1880, Australian).

stocked anchor is stowed and secured braces’. They also fit the category of short
when at sea. It usually extends a little over bolts (see the following).
the side so as to throw the anchor clear Scupper nail: These ‘are about an inch
when let go’ (de Kerchove, 1961: 14). (25 mm) in length, have broad heads and
Port nail: These are used for fastening are used for fastening leather and canvas
hinges to the port lids, also for fastening to the scuppers’ (Falconer, 1815: 291).
plates to the bill-boards (Falconer, 1815: Röding (1793: 653) states that they are
291). They are ‘short stout nails with large used for nailing lead and leather and that
heads’ (Steel, 1822: 118). they have flat round heads.
Pump nail: These are ‘barely a half inch Sheathing nail: (Fig. 3). ‘Sheathing’ is
long and used in the leather work and the broadly defined, by de Kerchove, as a
lower parts of common pumps’ (Röding, covering fastened to wooden, composite or
1793: 95, 653). iron and steel hulls as a protection against
Rudder nail: (Figs 1 & 2). These are shipworm and marine growths (1961: 715).
round fastenings ‘about 5 inches (125 mm) Wooden sheathing was usually nailed over
in length with a full head and used for felt, which was set in tar. Earlier in the
fastening pintles to the rudder’ (Falconer, 19th century, horsehair and pitch were
1815: 291). They are also used for fastening used ‘to set the wood’ (Ronnberg, 1980:
gudgeons to the ship. Steel (1822: 118), for 128, 137). According to Falconer (1815:
example, states that rudder nails are used 291) those sheathing nails used for fasten-
‘chiefly for fastening the pintles and ing sheathing boards in ship’s bottoms are
184
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

Figure 3. Sheathing nails (Rapid, 1807–1811,

American).

either of iron or copper. The latter, which

he calls ‘copper nails’, can be used for both
Figure 4. Spike (Redemptora, c. 1888–1900,
wooden and copper sheathing, are ‘made American).
of mixed metal of various lengths and
sizes; they have a flat round head, with a
square shank about one inch and a half nails used to fasten boards, as opposed to
long’ (1815: 291). Steel states that those those used in metallic sheathing. Ronnberg
used to fasten copper sheets ‘are of metal (1980: 128, 141, 137), for example, uses the
cast in moulds, about one inch and a terms ‘sheathing nails’ and ‘coppering
quarter long; the heads are flat on nails’ to describe the fastenings used for
the upperside and countersunk below, the wooden and metallic sheathing on 19th-
upperside is polished to obviate the century American merchant ships. Again
adhesion of weed’ (Steel, 1822): 118). this poses a problem where copper alloy
There is scope for debate and these sheathing is used. The terms ‘sheathing
definitions for sheathing nails are problem- nail’ and ‘sheathing tack’ could best be
atic, as they have been coined at a period utilized for these purposes. Clearly these
of change in technology from wooden to can be of various metals, notably copper or
metallic sheathing and (within the latter) copper alloy.
from copper to copper alloys. There is also Tack (sheathing tack): The term ‘tack-
a need to differentiate between the types of nail’ was in use around 1492 to describe
185
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Figure 5. Ragged spike (Data, 1879–c. 1895,

Finland).

a nail of 1Y inches in length (40 mm) in

length (Goodman, 1973: 438). This pro-
vides the historical antecedents for the use
of the term ‘sheathing tack’ to describe the
very small nails used in fastening metallic
sheathing to a vessel’s hull (e.g. Barto
Arnold, 1976: 129).

Spikes
A ‘spike’ (Fig. 4) is ‘a large, cut or wrought
nail of square section, made of galvanized
iron, steel, or composition. Also called
boat spike, spike nail, deck nail. Spikes
are used by boat builders for fastening
thick planking. They are shaped like Figure 6. Round-headed spike (Careening Bay
nails . . . ‘spike’ is loosely applied to large unidentified, c. 1880s).
nails, generally rose headed’ (de Kerchove,
1961: 763). There is some disagreement
over the minimum length of spikes. frigate Essex, were shorter (Smith, 1974:
Röding (1793: 136) states that they exceed 96). The discussion shows that there are
9 inches (225 mm) but the ‘spikes’ that the some antecedents for categorizing most
American, Paul Revere made for the large square-sectioned nails (deck nails,
186
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

Figure 7. Rose-headed spike (Rapid, 1807–1811,

American).

weight nails, double deck nails and so on)

as spikes. de Kerchove (1961: 763), states
that the length at which nails come under
the heading of spike is approximately 3
inches’. Some other authors start at 4
inches (100 mm). Boudriot noted that the
largest spike in his 74-gun ship was 15 Figure 8. A Dump or short bolt (Jervoise Bay
inches or 400 mm long (Boudriot, 1986: unidentified, c. 1880s).
140).
Deck nail: ‘Deck nails or spike nails are fastening planks to the beams (Falconer,
from four and a half inches (110 mm) to 12 1815: 291). Doubling occurs in repairs,
inches (300 mm) long, having snug heads where the planking or the hull itself is too
and are used for fastening planks, and the thin, or the shipwrights do not wish to
flat of decks’ (Steel, 1822: 118). These are remove existing fastenings (Steel, 1822:
of different lengths and are used for fasten- 101).
ing deck planks to the beams, carlings and Single deck nail: These are between 5
ledges, and for ‘doubling’ of shipping and and 6 inches (125–150 mm) in length and
187
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

and made of both copper and iron’ (Steel,

1822: 119.
Boat spike: Boat spikes are from 3 to 14
inches (75–350 mm) long, with diamond,
button or nail head, with square shanks
and chisel point (de Kerchove, 1961: 763).
With respect to nails and spikes gener-
ally, it is evident that the first three catego-
ries above (that is, nails described by (i)
cost (ii) weight and (iii) size) cannot be
readily applied to shipwreck material
found in recent times. Nails described by
(iv) purpose or form can be best described
according to their form and/or metallic
content, unless they are identified as a nail
used for a specific purpose (such as,
sheathing nail, deck nail, scupper nail).
This may become evident by virtue of the
fastening’s context on wreck timbers. The
same applies to spikes, which are square
sectioned nails larger than three inches
(75 mm).
With respect to any attempt to reach
agreement on terminology suitable for
use in modern maritime archaeology and
associated disciplines, it needs to be noted
that there were many different categories in
the contemporary literature. An example is
Jean Boudriot’s category of ‘medium’ and
‘large nails’ (1986: 140). These are all
square-sectioned and range from 4 to 7
inches (100–175 mm) in the first instance,
Figure 9. Dump, or short bolt (James, 1812–1830,
and between 7 and 30 inches (175–810 mm)
American). in the second. The lower range of these
categories could possibly be considered
‘spikes’ and the upper range as square-
are used for fastening deck planks to the sectioned ‘short bolts’. A similar situation
beams, carlings and ledges (Falconer, occurs with thick round-sectioned nails,
1815: 291). other than wire nails or machine-made
Double deck nail: These are used for nails of thin section. In England, these
‘doubling’ and for fastening planks to the came to be known as ‘dumps’, which can
beams (Falconer, 1815: 291). be considered as both large nails or short
Weight nail: ‘Weight or spike nails are bolts.
various lengths and sizes and used for
fastening bulkheads to their respective Bolts
places’ (Falconer, 1815: 291). Bolts are ‘cylindrical or square pins of iron
Boat nails: These ‘are various lengths, or copper of various forms, for fastening
generally rose headed, square at the points or securing the different parts of the ship’
188
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

ing’ or ‘through fastening’ were also found

in contemporary descriptions of the Naval
Steam Frigates of 1848 (Edson, 1976: 143).
As each of the two types can have specially
designed heads or shanks, short or through
bolts can be subdivided further into bolts
with specially designed heads and ends,
special purpose bolts and threaded bolts.
Boudriot (1986: 145) notes that the longest
bolts in the 74-gun ship are 4 m in length.

Short Bolt
A short bolt is one of short length, not
extending through the material which it is
intended to connect. Though the term
‘short bolt’ is not a universal one, it is
self-evident and more easily translatable
as a result. As an example of the difficul-
ties experienced by translators, Boudriot
refers to ‘cheville à point perdue’, which is
translated by Roberts as ‘round or square
pins with a lost point’. The term ‘blind
fastening’ is also used (Boudriot, 1986:
Figure 10. A Dump (Jervoise Bay unidentified, 140).
c. 1880s). Short bolts can either be blunt or
pointed and can have a wide variety of
heads as noted above. Röding (1793: 347),
(Steel, 1822: 87). In later years, they were refers to ‘scharf-bolzen or bolts with a
also made of various other metals, notably short point, or pointed bolts’. Bolts with-
copper alloy. A ‘pin’ is a ‘piece of wood out a sharp point are called ‘stuvbolzen’;
or metal, square or cylindrical in section de Kerchove (1961: 71) refers also to a
and sharpened or pointed, used to fasten ‘blunt bolt’ as being ‘a bolt driven into a
timbers together’ (Desmond, 1919: 208). plank and timber as a partial or extra
Falconer indicates that ‘the bolts are short security. It is not driven right through the
or long, according to the thickness of the timber and is therefore often referred to as
timber . . . they penetrate either quite a short driven bolt. Also called dump bolt’
through . . . or to a certain determinate (see below).
depth’ (1815: 50). Bolts have many pur- Dump: (Figs 8–10). de Kerchove (1961:
poses and appear in many forms, 38 of 249) defines a dump fastening as ‘a metal
which are listed in Paasch (1890: 7–10) fastening which does not go quite through
and 25 in de Kerchove (1961: 81) alone. both pieces of timber, so that only one end
Some bolts are threaded with nuts and is visible. It is a ‘small round bolt with a
washers. solid head and of the same thickness
Bolts found out of context and so where throughout. Also called a dump’. de
their purpose is unknown, may be de- Kerchove gives French and German
scribed by form and subdivided for sim- equivalents for dumps as ‘chevillage à bout
plicity into short bolts or through bolts perdue; stumpfverbolzung. Paasch (1890:
(Paasch, 1890: 13). The terms ‘short fasten- 8) defines a ‘dump bolt’ quite simply as
189
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Figure 11. A rag bolt (Eglinton, (1842–1852, Quebec).

190
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

‘one of short length not extending through Through bolts

the material’. According to Thearle (1874: Through bolts pass completely through the
230), dumps fit the category of large nail pieces they united (Figs 12 & 14). They are
due to their cylindrical and (almost) cylindrical or square pins of iron, copper,
constant form. Thearle (1874: 232) also mixed metal, or copper/zinc alloy and are
refers to dumps as short bolts, however. of various forms. A ‘through fastening’ is
Desmond (1919: 60) refers to ‘dump bolts’ one ‘that passes completely through two
and to dumps, ‘welts’ and short bolts in the pieces of timber to be joined and is secured
same context. either by a nut or by clinching on a clinch
‘Dump fastening’ is a particular method ring’ (de Kerchove, 1961: 833).
of fastening which refers to the use of Into the general category of through
one ‘dump’ to every four bolts in plank bolt also fall the terms ‘clinch bolt’ (also
fastening (Thearle, 1874: 230). It appears called ‘rivet’), ‘butt bolt’, keelson bolt,
illustrated also in Desmond (1919: 10). crutch bolt; garboard bolt; in-and-out bolt,
Rag bolt: ‘an iron pin, having several up-and-down bolt and a host of other bolts
barbs cut onto its shank to retain it in (Paasch, 1890: de Kerchove, 1961: 81),
wood’ (Falconer, 1815: 378). ‘A sort of each having a specific purpose or form (see
bolt having its point jagged or barbed to following).
make it hold more securely’ (Steel, 1822: Clinch bolt: A ‘clinch bolt’ is a bolt
123). Ragging, or the process of obliquely having a head on one end and the other
striking the shaft of a nail or bolt with end clinched (Röding, 1793: 345). de
a sharp tool to make a series of raised Kerchove (1961: 152) defines a clinch bolt
indents or barbs, is also seen on spikes and as: ‘a long through fastening used by
rudder nails (Figs 2 & 11). wooden ship- and boatbuilders, having its
Frame bolt: Frame bolts ‘are those by end rivetted over a washer or clinch ring
which the frames are tied together horizon- . . . used for fastening scarphed joints,
tally’. They are generally square but stems, deadwoods, keelsons, stringers,
sometimes are round (Paasch, 1890: 8). clamps and knees’. Clinching (clenching) is
According to Thearle (1874: 910), ‘they are the operation of fastening the point of a
generally of square iron, not clenched, bolt, or nail, on a ring or rove of iron, by
short bolts connecting frames’ (see special hammering it so as to make it spread
purpose bolts, below). If found out of (Falconer, 1815: 90). He defines a ‘clinch
context these could be termed short bolts. ring’ as a round washer with a hole in the
An example of a possible frame bolt centre over which the bolt is clinched. It is
appears in Figure 17 (see discussion under also called clench ring. Bugler (1966: 13)
drift bolts). uses the term ‘rove’, de Kerchove (1961:
Rudder nail: (Figs 1 & 2). These are 658) the term ‘roove’ to describe the dia-
round fastenings about 5 inches (125 mm) mond shaped or square washer used with
in length with a full head and used for iron fastenings. Röding (1793: 345) uses
fastening pintles to the rudder (Falconer, the term ‘plate’ to describe a ‘rove’ (Figs 14
1815: 291). They are used ‘chiefly for & 15). Finally, it needs be noted that a
fastening the pintles and braces’ and ‘rove’ in boatbuilding has a form different
are all ‘short stout nails, with large from that in shipbuilding.
heads’ (Steel, 1822: 118). Paasch, (1890: Rivet: (see fastening in Fig. 17). ‘A metal
9) calls them ‘rudder pintle and rudder pin clenched at both ends so as to hold an
brace bolts’. Either term (rudder nail intermediate substance with more firmness’
or rudder bolt) could be used in this (Falconer, 1815: 408). de Kerchove (1961:
instance. 654), defines the term more in the context
191
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Figure 12. Forelocked eyebolt with ring (unknown).

or iron and steel shipbuilding, and it is in bolt having one end a slot into which a key
that context that the term is most generally may be inserted to prevent the bolt being
used today. withdrawn’. Steel, (1822: 105) refers to the
key being ‘a thin circular wedge of iron’
Bolts with specially designed heads or ends while Falconer (1815: 50) says it is a ‘flat
These can be through or short bolts. They iron wedge’—a through bolt.
can have square, round, saucer, collar or Span shackle: A span shackle is ‘a large
other specially designed heads according to bolt driven through the forecastle, and
the purposes for which the bolt may be forelocked under the forecastle beam, both
intended. The ends can be forelocked or under and upon the upper deck beam; on
clinched on rings, plates or roves to pre- the forecastle it has a square ring for the
vent their drawing. They can also appear head of the davit to fit in’ (Falconer, 1815:
threaded with washers and nuts (Steel 491). At the time, Steel (1822: 133) stated
1822: 87; Falconer, 1815: 50; Paasch, 1890: that it is ‘long since disused in the Royal
8; de Kerchove, 1961: 80–81). Some are Navy as the davits are more commodiously
illustrated in Boudriot (1977; 1986: Cha. fixed in the fore channels’—a through bolt.
Fastenings-Caulking) Eye bolt: (Fig. 12). Eye bolts and those
Forelock bolt P Bolt types which follow, can be either through
Span Shackle Ring bolt bolts or short bolts. They ‘have an eye
Eye bolt Shoulder bolt made at the end of the bolt to which
Fender bolt Stopper bolt
Hook bolt Toggle bolt tackles etc. may be hooked. Some eye bolts
have a shoulder . . . as the ‘fish tackle eye
Forelocked bolt: (Fig. 12). de Kerchove bolt’ which has a plate or long strap, made
(1961: 302) defines a forelock bolt as ‘a under the eye to prevent it bearing into the
192
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

Figure 14. A clinch bolt with clinch ring (Jervoise

Bay unidentified, c. 1880s).

Hook bolt, P bolt, shoulder bolt, saucer

head bolt: These are a grouping, with self-
explanatory terms indicating the form of
their heads, hook bolt ‘a bolt having one
end in the form of a hook’ (Röding, 1793:
344); shoulder bolt, a bolt with a shoulder;
Figure 13. A fender bolt (Jervoise Bay un- ‘P bolt’, a bolt with a head in the shape of
identified, c. 1880s).
the letter ‘p’ (Röding, 1793: 82).
Ring bolt: (Fig. 13). Ring bolts have the
plank’ (Steel, 1822: 88). A ‘fish tackle’ is a rings turned into an eye made at the head
system used to hoist the anchor to the bow of the bolt. The rings are sometimes made
(de Kerchove, 1961: 286). angular to receive many turns of lashing.
Fender bolt: (Fig. 13). These bolts that Stopper bolt: ‘Large ring bolts driven
have the largest of round heads . . . [in through the deck and beams before the
order] . . . to fend their timber work main hatch for the use of the stoppers.
from the shock . . . of any other vessel’ They are carefully clinched on iron plates
(Falconer, 1815: 50). beneath’ (Steel, 1822: 136). Stoppers are
193
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

crutch bolt, garboard bolt, keel scarph

bolt also appear (Paasch 1890: 7–10; de
Kerchove, 1961: 81). However, unless
found in that context on a wreck or in
parent timbers, these bolts are difficult to
identify.
Butt bolt: A butt bolt is through fasten-
ing used to fasten a butt of plank. ‘It is
normally located in the next frame back of
the butt. Butts are usually cut upon the
middle of a [frame] timber, and are fas-
tened with one treenail and one short bolt
. . . and one through bolt called a butt
bolt in timbers nearest the butt timber’
(Desmond, 1919: 60).
Throat bolt: A bolt driven through the
throat of a knee or hook (de Kerchove,
1961: 832).
Chain bolt: ‘A large bolt to secure the
chains of the deadeyes for the purposes of
securing the mast by the shrouds’ (Steel,
1822: 94). These bolts which are driven
through the upper end of the preventer
plates and toelinks of the chains.
Preventer bolt: (Fig. 18). Bolts driven
through the lower end of the preventer
plates to assist the chain bolts in taking
the heavy strains of the rigging (Steel,
1822: 122). It is interesting to note in the
contract for the building of HM frigates
of 1782 that it allows for ‘chains or
chain plates as shall be directed’, indicat-
ing a change from ‘chains’ as commonly
seen in early vessels to the iron bar or
iron plate used for the same purpose in
later years. The use of the terms chain or
Figure 15. A clinch bolt with rove (unknown). preventer bolts however, does not alter.
A preventer plate is the plate secured to
short ropes with a knot attached to the eye the lower end of a chain plate to assist
of the stopper bolt used to control the taking the stress of the rigging on the hull
anchor cable. (Fig. 18).
Drift bolt: As indicated, this term
Specific purpose bolts appears to have its origins in early 20th-
These can appear in the categories above century North America (Desmond, 1919:
and can be both through and short bolts. 204). It has continued in use on that con-
An example is the frame bolt, those by tinent; Chapelle (1966: 173) defines it thus:
which the frames are tied together hori- a ‘drift bolt . . . the point is tapered . . . it is
zontally. Others, such as keelson bolts, not necessary to make a long taper, usually
194
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

Figure 16. A rudder gudgeon (Chalmers, 1851–1874, English)

less than half an inch being sufficient’. This the inside of the hull where practical (1966:
gives a rounded, blunt point. He also refers 175). The American René de Kerchove
to ‘through fastening drifts’, stating that defines a ‘drift bolt’ as a slightly pointed
these are usually driven from the outside to bolt with a ‘washer or clench ring and
195
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

The term may not be generally under-

stood or easily translated, however, and as
Röding (1793: 345) states that bolts gener-
ally are thinner at one end to facilitate
driving, the terms ‘through bolt’ or ‘clinch
bolt’ might best be used by maritime
archaeologists in these circumstances to
describe a ‘drift bolt’.
A case does appear for the use of the
term ‘drift bolt’ when referring to a bolt
clinched on one end, tapered on the other,
and not necessarily passing entirely
through the timbers joined (de Kerchove,
1961: 243; Desmond, 1919: 204). de
Kerchove, for example, indicates that ‘drift
bolts’ are ‘always driven obliquely to the
seam they fasten’ in contrast to the process
of ‘square fastening’, often mentioned in
the text. He also states that they ‘are used
on keels, deadwoods, rudders, centre-
boards and similar places where there is
ample wood and [where] clinch bolts can-
not be used or are unnecessary’ (1961:
243). Here it appears as a specific purpose
short bolt, driven obliquely to the seam
which is used where clinch bolts cannot be
used, or where it is deemed unnecessary for
them to be used. When used in deadwoods,
where these bolts can be very long, the
term short bolt, though technically correct
in that it does not pass completely through
the timbers it serves to unite, could cause
some confusion.
Thus, it is suggested that for those wish-
ing to avoid apparently regional terminol-
ogy, such as the American term ‘drift-bolt’,
and the English term ‘dump’, where older
more generally-understood terms exist, the
terms short bolt and through bolt could
suffice in most cases.

Figure 17. An iron ‘drift bolt’ (unknown) (After Threaded bolts

Arnold & Clausen). These can be both short bolts and through
bolts. There are many terms used in order
to describe them, some of which can be
upset head on the exposed end’ (1961: quite confusing, as will be seen. Thearle
243). Illustrations appear in Barto Arnold (1874: 359), for example, refers to ‘through
(1976: 136). screw bolts . . . [with] . . . nuts hove up
196
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

on them’. Desmond (1919: 97) refers to refers to rudder braces being secured with
‘through bolts with nuts’ for securing out- bolts and screws to the sternpost and
side planking to a vessel’s frame. In reflect- bottom planks. Chapelle (1966: 161)
ing mid-20th century shipbuilding practice, agrees. He states that ‘pintles and gud-
de Kerchove (1961: 691) stated that ‘for geons . . . are through bolted except when
most purposes galvanized iron screw bolts the end fastening of a gudgeon is in the
are preferred in shipbuilding to clinch planking; there, a large screw is driven’.
bolts. They can be drawn up tighter and Given the variations in the definitions
are stronger. It is usual to burr the head above, the terms threaded through bolt
over after tightening up’. Lankford and (with nut, unless it is lost), or the term
Pinto (1969: 136; 140) refer to ‘threaded screw bolt, where the bolt acts as a large
rod’ and ‘standard threaded bolts’ in their screw, could suffice. A lag bolt is a particu-
mine sweepers as an alternative to ‘drift’ lar type of screw bolt with a square or
bolts. A ‘stud bolt’ is a bolt threaded at hexagonal head, as defined above (Fig. 19).
both ends. One end is screwed into a Wood screw: These appear similar to
tapped hole in the base structure to which the type common in carpentry and joinery
attachment is to be made (de Kerchove, and though they are rarely found in ship,
1961: 802). The use of ‘threaded through as opposed to boatbuilding, Lankford
bolts’ with washers and nuts, became espe- and Pinto (1969: 136) refer to the use
cially necessary with the advent of steam of ‘wood screws’ in use on their WWII
and were necessary to better counteract the minesweepers.
associated forces and vibrations associated
with heavy steam engines. In analysing the Miscellaneous
US naval steam frigates of 1848, Edson Staples
(1976: 145), for example, quotes a contem- Desmond (1919: 209) defines a ‘staple’ as a
porary source stating that ‘all through bent fastening of metal formed as a loop
bolts of iron above the waterline, will have and driven in at both ends. Steel, (1822:
nuts and screws with washers’. 135) states that keel staples are generally
Paasch (1890: 9), refers to both ‘nut ‘made of copper from 6 to 12 inches, or
bolts’ and ‘screw pointed bolts’, as does de with a jagged hook at each end. They are
Kerchove (1961: 691), who defines a screw driven into the sides of the main and false
bolt as ‘a bolt with one end threaded’. In keels to fasten them’. Though much larger,
referring to the planking of composite and with ‘ragged’ or hook ends, keel sta-
ships, Thearle (1874: 359, 368), states that ples appear somewhat like a modern paper
‘the bottom plank is connected to the staple in shape. They are designed to allow
frames with nut and screw bolts. Hexago- the false keel or ‘shoe’ to give way in the
nal nuts are preferred to be of the same case of a serious grounding without dam-
material as the bolt and in thickness equal aging the keel itself (de Kerchove, 1961:
to their diameter’. The heads are sunk one 275).
and a quarter inches (30 mm) below the
planking if of iron and they are covered Plates
with well seasoned wood ‘dowels’. A plate is a flat piece of iron, copper, brass
Threaded bolts are not always secured or mixed metal, either ‘single’ or ‘double’,
with a nut. A lag bolt (Fig. 19), which is used in various configurations in a ship to
also called a lag screw, for example, con- strengthen a part to which it is attached
sists of a ‘screw with a wood-screw thread (Falconer, 1815: 347). They are most evi-
. . . with a square or hexagonal head’ (de dent at the stem and stern. Depending on
Kerchove, 1961: 429). Steel, (1822: 88) their form and shape, these particular
197
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Figure 18. Chain and preventer plates and bolts.

‘plates’ are variously called horseshoe and dovetail plates. Illustrations appear in
clamps, horseshoe plates, gripe irons, gripe Le Bot (1977). A circular ‘gripe plate’
plate, stirrups, fishtail plates, fish plates made of a copper alloy was photographed
198
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

in situ on the American China trader Rapid

(1807–1811), excavated by Graeme Hend-
erson (Fig. 20). The gripe in this instance is
the area around the junction of the stem
and the keel (de Kerchove, 1961: 338). A
stirrup is an iron or copper plate that turns
upwards on each side of a ship’s keel and
deadwood at the forefoot or the skeg
(Steel, 1822: 136). de Kerchove (1961: 238)
defines dovetail plates as ‘small plates of
gun metal let into the heel of a wooden
sternpost and keel to bind them together’.
All of the above fit the category of ‘double
plate’ that is, with a plate on either side of
the timbers joined. They are fastened with
through bolts clenched over the metal of
the plate at each end. Chain plates, on the
other hand, are generally ‘single’ iron
plates to which deadeyes are secured, re-
placing chains for that purpose. Preventer
plates are ‘stout plates or iron, bolted
through the sides at the lower part of the
chains, as an additional security’ (Steel,
1822: 122) (Fig. 18).

‘Rudder braces’, ‘rudder hangings’, gud-

geons and pintles, or ‘rudder irons’: (Fig.
16). These serve as the hinging mechanism
for a ship’s rudder. A variety of different
methods of fastening brace and pintle
straps have been found, including the use
of through bolts, ‘ragged’ rudder nails,
plain rudder nails or combinations of
these. Those found on the Rapid were all Figure 19. A lag or screw bolt (Chalmers, 1851–
1874, English).
‘rudder nails’, while common to many mid
to late 19th-century vessels encountered
by the author, is the practice specified in Treenails (trenails, trunnels)
Australian Lloyd’s (1874: 22) of through The term treenail appears in all of the
bolting the two bolts nearest to the crowns sources consulted in the 1983 study.
to the pintles and braces. As indicated, According to de Kerchove (1961: 860), a
screw fastenings in the form of screw bolts, treenail is ‘a cylindrical pin of hardwood
lag bolts, or screws are also common in used for fastening planks or timbers. . . .
fastening gudgeons and pintles (Chapelle, Treenails are used for outside planking
1966: 161) (Figs 16 & 19). below the waterline. They are driven from
the outside through the ceiling, and are
Organic fastenings: wedged at both ends’. Falconer (1825:
(i) treenail 579), states that treenails are long cylin-
(ii) dowel drical pins of oak from 1–1Y inches in
199
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

of diameter called the moot’ (Steel, 1822:

118). Australian Lloyd’s (1874: 21) requires
that treenails be ‘circular, being either
engine-turned, compressed, or planed’.

Dowels
A dowel, like a treenail, is a cylindrical
piece of dry hardwood (Steel, 1822: 102).
The difference appears to lie in their
application. While treenails ‘are used for
outside planking below the waterline’ (de
Kerchove, 1961: 860), dowels are used as
edge fastenings and in locating planking
and in other timbers. de Kerchove (1961:
238) indicates that dowels are ‘used for
additional security in joining two pieces of
timber together to prevent them from slip-
ping’. These timbers can vary from planks
through to frames, deadwood and scarphs
generally (Thearle, 1874: 177, 182, 187,
213, 219).
Dowels and treenails serve different pur-
poses. They can be found in association
with bolts and treenails along a strake of
planking. An illustration appears in
Thearle (1874: 233). According to Thearle,
dowels are also used in a practice ‘peculiar’
to the RN in ‘securing the plank above and
below a butt of wale’. He states that the
‘assistance given by the dowels, though
Figure 20. The gripe iron on the Rapid (1807–
1811) American. (Photo: B. Richards). indirect, is nevertheless considerable’ as it
is ‘an important consideration to prevent
the plank from sliding over the face of the
diameter (25–40 mm) and from 1 foot timbers when the vessel is working heavily’
(10 cm) to 3 foot inches (c. one metre) in (1874: 233).
length, ‘used for fastening the inside and
outside of the plank of a ship to the Coaks, tenons, keys, stopwaters and dowels
upright timbers’. Desmond (1919) refers to Coaks, tenons, keys and stopwaters war-
the practice of end wedging each treenail rant a brief comment, for though they do
with hardwood wedges. This is performed not serve to fasten them, they are used in
after the treenail is cut flush with the the process of uniting timbers or appear
planking to enable a more secure grip in between them. The term dowel also re-
the timbers and to help make the fastening quires further discussion, for it appears in
watertight. A Royal Navy contract of 1782 contexts other than those above. With
requires all treenails to be ‘well mooted . . . respect to composite shipbuilding, for
and all to be caulked or wedged at both example, Thearle states that the heads of
ends’. Mooting is the process of ‘making a some iron fastenings are sunk one and a
tree-nail exactly cylindrical to a given size quarter inches (30 mm) below the planking
200
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

and they are covered with ‘well seasoned Further studies

wood dowels’ (1874: 368). A ‘stopwater’, The author was forced to shelve the
which prevents water passing into a ship embryo fastenings study due to develop-
along a keel scarph (Desmond, 1919: 47), is ments in other, more pressing, projects,
also defined in some circles as a ‘dowel of notably the excavations of the iron-hulled
white pine or other softwood driven in a SS Xantho (1848–1872) and the VOC ship
seam between the keels and one of the Zuytdorp (1702–1712), both of which
adjoining parts where the wood is too thick commenced soon after 1983 (McCarthy,
to allow caulking’ (de Kerchove, 1961: 1990; 1993; 1996). Reports on these
792). In leading into the next section con- nearly completed programmes are in
cerning coaks, tenons and keys, Falconer preparation. As a result, with the
(1815: 126) stated that ‘dowelling among exception of a few additions and changes,
shipwrights is a method of coaking formed the author has made little recent progress
by letting pieces into the solid, or by on fastenings. However, a number or
uniting two pieces together by tenons’. areas of further interest are suggested
Desmond, (1919: 142) defines a coak as ‘a below.
rectangular or round piece of wood let into
the surface of the two pieces of timber that The composition of fastenings
are scarphed together in such a manner With respect to organic fastenings, de
that a half of depth of coak will be in each’. Kerchove (1961: 860) refers to the use of
Coaking is defined as the ‘operation of oak and teakwood in treenails, but states
uniting two or more pieces together in the that locust is the best timber due to its
centre by means of small tabular projec- ‘greater durability, toughness and freedom
tions formed by cutting away the solid by from shrinkage’. Desmond (1919: 207) pre-
one piece into a hollow so as to exactly ferred oak or locust and Thearle mentions
make a projection onto the other in such the use of variety of timbers, including
manner that they may correctly fit and the Australian and tropical hardwoods of
butts preventing the pieces from drawing durable quality. The French 74-gun ship
asunder lengthways’ (Thearle, 1874: 149). used ‘ilex or holm-oak’ (Boudriot, 1986:
A tenon (table) is ‘the end of a piece of 141). Treenails and dowels can therefore be
wood shaped in the form of a rectangular constructed of a wide variety of timbers,
prism, which is received into a recess in especially where vessels are built or re-
another piece, having the same shape and paired in areas outside the jurisdiction
size. This recess is called a mortise’ (de of underwriters or their agents. Lacings,
Kerchove, 1961: 827). A key is a ‘slightly for example coir, hemp, or leather are also
tapered piece of wood to drive into scarfs, expected to consist of a wide variety of
to wedge deck planks, or to join any pieces materials.
of wood tightly together’ (de Kerchove, Metallic fastenings can be constructed of
1961: 420). a wide variety of materials as described, for
As some indication of the use of these antiquity, by authors such as Tylecote
particular terms, a contemporary descrip- (1962; 1976; 1977) and in the period of this
tion of the building of McKay’s clipper study, c. 1760–1960, by numerous authors,
Great Republic, which was launched in such as Flick (1975), Harris (1966), Knight
1853, states that bilge keelsons were (1977), Rees (1971) and Staniforth (1985).
‘coaged [coaked], scarphed, keyed, square ‘Galvanized’ or ‘plain’ iron was used in the
fastened with one and a quarter inch period as were copper and copper alloy
[30 mm] iron and bolted edgeways’ (Edson, fastenings. These alloys are found under a
1975: 23). number of names, ‘mixt (mixed) metal’,
201
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

bronze, ‘composition metal’, ‘compound Contemporary texts

metal’, ‘naval brass’, gun metal, ‘yellow There are many texts available for those
metal’ and ‘Muntz metal’. These terms are wishing to pursue this study further. The
worthy of a study in themselves and there trade catalogue will prove of value. The
are many discrepancies to be found in their Shipmaster’s Assistant and Commercial
use. Paasch (1890: 10), for example, defines Digest (1837: 646–672) contains a multi-
a ‘yellow metal’ bolt as ‘a bolt of mixed tude of dutiable goods imported into the
metal’ and Paul Revere wrote in 1800 of United States, including bolts, nails, spikes
his bolts and spikes being constructed of and brads.
‘composition metal’, which he categorized Shipbuilding texts and contemporary
as a copper and tin alloy (Smith, 1974: descriptions are another important source.
73–75). Ronnberg (1980: 140), however, For example, the General Admiral, a
refers to ‘composition metal’ as being Russian steam frigate built in New York in
‘yellow metal’ or ‘Muntz metal’ (a copper/ 1858 had copper, ‘composition’ metal, iron
zinc alloy). bolts, galvanised iron, locust treenails,
There are real problems in applying such lignum vitae coaks, and iron plates
terms to shipwreck material. Thus only amongst its fastenings (MacCormack &
where the Muntz stamp appears can a Edson, 1972). The account of the building
copper/zinc alloy be safely called ‘Muntz of the 17th-century Prins Willem (Ketting,
metal’. Even where identifying marks exist, 1979) has also proved a useful indicator.
care needs to be taken. Mixed (mixt) metal, An illustration of the 13 separate fasten-
for example, was apparently first used in ings appearing in Ketting (1979: 133) gives
1776 (Knight, 1976: 308) in some rudder an idea of the types used in that particular
irons or braces and its use was required ship. Translated into English they appear
in an Admiralty contract of 1782 for use as: staple (not a keel staple), ragbolt or
in HM 24-gun ships. This particular barbed bolt with ring, gunport staple with
document helps to provide an interesting ring, heavy ragbolt, ‘headbolt’ with a
indication of the care needed in accepting cotter (a forelocked bolt), ‘goatshorn’ (a
such documents verbatim and for the need hookbolt with a ring), hookbolt, a ‘head-
for metallographic analysis before the nail’ or spike, a ring bolt with a cotter or
application of general terms to describe forelock (a forelocked ring bolt), an eye-
fastenings and sheathings according to bolt with cotter (a forelocked eyebolt), a
their (apparent) metal content. Forbes’ round headed bolt with cotter (a round
patent for ‘mixed metal’ for example, headed forelocked bolt), nails or spikes of
allows it to be 100 parts of copper to various sizes. There are many other similar
between 1–60 parts of zinc, depending on texts. An important multi-language study
the hardness sought (Patents for Inven- of ship’s fastenings (Bruzelius, 1990) has
tions, 1862: 27). Despite this, a rudder appeared on the world-wide web. Its
gudgeon recovered from the wreck of the author, Lars Bruzelius, has consulted 35
24-gun HM Frigate Pandora (1788–1791), sources dating from 1570 to 1928, includ-
which carried the broad arrow and the ing works in Spanish, Swedish, Dutch,
founder’s name ‘FORBES’, was found to German, English and Danish. This will
have a bronze-like composition and traces prove an essential reference for further
of iron arsenic and antimony in the ratio studies. (See references.)
87·3% copper, 6·9% tin, 0·24% lead and
0·04% zinc (MacLeod, pers. comm.). Excavations
Clearly it was made in a different period in From this author’s experience alone, it is
Forbes’ career. evident that fastenings can be found in a
202
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

variety of situations. These range from in been standard practice to use the composi-
and around a relatively intact hull in deep tion of fastenings as a dating tool (Barto
water on sand such as HM Frigate Arnold, 1876). Discussion on the develop-
Pandora (1778–1791) (McCarthy, 1985a), ment of copper, zinc, copper alloy sheath-
to scattered remains lying on a hard shal- ing and fastenings and the examination of
low reef, such as the barque Eglinton the development of patents such as that for
(1848–1852) (McCarthy, 1985b). In the Muntz metal in the mid-19th century
latter instance the timber had totally dis- (Flick, 1975; Harris, 1966; Knight; 1977;
appeared, leaving the metallic fastenings Rees; 1971) has facilitated that process.
out of context on the reef and in the For example the Muntz Patent for bolts is
caverns below. There are many other exca- dated December 1832, and that for sheath-
vation studies, some of which contain ing is dated October 1846 (Patents for
sections specifically dealing with the fasten- inventions, 1862: 93; 148). There also ap-
ings found (for instance, Staniforth, 1985). pears to be some scope in using fastenings
A recent analysis of ships fastenings un- as an indicator of country of origin. From
earthed by dredgers and subsequently de- the author’s experience there appears to be
posited in the ‘Slufter’, a large-scale spoil a difference in form between British fasten-
disposal site at the Port of Rotterdam ings and those from French or American
(Adams, van Holk & Maarleveld, 1990) vessels which have some similarities. Of
has also proved a useful Dutch–English interest also, are the insights of D. H.
language source for describing fastenings Roberts (Jean Boudriot’s English language
found largely out of context. Fastenings translator), who in noting that the nails on
can also be found spread over a wide the French 74-gun ship were of square
search area containing the remains of section, makes the comment that ‘most
many vessels from a number of different English nails were of round section’
shipbuilding periods. Barto Arnold (1976: (Boudriot, 1986: 140).
129–151) has identified sheathing tacks, The type of threads used on wooden
spikes, drifts, drift bolts, roves, clinch ship’s fastenings are another possible iden-
rings, chain plate, chain bolts, preventer tification tool and they could assist with
bolts and screws amongst the scattered dating. Of relevance to this possibility
material located in magnetometer searches (though in a different context), is the study
off the coast of Texas. He also used the of the threads appearing on the wreck of
material to date and assist in the identifi- the iron-hulled SS Xantho (1848–1872).
cation of his sites. The only source of (Garcia & McCarthy, in prep; McCarthy,
disagreement this author would have with 1996). The threads found on this vessel’s
Barto Arnold’s analysis would appear in ex-gunboat engine (built in 1861) are uni-
his use of the term ‘drift’ to describe a formly of the Whitworth standard, first
wide range of short bolts and through promulgated in Britain in 1841, while those
fastenings. of its boiler and pumps (both manufac-
tured and fitted to the ship around 1871)
Fastenings as a tool in shipwreck are not.
identification
There is considerable potential in the study Modern shipbuilding methods
of fastenings in order to ascertain the age Studies of modern wooden shipbuilding
and country of origin of a particular un- methods will also prove useful as a com-
identified wreck. Timber analysis is a tool parison. Lankford & Pinto (1969: 140)
that has long been used as one indicator of provide an insight into the changes in
country of origin or repair and it has long fastenings that had occurred up to the
203
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

building of their WWII minesweepers, for study failed in that aim and for a variety of
example. They stated that the most com- reasons little progress has been made since.
mon’ types used on their vessels were What has been re-presented above, with
‘wood screws, lag screws’, bolts, threaded some minor additions, is also but a begin-
rod, drift bolts and nails’. ‘Barbed drifts’ ning on which interested scholars may wish
were also sometimes used for greater hold- to build.
ing power. Nails (box nails) generally were
used as temporary fastenings prior to the Acknowledgements
application of screws and bolts. Their fas- Translations
tenings were, of necessity, non-magnetic German to English: Irene Gollop
and generally comprised a ‘silicone French to English: Rosemary Harper
bronze’, though they were occasionally of Dutch to English: Dr K. de Heer
nickel-copper alloy or steel plate. The
Illustrations
wrecks of their minesweepers are also
Chris Buhagiar, M. McCarthy, Pat Baker,
expected to have threads which will
Myra Stanbury.
help distinguish them from those of other
nations. Photograph
Brian Richards
Conclusion
The 1983 fastenings study ended with the Advice and Assistance
statement that ‘this obviously unfinished Jean Boudriot, Nick Burningham, Sue
attempt to catalogue the various types of Cox, Nigel Erskine, Dena Garratt, Jeremy
ship’s fastenings encountered in the litera- Green, Graeme Henderson, Mike Pollard,
ture available has only opened the door to Pierce Middleton, Russel Miners, Robert
a greater understanding of the complexity Parthesius, Fairlie Sawday, Neil Shand,
of the subject’ (McCarthy, 1983: 23). In- Myra Stanbury, C. G. Scofield, J. Richard
tended as a discussion document, the 1983 Steffy, Marit van Huystee, Tom Vosmer.

References
Adams, J., van Holk, A. F. L. and Maarleveld, Th. J., 1990, Dredgers and Archaeology, Shipfinds from
the Slufter. Afdeling Archeologie Onderwater, Ministerie van Welzijn, Eikenlaan.
Arnold, J. Barto III, 1976, An Underwater Archaeological Magnetometer Survey and Site Test
Excavation Project off Padre Island. Publication No. 3, Texas Antiquities Commission.
Australian Lloyd’s, 1984, Rules and Regulations with Registration Tables. Mason & Firth, Melbourne.
Blunt, J., 1837, The Shipmaster’s Assistant and Commercial Digest, Containing Information Useful to
Merchants, Owners and Masters of Ships . . . Together with the Tariff for 1832. New York.
Boudriot, J., 1977, Le vaisseau de 74 Canons. Traité pratique d’art naval. Paris.
Boudriot, J., 1986, (English Translation by D. H. Roberts), The Seventy-four Gun Ship. A Practical
Treatise on the Art of Naval Architecture. Paris.
Bruzelius, Lars, 1990, Fastenings. In the ‘Maritime History Virtual Archives’ on the World Wide Web
(http://pc-78-120.udac.se:8001/www/shipbulding/Fastening/Fastening, Atml).
Bugler, A., 1966, HMS Victory. Building, Restoration and Repair. London.
Chapelle, H. I., 1966, Boatbuilding. New York.
Clarke, D. L., 1968, Analytical Archaeology. London.
Commissioner of Patents, 1862, Abridgments of the Specifications Relating to Shipbuilding, Repairing,
Sheathing, Launching etc. London.
Contract to build 24 gun ship, December 1782. ADM/168/147. Public Records Office.
Desmond, C., 1919, Wooden Shipbuilding. New York.
de Kerchove, R., 1961, International Maritime Dictionary. New York.
Edson, M., 1975, The McKay clipper, Great Republic. Nautical Research Journal, March 1975, 21(10):
15–25.

204
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

Edson, M., 1976, Naval steam frigates of 1848. Nautical Research Journal, September 1976, 22(3):
1312–145.
Falconer, W., 1815, New Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Improved and Enlarged. Reprinted 1970.
Flick, C., 1975, Muntz metal and ship’s bottoms: the industrial career of G. F. Muntz. Transactions, 87:
70–88.
Garcia, R. and McCarthy, M., (in prep.), An analysis of the threads on the SS Xantho. Report,
Department of Maritime Archaeology, W. A. Maritime Museum.
Goodman, W. L., 1973, Bristol carpenters’ nails, 1492–1586. The Mariners Mirror, November 1973,
59(4): 437–441.
Harris, J. R., 1966, Copper and shipping in the 18th century. Economic History Review, XXIX: 551–568.
Ketting, H., 1979, Prins Willem, een zenventiende-eeuwse Oostindivaarder. DeBoer Maritiem.
Knight, R. J. B., 1973, The introduction of copper sheathing into the Royal Navy 1779–1786. The
Mariners Mirror, 59(3): 299–309.
Knight, R. J. B., 1976, Early attempts at lead and copper sheathing. Mariners Mirror, 1976, 62(3):
292–294.
Lankford, B. W. and Pinto, J. E., 1969, Wooden minesweeper construction in the U.S. Navy. Nautical
Research Journal, Autumn, 1969, 16(3): 131–145.
Le Bot, J., 1977, Le doublage en cuivre des terre-neuvas. Le Petit Perroquet, 21: 41–48.
MacCormack, J. S. and Edson, M. A., The General Admiral Russian steam Frigate of 1858. Nautical
Research Journal, 19(4): 235–244.
McCarthy, M., 1983, Ships fastenings, a preliminary study. The Bulletin of the Australian Institute for
Maritime Archaeology, 7(1): 1–24.
McCarthy, M., 1985a, Fastenings analysis—HMS Pandora, 1983/4 season. Unpublished report,
Department of Maritime Archaeology, W.A. Maritime Museum.
McCarthy, M. 1985b, Fastenings analysis—the barque Eglinton. Unpublished report, Department of
Maritime Archaeology, W.A. Maritime Museum.
McCarthy, M., 1990, Charles Edward Broadhurst, a Remarkable Nineteenth Century Failure. Unpub-
lished M.Phil. thesis, Murdoch University, Western Australia.
McCarthy, M., 1993, Zuytdorp: the search continues. Landscope, WA’s conservation, Forests and wildlife
magazine, Autumn, 1993: 42–48, CALM, Perth.
McCarthy, M., 1996, SS Xantho: An integrated approach to the maritime archaeology and conservation
of an iron steamship wreck? Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, James Cook University, Townsville, N. Qld.
Mercer, H. C., 1960, Ancient Carpenter’s Tools. Bucks. Penn. U.S.A.
Paasch, H., 1890, Illustrated Marine Encyclopedia.
Rees, G., 1971, Copper sheathing—an example of technological diffusion in the English merchant fleet.
Journal of Transport History, 1: 85–86.
Röding, J. H., 1793, Allgemeines Wörterbuch der Marine. Hamburg.
Ronnberg, E. A. R., 1980, The coppering of 19th century American merchant sailing ships; some
historical background with notes for modelmakers. Nautical Research Journal, 26(3): 125–148.
Sickels, (Ed.), 1972, Nails and nailmaking, a short history. Wire and wire products, 47(3): 67–70.
Smith, P. C. F., 1974, The Frigate Essex Papers. Building the Salem Frigate 1798–1799. Salem.
Staniforth, M., 1985, The introduction and use of copper sheathing, including a section entitled: the
copper sheathing and fastenings of the American China trader Rapid (1812). The Bulletin of the
Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology, 9(1&2): 21–48.
Steel, D., 1822, The Shipwrights Vade Mecum. London.
Thearle, S. J. P., 1874, Naval Architecture: a Treatise on Laying off and Building Wood, Iron and
Composite Ships. London.
Underhill, H. A., 1972, Masting and Rigging the Clipper Ship and Ocean Carrier. Glasgow.
Varman, R. V. J., 1986, Building Materials Survey and Assessment of Dating Potential. Ph.d thesis,
University of Sydney: 175–237.

205
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Appendix: Fastenings
bilge bolt fender bolt plate shoulder bolt
blind fastening filling nail plate nail single deck nail
blunt bolt fish plate port nail sister keelson bolt
boat nail fish tackle pointer bolt small nail
boat spike fish tackle eye bolt pound nail span shackle
bolt fishtail plate preventer bolt spike
breast hook bolt flat nail preventer plate spike nail
butt bolt fore and aft bolt pump bolt short driven bolt
butt through bolt forelock bolt pump nail square bolt
brad forelock bolt rag bolt standard threaded bolt
clamp bolt frame bolt ribband nail staple
clamp nail garboard bolt ring bolt stemson bolt
clasp gudgeon rod bolt sternson bolt
clinch (clench) bolt grip iron rivet stirrup
clinch nail hook bolt roove clench nail stopper bolt
clinch ring horseshoe roove stud bolt
clout nail horseshoe clamp round headed nail threaded bolt
chain bolt holding down bolt rove threaded rod
chain plate in-and-out bolt rudder hanging threaded short bolt
copper nail keel scarph bolt rudder iron threaded through bolt
coppering nail keelson bolt rudder nail throat bolt
coopers flat lag bolt rudder pintle bolt through bolt
crutch bolt lag screw rudder brace bolt through bolt with nut
deadwood bolt large nail saucer head bolt through fastening
deck bolt lead nail set bolt through fastening drift
deck nail limber strake bolt scarph bolt through screw bolt
double deck nail lost point bolt shackle bolt toggle bolt
doubling nail medium nail shelf bolt treenail
dovetail plate mortise screw bolt up and down bolt
deck bolt nail screw pointed bolt water way bolt
drift bolt nut bolt screw weight nail
dump nail ‘P’ bolt scupper nail welt
dump bolt penny nail sheathing nail wire nail
edge bolt pin sheathing tack wood screw
eye bolt pintle short bolt wrain (or wring) bolt

206