ENGINEERING PHYSICS

LABORATORY MANUAL
(For Private Circulation Only)

Name: __________________________________

Student ID: ______________________________

Branch: _________________________________

Batch: ______________ Group: _____________

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY
ASSAM DON BOSCO UNIVERSITY
GUWAHATI
2
Contents

Progress of Experiments 1

Experiment 1 2

Experiment 2 6

Experiment 3 11

Experiment 4 15

Experiment 5 19

Experiment 6 22

Experiment 7 26

Experiment 8 31

Experiment 9 36

Experiment 10 40

Experiment 11 45

Experiment 12 49

Appendix I: Percentage of Error and Proportional Error 54

Appendix II: What to write in your class copy? 55

Appendix III: What to write in your lab copy? 57

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PROGRESS OF EXPERIMENTS

S. Experiment
Experiment Title Start Date End Date
No. No.
Determination of the frequency of an elec-
1
trically maintained tuning fork
Determination of surface tension by Capil-
2
lary Rise Method
Determination of wavelength of light by
3
Newton’s Rings Method
Determination of grating element of a
4
diffraction grating
Determination of wavelength of laser
5
source by Diffraction Grating Method
6 Study of photoemission
Determination of rigidity modulus by
7
Static Method
Determination of acceleration due to grav-
8
ity using a bar pendulum
Determination of thermal conductivity by
9
Lee’s Method
Determination of Young’s modulus by
10
Searle’s Method
Study of the characteristics of a PN junc-
11
tion diode
12 Study of RC circuit

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EXPERIMENT 1

DETERMINATION OF THE FREQUENCY OF AN ELECTRICALLY MAIN-

TAINED TUNING FORK

Objective
To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork by Melde’s experiment.

Apparatus
Electrically maintained tuning fork, a stand with clamp, pulley, a light weight pan, a weight box,
a balance, a battery of two cells, a key, a rheostat, connecting wires etc.

Theory
A string can be set into vibrations by means of an electrically maintained tuning fork, thereby
producing stationary waves due to reflection of waves at the pulley. The end of the string where
it is fixed to the prong of the tuning fork and the position where it touches the pulley are nodes.
For a string of length L in the fundamental mode of vibration, with tension T in the string and
mass per unit length of the string µ, we have the following possible arrangements:

i) Transverse drive mode: In this arrangement the vibrations of the prongs of the tuning fork are
in the direction perpendicular to the length of the string.

Figure 1: Transverse drive mode

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 The fundamental frequency ν0 is given by
v
1 tT
ν0 =
2L µ

If p loops are formed in the length L of the thread, then the resonant frequency ν is
v
p tT
ν=
2L µ

ii) Longitudinal arrangement: In this arrangement the tuning fork is set in such a manner that
the vibrations of the prongs are parallel to the length of the string.

Figure 2: Longitudinal drive mode

The fundamental frequency ν0 is given by

v
1tT
ν0 =
L µ

If p loops are formed in the length L of the thread, then the resonant frequency ν is
v
ptT
ν=
L µ

Procedure
1. The weight of the pan P is found and the apparatus is arranged as shown in the first figure.

2. A load of 4 to 5 gm is placed in the pan attached to the end of the string passing over the
pulley. The tuning fork is excited by putting the plug in the key K.

3. The position of the pulley is adjusted so that the string is set in to resonant vibrations and
well defined loops are obtained. If necessary, the tension is adjusted by adding weight in
the pan slowly and gradually. For finer adjustment, milligram weights are added so that the
nodes are reduced to points.

4. The length of say 4 loops are measured formed in the middle part of the string. If L is the
L
distance in which 4 loops are formed then distance between two consecutive nodes is l = .
4

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 5. The weight placed in the pan are noted down and the tension T is calculated. Tension T =
(weights in the pan + weight of the pan) g.

6. The experiment is repeated twice by changing the weight in the pan in steps of 1 g and
altering the position of the pulley each time to get well defined loops.

7. 1 m length of the thread is measured and its mass is measured to find the value of µ, the
mass per unit length.

8. For longitudinal drive mode, the apparatus is set as shown in the second figure and the
adjustment and measurements are done as explained in the steps above.

Observations
Mass of the pan, w = __________________ g = __________________ kg
Mass of 1 m of the thread = __________________ g = __________________ kg
Mass per unit length, µ = __________________ g/m = __________________ kg/m

Length of Length of
Tension
corre- a single Mass in
T= Fre-
S. No. of sponding loop the pan
Drive mode (w + W )g quency ν
No loops p thread L l = L/p W (in
(in (in Hz)
(in (in kg)
newtons)
metres) metres)
1
Transverse
2
(A)
3
1
Longitudinal
2
(B)
3

Mean frequency ν̄ = __________________ Hz

Calculations
A. Transverse drive mode: v
1 tT
ν=
2l µ

B. Longitudinal drive mode: v

1t T
ν=
l µ

Percentage Error
Experimentally obtained frequency νex p = __________________ Hz
Actual frequency νac t = __________________ Hz
|νac t − νe x p |
Percentage error = × 100% = __________________ %
νac t

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Result
The frequency of the given tuning fork was investigated using Melde’s experiment and was deter-
mined to be __________________ Hz with an error of __________________ %.

Precautions and discussions

1. The thread should be uniform and inextensible.

2. The thread should be horizontal and in alignment with the tuning fork. In transverse ar-
rangement the thread should be stretched in line with the length of the prong so that the
vibrations of the tip of the prong are at right angle to it. In the longitudinal arrangement
the thread should be in line with the line of vibration of the prong.

3. Well defined loops should be obtained by adjusting the tension with milligram weights.

4. Friction in the pulley should be least possible as otherwise it causes the tension to be less
than the actual applied tension.

5. The loops in the central part of the thread should be counted for measurements. The nodes
at the tip of the prong and at the pulley should be neglected as this have some motion.

Sources of error
1. The friction at the pulley and sparking at the platinum points cannot be totally eliminated.

2. There is a change in frequency due to the clamping screw at the tip of the prong of the
tuning fork.

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EXPERIMENT 2

DETERMINATION OF SURFACE TENSION BY CAPILLARY RISE METHOD

Objective
To determine the surface tension of a liquid by capillary rise method.

Apparatus
Capillary tubes, a beaker, travelling microscope, experimental liquid.

Theory
If a capillary glass tube of almost uniform circular bore is partly introduced in a liquid which wets
glass and is kept vertical, the liquid rises in the tube.

Figure 1: Experimental set-up

If h be the base of the concave meniscus in the tube from the outer level of the liquid and r be the
internal radius of the tube at which the meniscus stands, then the surface tension T of the liquid
is given by,

1  r
T = ρgr h +
2 3 (1)
1
= ρ g rh0
2

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 r
where ρ is the density of the liquid, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h0 = h + is the
3
effective capillary column height.
The travelling microscope inverts the image, horizontally as well as vertically. Hence, while look-
ing through the field of view of the microscope, the surface of the meniscus would appear upside-
down as shown in the figure below.

Figure 2: Field of view of the travelling microscope

Procedure
1. The capillary tubes are fixed parallel to each other on a strip of glass plate. A clean needle
with a pointed end is also fixed to the glass strip parallel to the tubes. The glass strip is kept
clamped by a stand, so that the tubes, along with the needle, are all vertical.

2. A clean glass beaker is filled almost completely with the given liquid. The position of the
stand is arranged, so that the tubes remain vertical with their lower end of the needle just
touches the liquid surface. At first the tubes should be dipped deeper in the liquid and then
should be raised, until the lower end of the needle just touches the liquid surface. By doing
so, the inside of the tubes of the meniscus will be well-wetted.

3. With the help of a spirit level, the base of the travelling microscope is made horizontal
with the leveling screws attached to the base. The axis of the microscope is also made
horizontal by putting the spirit level on it and by adjusting its inclination. The cross-wire of
the microscope is then brought to a sharp focus.

4. The base of the microscope is adjusted, so that its horizontal movement becomes parallel
to the plane of the capillary tubes. By this adjustment, if the liquid meniscus, in one tube
is focused, then that in other tubes also will remain focused. To make the tubes perfectly
vertical, the glass strip is slowly rotated in its own plane, until the centre of the cross-wire
always goes along the axis of the tube as the microscope is raised upwards. If one tube is
made vertical in this way, all other tubes will also be vertical, for they are fixed parallel to
each other.

5. The microscope is adjusted till its horizontal cross-wire becomes tangential to the image
of the needle-head. The reading (R1 ) of the vertical scale and vernier is noted. Then the
microscope is shifted horizontally (and also vertically) until the horizontal cross-wire be-
comes tangential to the base of the concave meniscus in the first-tube. As the image seen
with the microscope is inverted, the horizontal cross-wire should be made tangential to the
observed convex surface of the meniscus. The reading (R2 ) of the vertical scale and vernier
is noted. In this way the readings corresponding to the base of the concave meniscus of

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 second, third, etc tubes are noted. Then the difference (x) between the readings of the
needle-head (R1 ) and the base of the concave meniscus (R2 ) in each tube is found out, i.e,
we find x = |R1 − R2 |. If l be the length of the needle, the height of the meniscus from
the level of liquid in the beaker, is given by h = l ± x (the +ve or -ve sign should be taken
according as the needle-head is below or above the meniscus respectively).

6. Now the vertical cross-wire is made tangential to the left-side of the inner-bore which is
almost circular and the reading (R3 ) of the horizontal scale is noted. The microscope is
then moved horizontally until the same vertical cross-wire becomes tangential to the right
side of the inner bore. The reading (R4 ) of the horizontal scale is noted. The horizontal
diameter D1 (= |R3 − R4 |) of the above bore is thus found out.

7. In a similar manner, the readings R5 and R6 of the vertical scale are noted, when the hor-
izontal cross-wire becomes tangential to the lower end and upper end of the inner-bore
of the capillary tube. The vertical diameter is then given by D2 (= |R5 − R6 |). The mean
D1 + D2 D
diameter D = of the first tube is thus determined, from which the radius r = is
2 2
then calculated.

Observations
1. Determination of the vernier constant of the traveling microscope
Value of smallest division of the scale = ________________ cm
n no of vernier scale division (VSD) = m no of main scale division (MSD)
 m
∴ Vernier Constant (VC) = 1 MSD−1 VSD = 1 − MSD = ________________ cm
n
2. Determination of height h of the liquid column

Vernier scale reading

Surface of water in the
for concave liquid h = |x − y| cm
beaker y cm
S. No. meniscus x cm
MSR VSR Total MSR VSR Total
1
2
3

3. Determination of radius r of the liquid column

Reading for left Reading for right Diameter Radius r

bottom bottom | y − x| cm cm
S. No.
Total Total
MSR VSR MSR VSR
x y
1
2
3

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 1
4. Data for plotting h0 versus
r

1 Effective height
S. No Radius r cm cm−1 h cm r
r h0 (= h + ) cm
3
1
2
3

Graph
1
The expected graph of h0 versus is shown below
r

Calculations
The density of the liquid is ρ = ________________ g cm−3
The acceleration due to gravity is g = ________________ cm s−2
The slope obtained from the graph is ________________ cm2
1
The surface tension is T = ρ g × (slope)
2

Percentage Error
Experimentally obtained surface tension Tex p = __________________ dyne cm−1
Actual value Tac t = __________________ dyne cm−1
|Tac t − Te x p |
Percentage error = × 100% = __________________ %
Tac t

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Result
The surface tension of the given liquid was investigated by the capillary rise method and was
determined to be __________________ dyne cm−1 with an error of __________________ %.

Precautions and discussions

1. For liquids other than water the following working formulae should be used

1 h + r/3
T = ρgr
2 cos θ
where θ is the angle of contact between the liquid and the glass.

2. Since the presence of any contamination lowers the value of surface tension the tubes and
the trough should be cleaned thoroughly before the experiment.

3. The tubes should be perfectly vertical otherwise the liquid meniscus will not be circular and
will give an error in the measurement.

4. Backlash error if any should be avoided while taking the reading with the microscope.

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EXPERIMENT 3

DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT BY NEWTON’S RINGS

METHOD

Objective
To determine the wavelength of the given source of light by Newton’s rings method.

Apparatus
Plano-convex lens, plane glass slab, travelling microscope, plane mirror, sodium vapour lamp,
table lamp.

Theory
When a parallel beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ is made incident on the wedge-
shaped film of air enclosed between a glass plate and the convex surface of a plano-convex lens of
long focal length, each incident ray on the air film will give rise to two reflected rays by reflection
from the front and back surfaces of the air film. These two reflected rays will interfere (because
they are coherent) and will produce alternate bright and dark concentric rings, having a dark at
the common centre.

Figure 1: Intereference due to air-film in the Newton’s Rings setup

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If Dm and Dn be the diameters of the mth and nth bright or dark rings then the wavelength of the
incident monochromatic light (incident almost normally) is given by

Dm2 − Dn2
λ=
4(m − n)R

Experimental Arrangement

Figure 2: Experimental setup for Newton’s Rings

The experimental arrangement of obtaining Newton’s rings is shown in the figure above. L is a
plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature placed with its convex surface on a plane glass plate
P. The lens makes contact with the plate at O. Light from an extended monochromatic source
such as sodium lamp falls on at glass plate G held at an angle of 45° with the horizontal. The
glass plate G reflects a part of the incident light. A part of light is then is reflected by the curved
surface of the lens L and a part is transmitted which is reflected back from the plane surface of
the plate. These two reflected rays interfere and give rise to an interference pattern in the form of
circular rings. These rings are localized in the air film, and can be seen with a microscope focused
on the film.

Procedure
1. The eyepiece of the microscope is adjusted on its crosswires. Now, the distance of the
microscope from the film is adjusted such that the rings with dark centre are in focus.
2. The centre of the crosswire is adjusted at the centre of the rings pattern.
3. The microscope is moved to the extreme left of the pattern and the crosswire is adjusted
tangentially in the middle of a clearly nth dark ring. The reading of micrometer screw is
noted.

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 4. The microscope is now moved to the right and the reading of micrometer screw is noted at
successive rings etc., till we are very near to the central dark spot.

5. Again crossing the central dark spot in the same direction, the readings corresponding to
successive rings are noted on other side.

6. Now a graph is plotted between ring number m and the square of the corresponding diam-
eter Dm .

7. The plot of the graph is fitted to a straight line. The slope of this straight line is measured
from the graph.

8. Using this slope, the wavelength of the given light source is calculated in the following
manner:

slope
λ=
4R

Observations
Ring Diameter Dm
Microscope Reading Dm2 (in cm2 )
number (in mm)
m Left Right
13
12
11
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
2
1

Graph
The expected graph of Dm2 versus m is shown below

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Calculations
∆D2
From the graph, we obtain slope = = __________________ mm2
∆m
The radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is R = __________________ mm
slope
The wavelength is λ = = __________________ nm
4R

Percentage Error
Experimentally obtained wavelength λex p = __________________ nm
Actual value λac t = __________________ nm
|λac t − λe x p |
Percentage error = × 100% = __________________ %
λac t

Result
The wavelength of the given source of light was investigated by Newton’s rings method and was
determined to be __________________ nm with an error of __________________ %.

Precautions and discussions

1. As the first few rings are indistinct, it is very difficult to ascertain the exact ring number of
the clearest ring.

2. The lens and the glass plate should be cleaned.

3. The microscope screw should always be moved in the same direction to avoid error due to
backlash.

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EXPERIMENT 4

DETERMINATION OF GRATING ELEMENT OF A DIFFRACTION GRATING

Objective
To determine the grating element of the given diffraction grating using a spectrometer.

Apparatus
Spectrometer, sodium vapour lamp, plane transmission grating, table lamp.

Theory
A plane transmission grating consists of a large number of equidistant parallel lines ruled by a
fine diamond point on a glass plate. Let width of the clear space AB = a and width of the ruling
BC = b. Then a + b is called the grating element. If light is incident normally on the grating, it
reaches the points A, B, C, D, . . . in the same phase. Passing by the edge of the rulings the light is
diffracted at all angles. Considering light diffracted at an angle θ , the path difference between
the rays diffracted at points A and C is C E = (a + b) sin θ . The rays diffracted at A and C will
reinforce each other if (a + b) sin θ = nλ where n is the order of the spectrum observed.

Figure 1: Plane transmission grating

We write the grating formula as

(a + b) sin θn = d sin θn = nλ
where d = a + b is the grating element.
The figure below illustrates the experimental setup using the spectrometer, sodium vapour lamp
and the plane transmission grating.

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 Figure 2: Experimental setup

Procedure
1. The eye-piece on cross-wires is focused and the telescope and the collimator are focused for
parallel light. The table is leveled with a spirit-level.

2. To place the grating perpendicular to the light coming from the collimator: The telescope
is placed along the axis of the collimator and the left side of the slit should be on the cross-
wire. The position of the telescope should be read on one of the verniers and the telescope
is turned through 90°, so that the collimator and the telescope are perpendicular to each
other. The telescope is fixed.

3. The grating on the prism table is fixed so that it is perpendicular to the line joining two of
the levelling screws. The light from collimator is made to fall on the back of the grating i.e,
on the side not having rulings, and it is turned (by turning the prism table) till it reflects the
light from collimator on to the cross-wire of telescope. It now makes an angle of 45 degrees
with the axis of the telescope. It is seen if the image of the slit is symmetrical with respect
to the horizontal cross-wire of the telescope. If not, it is made so by suitably turning the
third screw, this makes the plane of the grating vertical.

4. Now the vernier is read and the table is turned through 45°. The plane of the grating is
now perpendicular to the incident light which falls on its back . The table is fixed and the
telescope is released.

5. The telescope is pointed in the direction O’O. The direct image is obtained. The telescope is
turned to the left till the position O’A is reached. The first order spectrum will be visible. It

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 is seen if the slit is symmetrical with respect to cross-wire in the diffracted image. If not, the
levelling screws are turned for the purpose. This adjustment makes the lines on the grating
vertical. The cross-wire of the telescope is coincided with the left of yellow line. (If the two
lines D1 and D2 are both visible, the cross-wire is coincided with the left of both the lines,
by turn) and the position of the telescope is read on both verniers. Now the telescope is
turned to the right and when the spectrum is visible in the direction O’B, measurements are
made as before. The angle ∠AO0 B = 2θ1 .

6. Similar measurements are made on the second order spectrum and the angle ∠CO0 D = 2θ2
is measured.

7. The grating element d = a + b is calculated from the grating equation as

nλ
d =a+b=
sin θn

Observations

Order of
Grating
S. diffrac- Angle of Diffraction
Vernier Telescope Reading Element
No. tion θn
Scale d =a+b
n
Left Direct Right Left Right Mean
1 V1
1
2 V2
3 V1
2
4 V2

Calculations
The wavelength of the given light source is λ = __________________ nm
From 1st order observations, we obtain d1 = __________________ cm
From 2nd order observations, we obtain d2 = __________________ cm
d1 + d2
The mean grating element is d = = __________________ cm
2

Percentage Error
Experimentally obtained grating element dex p = __________________ cm
Actual grating element dac t = __________________ cm
|dac t − de x p |
Percentage error = × 100% = __________________ %
dac t

Result
The grating element of the given diffraction grating was investigated using a spectrometer and
was determined to be __________________ cm with an error of __________________ %.

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Precautions and discussions
1. The grating should be held from the edges and the ruled surface should not be touched.

2. The telescope should be focused on the brightest image of the slit while looking at the
reflected image.

3. The ruled surface should face away the collimator.

4. Light should fall on the whole of the grating surface.

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EXPERIMENT 5

DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER SOURCE BY DIFFRAC -

TION G RATING M ETHOD

Objective
To determine the wavelength of the given laser source by diffraction grating method.

Apparatus
Optical bench, laser source, plane transmission grating, observation screen, measuring scale.

Theory
Diffraction Grating: A transmission diffraction grating is a piece of transparent material on which
has been ruled a large number of equally spaced parallel lines which can be viewed as a set of
identical and equally spaced slits separated by opaque strips. In reality gratings are made by
ruling fine grooves by a diamond point either on a plane glass surface to produce a transmission
grating or on a metal mirror to produce a reflection grating. The distance between the lines is
called the grating constant or d. Typically a high quality grating (used for studying spectra in
the visible range) has about 15000 grooves per inch which gives a slit spacing of the order of a
micron.

Figure 1: Experimental setup

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When a wave front is incident on a grating surface, light is transmitted through the slits and
obstructed by the opaque portion. Whenever the difference in path length between the light
passing through different slits is an integral number of wavelengths of the incident light, the light
from each of these slits will be in phase, and then it will form an image at the specified location and
the spectrum in the form of dots is received on the screen some distance away. Mathematically
the relation is:

d sin θm = mλ (1)
where θm is the angular position of the m th order beam spot with respect to the normal to the
grating surface, d is the grating constant, λ is the wavelength of the laser light, and m = 1, 2, 3, . . .
is an integer denoting the diffraction order. If a monochromatic light source shines on a grating,
images of the laser beam will appear at a number of angles θ1 , θ2 and so on, symmetrically about
the central bright spot. The value of θm is given by grating equation shown above, so that
 ‹
mλ
θm = sin −1
(2)
d
The image created at θm is called the m th order image. If sm is the distance of the m th order from
the zeroth order, then the wavelength of the laser light is obtained from the relation

‹
d
λ= sin θm (3)
m
From figure 1, we have
sm
sin θm = Æ (4)
2 + L2
sm
Using equation (4) in equation (3) we obtain the relation to calculate the wavelength of the given
laser source as follows:
‹– ™
sm

d
λ= (5)
2 + L2
Æ
m sm
The wavelength λ is experimentally obtained by averaging the result for multiple orders. In this
experiment, we average over the 1st and 2nd orders.

Procedure
1. The laser and grating are set up as shown in figure 1.

2. The distance L between the screen and the diffraction grating is measured.

3. The laser is turned on.

4. The distance s1 between the 1st order images appearing on the left and right sides of the
center spot are measured.

5. The distance s2 between the 2nd order images appearing on the left and right sides of the
center spot are measured.

6. The values of s1 are averaged for the left and right sides. Similarly for the values of s2 .

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 7. The transmission grating used has 15000 lines per inch. Hence the value of the grating
element d is calculated as:

2.54 cm
d= = 1.693 × 10−4 cm
15000
8. The wavelength of the laser is then calculated for the 1st and 2nd orders using equation (5).

Observations
Mean 2
S. Order sm (in L (in sm (in L 2 (in
sm (in Æ
2 + L2
λ (in nm)
No. m cm) cm) cm2 ) cm2 ) sm
cm)
1
1
2
3
2
4

Calculations
Wavelength obtained from order m = 1 diffraction, λ1 = __________________ nm
Wavelength obtained from order m = 2 diffraction, λ2 = __________________ nm
λ1 + λ2
Mean wavelength from both diffraction orders λ = = __________________ nm
2

Percentage Error
Experimentally obtained wavelength λex p = __________________ nm
Actual wavelength λac t = __________________ nm
|λac t − λe x p |
Percentage error = × 100% = __________________ %
λac t

Result
The wavelength of the given laser source was investigated by diffraction grating method and was
determined to be __________________ nm with an error of __________________ %.

Precautions and discussions

1. The grating should be held from the edges and the ruled surface should not be touched.

2. Light should fall on the whole of the grating surface.

3. The ruled surface should face away from the source.

4. One should not look at directly towards laser source.

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EXPERIMENT 6

STUDY OF PHOTOEMISSION

Objective
To study the response of a solar cell to bright light and obtain the I-V characteristic plots for
varying intensities.

Apparatus
Lab solar cell characteristics trainer, a table lamp, a set of patch cords.

Theory
Introduction: A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell is a semiconductor device consisting of a large area
PN junction diode, which, in the presence of light, is capable of generating usable electric energy.
This conversion is called the photovoltaic effect. A PN junction is formed by combining N-type and
P-type extrinsic semiconductors together in very close contact. The term junction refers to the
region where the two types of semiconductors meet. It can be thought of as the border between
the P-type and N-type blocks.

The PN junctions possess some interesting properties, which have useful application in modern
electronics. P-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of N-doped semi-
conductor, but the junction between them is non-conducting. This non-conducting layer, called
the depletion zone, occurs because the electrical charge carriers in doped N-type and P-type silicon
(electrons and holes respectively) attract and eliminate each other in a process called recombi-
nation. By engineering this non-conductive layer, PN junctions are commonly used as diodes,
electrical switches that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but none in the other (oppo-
site) direction. This property is explained in terms of the forward-bias and reverse-bias setup,
where the term bias refers to an application of electric voltage across the PN-junction diode.

Solar photovoltaic energy conservation is a one-step conversion process which generates electrical
energy from light energy. The explanation relies on the ideas from quantum theory. Light is made
up of packets of energy called photons, whose energy depends only upon the frequency, or colour
of the light. The energy of visible photons is sufficient to excite electrons, bound in to solids, up
to higher energy levels where they are free to move.

An extreme example of this is the photoelectric effect (shown in figure 1), the celebrated exper-
iment which was explained by Einstein in 1905, where blue or ultraviolet light provides enough
energy for electrons to escape completely from the surface of the metal. Normally when the light

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 22

 Figure 1: Photoelectric Effect Figure 2: Working of a solar cell

is absorbed by matter, photons are given up to the excite electrons to higher energy states within
the material, but the excited electrons quickly relax back to their ground state.

Comparison of the photoelectric effect where UV light liberates electrons from the surface of a
metal with the photovoltaic effect in a solar cell (in figure 2) is shown. The photovoltaic cell needs
to have some spatial asymmetry, such as contacts with different electrons properties to drive the
excited electrons towards the external circuit. There is some built-in asymmetry. The extra energy
of the excited electrons generates a potential difference, or electromotive force (EMF). This EMF
drives the electron through a load in the external circuit to do electrical work. The effectiveness
of a photovoltaic device depends upon the choice of light absorbing materials and the way in
which they are connected to the external circuits. The solar cell can take the place of a battery in
a simple electric circuit. For any resistance, a voltage V is developed and delivers a current I such
that V = IR L . Thus both I and V are determined by the illumination as well as the load.

Figure 3: Using a solar cell to drive a load is equivalent to driving the same load using a battery

Procedure
1. The circuit is configured as per the lab solar cell trainer.

2. Both the current and voltage switches on the kit are kept in the OFF state to begin with.
The potentiometer used to control the variable resistance is kept at 0 Ω.

3. The table lamp is then switched on and the light is made to fall on the surface of the solar
cell.

4. The current and the voltage in the circuit is then allowed to vary by changing the resistance
values. The current and voltage readings (from the ammeter and voltmeter respectively)
are then noted down for each resistance value.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 23

 5. The glass filter (numbered 1) is placed on the surface of the solar cell. Step 4 is then
repeated for this intensity.

6. The glass filter (numbered 2) is placed on the surface of the solar cell. Step 4 is then
repeated for this intensity.

7. For each intensity, the current I through the solar cell is plotted versus the voltage V on the
same graph paper.

Observations
S. No. Intensity Resistance (in Ω) Voltage (in V) Current (in mA)
1
2
.. I1 .. .. ..
. . . .
9
10
11
12
.. I2 .. .. ..
. . . .
19
20
21
22
.. I3 .. .. ..
. . . .
29
30

Graph
The expected graph obtained from experimental data is shown below:

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 24

Result
The voltage across and current through solar cell for different intensities were investigated and
an I-V characteristic graph was plotted for the given solar cell.

Precautions and discussions

1. The distance between the light source and the apparatus should not be changed while per-
forming the experiment.

2. All the connections should be tight.

Sources of error
1. Due to the variation of intensity of light to the solar cell.

2. Due to the external light sources.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 25

EXPERIMENT 7

DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS BY STATIC METHOD

Objective
To determine the rigidity modulus for the given wire by static method using Barton’s Apparatus.

Apparatus
Barton’s apparatus, metre scale, vernier calipers, screw gauge, 500 g standard weights.

Theory
The rigidity modulus of a wire may be determined by the formula:

360M g D(l1 − l2 )
η=
π2 r 4 (φ1 − φ2 )

where M = load suspended from either cord

g = acceleration due to gravity (in cm−2 )
D = diameter of the flywheel
r = radius of the experimental wire
(l1 − l2 ) = distance between the pointers P1 and P2
(φ1 − φ2 ) = difference between the angular deflections at the pointers P1 and P2

Description of Barton’s apparatus: The main component of Barton’s apparatus is a vertical

metallic frame. The experimental rod with radius r is kept fixed rigidly on the metallic frame. At
the free end of the metallic rod, a cylindrical metallic flywheel of diameter D is fixed. Massless
inextensible threads are wound round the flywheel in such that they leave it tangentially at the
possible ends of a diameter and then pass over two frictionless pulleys K1 and K2 . From the two
ends of the thread weights can be suspended. Standard 500 g weights are then suspended over
the pulley using two pans (weighing 500 g each) on either side. The mass placed on either pan
is designated as M .

At two positions on the wire, there are two pointers P1 , P2 which move over two circular scales.
The separation between these two pointers is l1 − l2 . The angles of twist, as measured on pointers
P1 and P2 , are φ1 and φ2 respectively. Therefore, the quantity φ1 −φ2 gives the difference between
the angles of twist between P1 and P2 .

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 26

 Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the Barton’s apparatus setup

Procedure
1. The pointers P1 and P2 are fixed at suitable distances and their separation l1 −l2 is measured.

2. The ends of both the pointers are kept at the respective 0 positions. The apparatus is levelled
so that the pointers are horizontal and the wire is vertical.

3. Two empty 500 g pans are suspended from the two ends of the strings over the pulleys. The
readings shown by the pointers are noted down.

4. 500 g weights are then added to the pans subsequently, and the corresponding readings at
the pointers are noted down. Readings are taken till the mass suspended from either string
is 3500 g.

5. The weights are then unloaded one-by-one from both pans and the corresponding pointer
readings are noted down, until 0 mass is reached.

6. Using a screw gauge, the diameter of the experimental wire is measured at 3 different places
in 2 perpendicular directions. The mean radius is then calculated.

7. Using a pair pf Vernier Calipers, the diameter of the flywheel is measured at 3 different
places in 2 perpendicular directions. The mean diameter is then calculated.

8. A graph is plotted with the mass on either pan M along the X-axis and the angle of twist
φ1 − φ2 along the Y-axis. The experimental data points on the graph are fitted to a straight
line passing through the origin.

9. A random point is chosen on this fitted line. The X-coordinate of this point is taken as the
value of M , while its Y-coordinate is taken as the value of φ1 −φ2 . These values subsequently
used in calculating the rigidity modulus η.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 27

Observations
Measurement of the radius of the experimental wire:
Pitch of the screw gauge P = __________________ cm
Total number of divisions on the circular scale C = __________________
P
Least count of the screw gauge L = = __________________ cm
C
Zero error = ± __________________ cm
Main Circular Mean
Total Cor- Mean
Scale Scale Radius
S. No. Direction Reading rected diameter
Reading Reading d
M +C × L diameter d r=
M cm C 2
Direct
1
Crossed
Direct
2
Crossed
Direct
3
Crossed
Measurement of the diameter of the flywheel:
Vernier Constant C = __________________ cm
Zero error = ± __________________ cm
Main Scale Vernier Total
Corrected Mean
S. No. Direction Reading M Scale Reading
diameter diameter D
cm Reading V M +V ×C
Direct
1
Crossed
Direct
2
Crossed
Direct
3
Crossed
Readings of angle of twist versus suspended mass:
Readings at pointer Readings at pointer
Mass M
P1 P2
Load Load Load Load
S. on either In- De- In- De-
Mean Mean φ1 − φ2
No. pan creas- creas- creas- creas-
φ1 φ2
ing ing ing ing

(in gm) End End End End End End End End
a b a0 b0 a b a0 b0
1 0
2 500
3 1000
4 1500
5 2000
6 2500
7 3000
8 3500

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 28

Graph
The expected graph obtained from experimental data is shown below:

Calculations
From the graph:
M = __________________ g
φ1 − φ2 = __________________°

And we have obtained:

l1 − l2 = __________________ cm
D = __________________ cm
r = __________________ cm

Also,
g = 980 cm s−2

Using these in the working formula, we calculate the modulus of rigidity:

360M g D(l1 − l2 )
η= = __________________ dyne cm−2
π2 r 4 (φ1 − φ2 )

Percentage Error
Experimentally obtained modulus of rigidity ηex p = __________________ dyne cm−2
Actual modulus of rigidity ηac t = __________________ dyne cm−2
|ηac t − ηe x p |
Percentage error = × 100% = __________________ %
ηac t

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 29

Result
The modulus of rigidity of the given wire was investigated by static method using Barton’s Appa-
ratus and was determined to be ___________ dyne cm−2 with an error of __________ %.

Precautions and discussions

1. Here radius of the wire appears in 4 th power hence this should be measured very accurately,
since the error is quadrupled for this quantity.

2. Readings should be taken waiting for some time after any transfer of weights so that the
system may attain steady condition.

3. Care should be taken so that there is no friction between the wire and the hole in the circular
scale.

4. The instrument should be properly leveled before starting the experiment.

Sources of error
1. Due to the zero alignment of two scales of pointer.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 30

EXPERIMENT 8

DETERMINATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY USING A BAR

PENDULUM

Objective
To study the variation in time period of a bar pendulum about different axes and to use the results
to determine the acceleration due to gravity.

Apparatus
A bar pendulum, a wedge, a spirit level, a stop watch, a measuring scale.

Theory
Bar Pendulum: To find the value of g a special type of a compound pendulum is used. It is called
a bar pendulum and is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the bar pendulum setup

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 31

It consists of a uniform bar having circular slots drilled along its length symmetrically on either
side of the centre of gravity. Two knife-edges are placed symmetrically with respect to the centre
of gravity at A and B. The time period is determined about each slot by placing the two knife-edge
symmetrically about the centre of gravity. The distance of each of the knife-edges (i.e., the point
of suspension) from the centre of gravity is measured in each case.

A graph is plotted between the distance of the knife-edges from the centre of gravity taken along
the X-axis and the corresponding time period t taken along the Y-axis for a bar pendulum. The
expected graph is shown in figure 2. If a horizontal line ABCDE is drawn, it intersects the graph in
points A, B and D, E about which the time period is the same. The points A and D or B and E lie on
opposite sides of the centre of gravity at unequal distances such that the time period about these
points is the same. Hence one of these corresponds to the centre of suspension and the other to
the centre of oscillation. The distance AD or BE gives the length of the equivalent simple pendulum
L. If t is the corresponding time period, then we have

v
tL
t = 2π
g

L
or g = 4π2
t2

Procedure
1. A small piece of paper is pasted on either end of the compound pendulum. A line parallel to
the edge of the pendulum is drawn on each paper to serve as a reference mark. On the one
side A and on the other side B are marked. The knife-edges are placed in the first slots on
either side parallel to each other and they are tightened, so that the sharp edge is pointing
towards the centre of the gravity.

2. A sprit level is placed on the glass plates fixed on the bracket in the wall meant for suspend-
ing the pendulum and it is seen that the upper surfaces of the glass plates are in the same
level.

3. The pendulum is suspended from the knife-edge on the side A so that the knife edge is
perpendicular to the edge of the slot and the pendulum is hanging parallel to the wall.

4. The pendulum is set into oscillations with a small angular amplitude of about 5° and is
advisable allow it to make a few oscillations so that these become regular. The time taken
for 20 oscillations is noted. Again it is repeated and the mean of the two trials is calculated.

5. Distance between centre of gravity and the inner edge of the knife-edge is measured.

6. Now it is suspended on the knife-edge on the side B and the observations are repeated.

7. The observations with the knife-edges in the 2nd , 3 r d , 4 th etc slots on either side of the centre
of gravity are repeated.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 32

Observations

Side A Side B
Dis- Dis-
Time Time
Time taken for tance Time taken for tance
S. period period
20 oscillations from 20 oscillations from
No. t (in t (in
(in sec) CG (in (in sec) CG (in
sec) sec)
cm) cm)
Trial Trial Trial Trial
Mean Mean
1 2 1 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Graph

Figure 2: Expected experimental plot

The following points are to be noted when plotting the graph

1. The Y-axis is taken in the middle of the graph paper. The distance from the centre of gravity
is represented along the X-axis and the time period along the Y-axis.

2. The distance on the side A is plotted to the right and the distance on the side B is plotted to
the left of the origin.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 33

 3. Smooth curves are drawn on either side of the Y-axis passing through the plotted points
taking care that the two curves are exactly symmetrical as shown in figure 2.

The graph is now used to fill up the following table:

Time
S. L
Length of equivalent simple pendulum period t Mean
No. t2
(in sec)
Mean L (in L
(i) (ii)
cm) t2
1 AD=_____ cm BE=_____ cm
2 A’D’=_____ cm B’E’=_____ cm

Data for the above table is obtained as follows:

1. Two lines are drawn parallel to the X-axis cutting the curves at the points ABCDE and
A’B’C’D’E’ respectively.

2. Points like A and D, B and E etc are selected on the graph on the two sides of the centre of
gravity not equidistant from it, having the same time period. The distances AD and BE are
measured. Similarly the distances A’D’ and B’E’ are measured.

Calculations
Using data obtained from the graph, we obtain
L
Mean 2 = __________________ cm s−2
t
Therefore, g = __________________ cm s−2

Percentage Error
Experimentally obtained accaeleration due to gravity g ex p = __________________ cm s−2
Actual acceleration due to gravity g ac t = __________________ cm s−2
|g ac t − g e x p |
Percentage error = × 100% = __________________ %
g ac t

Result
The variation in time period of a bar pendulum about different axes was investigated and the
results were used determine the acceleration due to gravity to be _______________ cm s−2 with
an error of __________________ %.

Precautions and discussions

1. The knife-edge should be horizontal and the bar pendulum parallel to the wall.

2. Amplitude should be small.

3. The time period should be noted after the pendulum has made a few vibrations and the
vibrations have become regular.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 34

 4. The two knife- edges should always lie symmetrically with respect to the C.G.

5. The distance should be measured from the knife-edges.

6. The graph drawn should be a free-hand curve.

Sources of error
1. Due to big amplitude.

2. Due to friction of knife- edges with the wall.

3. Due to the measurement of distance between C.G to the point of suspension.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 35

EXPERIMENT 9

DETERMINATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY BY LEE’S METHOD

Objective
To determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a poorly conducting material by Lee’s
Method.

Apparatus
Lee’s apparatus, a bad conductor, pressure cooker fitted with a heater, two thermometers, stop-
watch.

Theory
Lee’s Apparatus: The apparatus consists of a metal slab A of copper which is suspended by
means of three strings from a heavy stand. On this disk is placed the material whose co-efficient
of thermal conductivity K is required. Above this rest a hollow cylindrical vessel with inlet and
outlet for steam. A thermometer T1 is placed near the bottom of the cylindrical vessel and the
thermometer T2 is placed in the lower slab in which a hole is bored.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of Lee’s Apparatus

On passing steam through the cylindrical vessel thermal equilibrium is soon attained. In this
condition the rate at which heat is conducted across the specimen disk is equal to the rate at
which heat is emitted through the exposed surface of the lower disk. If K is the co-efficient of
thermal conductivity of the material of the bad conductor, d its thickness and r its radius, θ1 and

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 36

θ2 the constant readings of the thermometers T1 and T2 in the steady state, then the rate at which
heat is conducted across the disk of the material is given by

πr 2 (θ1 − θ2 )
Q=K (1)
d
If M is the mass of the metal disk, s the specific heat capacity of its material, then the heat loss
rate at temperature θ2 is equal to

dθ 
Q = Ms  (2)
dt θ2

dθ 
where is the rate of cooling at temperature θ2 .
d t θ2

Therefore, from equations (3) and (2), we get

πr 2 (θ1 − θ2 )

dθ 
K = Ms 
d dt θ2

dθ 
M sd
d t θ2
⇒K= (3)
πr 2 (θ1 − θ2 )

The rate of cooling is found by heating the metal disk to a temperature about 10 °C above the
steady temperature θ2 . It is then allowed to cool and temperature is noted after every 30 seconds
till the temperature falls to about 10 °C below θ2 . A graph is then plotted between the temperature
and time. A tangent is drawn at a point P corresponding to θ2 . The slope of the tangent gives the
value of dθ/dt |θ2 .

Procedure
1. The apparatus is set as shown in figure 1 so that the flat surface of the disk is horizontal.
The disk of the material is inserted in between this disk and the cylindrical vessel. The
thermometers T1 and T2 are placed in their respective positions.

2. Steam is passed through the inlet of the cylindrical vessel and one should wait till the steady
state is reached. This will take approximately 30-40 minutes. When the temperatures in-
dicated by the thermometers T1 and T2 are steady the temperatures are noted down. The
thermometers T1 and T2 are interchanged and again the temperatures are noted down.

3. The disk of the material is removed and the top metal disk is heated by passing steam
though cylindrical vessel till its temperature is about 10 °C above the steady temperature
indicated by T2 . Now the cylindrical vessel is removed and the disk of the material in placed
again and the botton metal disk is allowed to cool. The temperature at intervals of about
30 seconds is noted, till its temperature falls to about 10 °C below θ2 . A graph is plotted
between temperature and time.

4. The diameter of the disk is measured with a vernier callipers along two diameters mutually
perpendicular to each other and its thickness is measured with a screw gauge at different
points. Also the mass of the disk is found when cooled.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 37

Observations
Mass of the metallic disk M = ___________ g = ___________ kg
Specific heat capacity of the metal s = ___________ kcal kg−1
Diameter of the disk D = ___________ cm = ___________ m
D
Radius of the disk r = = ___________ cm = ___________ m
2
Thickness of the disk d = ___________ cm = ___________ m
Steady temperatures of the thermometers:
T1 = (i)___________ °C, (ii)___________ °C
T2 = (i)___________ °C, (ii)___________ °C
Mean temperatures:
θ1 = ___________ °C, θ2 = ___________ °C

S. No. Time elapsed (in sec) Temperature of the bottom disk (in °C)
1 30
2 60
3 90
4 120
.. .. ..
. . .

Graph
A graph is drawn taking time t along the X-axis and temperature θ along the Y-axis as shown
below:

Figure 2: Graph of θ versus t


dθ 
To obtain the rate of cooling the following steps are followed
dt θ2

1. A tangent to the graph is drawn at a point P corresponding to the steady temperature θ2 .

2. A right-angled triangle 4 ABC having the tangent to the graph as its hypotenuse, and the
remaining two sides being parallel to the X- and Y- axes. Say ∠ AC B = α.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 38

 3. The rate of cooling at temperature θ2 is found as:

dθ  AB
|θ2 = tan α =
dt  BC
dθ
Therefore rate of cooling from the graph corresponding to steady temperature θ2 = _____ C°
dt
s−1 .

Calculations
From the graph, we obtain:
AB = ______________ C°
BC = ______________
 s
dθ 
∴ |θ = ______________ C°s−1
dt  2
Substituting values we get:

dθ 
M sd
d t θ2
K= = __________________ W m−1 K−1
πr 2 (θ1 − θ2 )

Percentage Error
Experimentally obtained thermal conductivity Kex p = __________________ W m−1 K−1
Actual value Kac t = __________________ W m−1 K−1
|Kac t − Ke x p |
Percentage error = × 100% = __________________ %
Kac t

Result
The thermal conductivity of the given poorly conducting material was investigated by Lee’s Method
and was determined to be ______________ W m−1 K−1 with an error of ______________ %.

Precautions and discussions

1. Thickness d of the disk of the material should be measured at a number of places on its
surface.
2. The diameter of the disk D should be equal to that of the cylindrical vessel and the metallic
disk and should be measured in two perpendicular directions.
3. The thermometers should be placed close to the face of the disk of the specimen.
4. There should be a good thermal contact between the disk of material and the lower surface
of the cylindrical surface and the upper surface of the circular metallic disk. If necessary
glycerine may be applied between the surfaces.
5. The steady state temperature should be recorded only when the readings of T1 and T2
remain constant after an interval of about five minutes.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 39

EXPERIMENT 10

DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS BY SEARLE’S METHOD

Objective
To determine Young’s Modulus of the material of a wire by Searle’s Method.

Apparatus
Screw gauge, standard weights, Searle’s apparatus, meter scale.

Theory
The Searle’s apparatus which is employed to find Young’s modulus shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the Searle’s Apparatus

It consists of two identical wires AB and C D whose upper ends are fixed on same support AC
attached to the ceiling. The lower ends of the wire carry the frame-works BB1 and DD1 . These
frame work are joined by links L1 and L2 in such a way that they can move freely in a vertical
plane. Inside the frame there is a sensitive spirit level R fixed to a plane base. One end of this

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 40

base is pivoted to a horizontal bracket fixed to the middle of the frame DD1 , while the other end
of the base rests on the pointed end of a micrometer screw. The distance of the shift of the screw
can be recorded from a vertical linear scale S and a circular scale S1 marked on the disk fixed to
the lower end of the screw. There are two hooks H1 and H2 attached respectively to the lower end
of the frames DD1 and BB1 . From the hook H1 a fixed load W is suspended to keep the wire C D
free from any kinks. To the hook H2 a hanger H is attached, on which another fixed load called
dead load is placed. On this dead load additional slotted loads can be placed to elongate the wire
AB.

If a wire be elongated by applying a load at its free end then within elastic limit the ratio of the
longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain is defined as the Young’s modulus of the material of
the wire. Let the wire with circular cross-section, of the length L and diameter d be elongated by
l by applying a load of mass M at its free end. Then we have

4M g
Longitudinal stress =
πd 2
l
Longitudinal strain =
L

4M g/πd 2 4L g
 ‹
M
∴ Young’s Modulus Y = =
l/L πd 2 l

Procedure
1. With the help of a screw gauge the diameter of the wire AB is measured at various places
(at least five places) and at each place the diameter is measured in two directions at right
πd 2
angles to each other. The mean value of this diameter d and hence the cross-section
4
of the wire is determined.

2. The cross-section of the wire is multiplied by the breaking stress (supplied) of the material
of the wire and this product gives the breaking load of the given wire. During experiment
the maximum or limiting load on the hanger is kept below half of this breaking load.

3. The length of the wire between the upper fixed point A and lower fixed end B of the ex-
perimental wire AB is measured thrice by a metre scale and the mean of these three values
gives the length L of the wire

4. The maximum permissible load, i.e. the limiting load is now put on the hanger for a few
minutes to keep the wire taut. Then a greater part of the limiting load on the hanger is
removed, leaving a certain portion known as the dead load. This dead load is sufficient to
keep the wire free from any kind.

5. The load which is removed from the hanger (viz., limiting load-dead load) is divided into
6 or 7 installments such that each installment is either 1 kg or 1/2 kg.

6. Additional loads (over and above the dead load) are now placed on the hanger by steps of
1 kg or 1/2 kg until the maximum permissible load is reached. At each time, as the load is
placed on the hanger, the bubble of the spirit level will be displaced from the center due to
the elongation of the wire. The screw is then rotated always in one direction to bring the
bubble back to the center. At each step the readings of the linear and circle scale are noted
(or the reading of the circular scale only are noted).

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 41

 7. Additional loads are then decreased by the same steps as before until it comes to zero again.
At each step the readings of the linear and circular scale are again noted (or the reading of
the circular sale only is noted).

8. For each load the mean of the two reading one for the load increasing and another for load
decreasing is determined from which the elongations of the wire for various loads are found
out.

9. A graph is drawn with the additional load (in kg) along the X-axis while its corresponding
elongation (in cm) along the Y-axis the origin being 0-0. The graph will be a mean straight
line passing through the origin. From this graph elongation of the wire for any load is
determined and this data regarding load and elongation (from graph) are employed to
calculate Young’s Modulus from the working formula.

Observations
A. Determination of the diameter of the wire:

Calculate least count zero-error and make a screw gauge chart and take observations at least
in five different places.

Diameter d = ________ m

B. Determination of the length of the wire:

Distance between the point of suspension and the lower fixed end of the wire AB is

L = [(i)______ + (ii)______ + (iii)______] /3 = ________ cm = ________ m

C. Calculation of breaking load:

Breaking stress = ________ N m−2

Diameter d = ________ m
πd2
Breaking Load = Breaking Stress × = ________ kg
4
Breaking Load
Limiting load = ________ kg
2

D. Recordings for readings of elongation:

Smallest value of the linear scale s = ______________ mm

Pitch of the screw p = ______________ mm

Number of divisions on the circular scale N = ______________

p
Least count LC = = ______________ mm = ______________ cm
N

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 42

 Total
(X 1 +
S. Elon-
Load Increasing Load Decreasing X 2 )/
No. Load ga-
2LC
tion
Total Total
No of no of No of no of
CSR CSR CSR CSR
com- CSD com- CSD
at at at at
plete ro- plete ro-
begin- begin- begin- begin-
rota- tated rota- tated
ning ning ning ning
tions for tions for
of of of of
for step for step
step step step step
step X1 = step X2 =
R1 R2 R1 R2
m Nm + m Nm +
n n
1
2
3
4
5

The following points are to be noted for the value of n in the table above.

i. When the direction of movement of the screw is such that the rotation of its head increases
the circular scale reading:
When R2 > R1 : n = R2 − R1
When R1 > R2 : n = N − (R1 − R2 )

ii. When the direction of the movement of the screw is such that the rotation of its head decreases
the circular scale reading:
When R2 > R1 : n = N − (R2 − R1 )
When R1 > R2 : n = R1 − R2

Graph
Drawing of load-elongation curve: To draw the load-elongation curve the origins for both
should be zero Loads in kilos are to be plotted along X-axis while the corresponding elongations
in cm are to be plotted along Y-axis. A number slightly greater than the maximum value of elon-
gation in the data, should be found out and this number should be equally distributed amongst
the total number of divisions available along Y-axis. The nature of this graph is shown in figure
2.
By plotting the various points, a straight line is drawn passing through the origin and the majority
of the points. If the straight line does not pass through all points then it should be drawn in such
a way that the displaced points are distributed on both sides of the straight line. If a point is
far way from the line then that point should be rejected. Taking a suitable point (say P) on the
graph, such that the co-ordinates of P do not coincide with observed data, the load in kg (M ) and
the corresponding elongation in meters (l) for this point are determined from which the value of
Young’s Modulus (Y ) for the wire is calculated from the working formula.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 43

 Figure 2: Load-elongation curve

Calculations
Substituting the experimentally obtained values, we get,
4L g M
 ‹
Young’s Modulus Y = = __________________ N m−1
πd 2 l

Percentage Error
Experimentally obtained Young’s Modulus Yex p = __________________ N m−2
Actual Young’s Modulus Yac t = __________________ N m−2
|Yac t − Ye x p |
Percentage error = × 100% = __________________ %
Yac t

Result
The Young’s Modulus of the material of the given wire was investigated by Searle’s Method was
determined to be __________________ N m−2 with an error of __________________%.

Precautions and discussions

1. The reading is taken only when the suspended system is steady and there is no twist in the
wire.

2. The cross-section of the wire may not be perfectly circular .For this screw gauge reading is
to be taken at each place in two mutually perpendicular directions .The wire may not be
uniform all over. So readings are to be taken at different places.

3. The load must be sufficient to keep the wire free from any kink.

4. While taking a particular set of readings the screw is to be rotated always in the same
direction to avoid back lash error.

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EXPERIMENT 11

STUDY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PN JUNCTION DIODE

Objective
To study the behaviour of a PN junction diode under forward and reverse bias conditions and plot
the I-V characteristic curves.

Apparatus
PN junction diode kit, regulated DC power supply, patch cords, multimeters.

Theory
When a voltage V is applied across a semiconductor PN junction diode, the current I flowing
through it is given by

I = I0 exp[(eV /ηkB T ) − 1] (1)

where I0 : reverse saturation current
kB : Boltzmann’s constant
T: absolute temperature
e: electronic charge
η: η = 1 for Ge and η = 2 for Si

When an external battery is connected in such a way that the P-side is at a higher potential
compared to the N -side, then the diode is said to be forward biased. For sufficient biasing, we
have the approximation

I ≈ I0 exp(eV /ηkB T ) (2)

Again when the P-side is made to be at a lower potential with respect to the N -side, the diode is
said to be reverse biased. In this case V is negative and we can write

I ≈ −I0 (3)
The curve obtained by plotting the diode voltage V ), both positive and negative, along the X-
axis and the diode currents I, both forward and reverse, along the Y-axis are known as the static
characteristic curves of the diode.

The characteristic curve of a PN junction diode connected in forward and reverse bias circuits are
shown in figures 1 and 2 below.

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Figure 1: PN junction diode in a forward Figure 2: PN junction diode in a reverse bias
bias circuit circuit

Procedure
Forward bias characteristics:

1. All the connections are made as shown in figure 1.

2. The 3 V/30 V switch is kept at the 3 V side and the 100 µA/10 mA switch is kept at 10 mA.

3. The potentiometer knob is kept at the extreme left side.

4. The instrument is switched on using the ON/OFF indicator switch provided on the front
panel.

5. The voltage is set at 0.2 V and the corresponding current reading is noted down.

6. Voltage is kept on increasing in the steps of 0.2 V and corresponding current is noted down.

7. A graph between the forward voltage V and the forward current I) is ploted. The expected
graph is shown in figure 3.

Reverse bias characteristics:

1. All the connections are made as shown in figure 2.

2. The 3 V/30 V switch is kept at the 30 V side and the 100 µA/10 mA switch is kept at 100
µA.

3. The potentiometer knob is kept at the extreme left side.

4. The instrument is switched on using the ON/OFF indicator switch provided on the front
panel.

5. The voltage is set at 2 V and the corresponding current reading is noted down.

6. Voltage is kept on increasing in the steps of 2 V and corresponding current is noted down.

7. A graph between the reverse voltage V and the reverse current I) is ploted. The expected
graph is shown in figure 4.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 46

Observations
A. Measurement of least counts of the ammeter and the voltmeter

Value of smallest Zero error

Meter used Range
division (if any)
Milliammeter (mA) _______ to _______ mA _______ mA
Microammeter (µA) _______ to _______ µA _______ µA
Voltmeter V1 _______ to _______ V _______ V
Voltmeter V2 _______ to _______ V _______ V

B. Record of data for forward bias characteristics

S. No. Forward voltage V in volts Forward current I in mA

1
2
3
4
.. .. ..
. . .

C. Record of data for reverse bias characteristics

S. No. Reverse voltage V in volts Reverse current I in µA

1
2
3
4
.. .. ..
. . .

Graph
The expected forward bias characteristic curve is shown in figure 3:

Figure 3: Forward bias characteristic curve

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 47

The expected reverse bias characteristic curve is shown in figure 4:

Figure 4: Reverse bias characteristic curve

Result
The behaviour of the given PN junction diode was studied under forward and reverse bias condi-
tions and the I-V characteristic curves were plotted.

Precautions and discussions

1. Care should be taken that the forward current does not exceed the specified maximum safe
value of diode current.

2. The reverse voltage should not exceed the specified maximum safe value of diode reverse
current.

3. If there is any initial error in any meter it should be attempted to be eliminated by proper
positioning of the pointer with the help of a screw driver. If it is not so possible necessary
corrections should be made in the readings.

4. The properties of a semiconductor device are very much temperature sensitive. So if the
current is noted for voltage increasing and for voltage decreasing they can differ widely.

Sources of error
1. Due to loose connections.

2. Due to input voltage fluctuations.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 48

EXPERIMENT 12

STUDY OF RC CIRCUIT

Objective
To study the function of an RC circuit as low-pass and high-pass filters and plot their decibel gain
curves.

Apparatus
Frequency generator, RC circuit, connecting wires, multimeter.

Theory
In an AC circuit, the reactance of a resistance is R. So the voltage drop across it is IR, where I is
1
the rms value of the AC current. Similarly reactance due to capacitance is X C = . The phasor
ωC
corresponding to capacitative reactance X C is at an angle 90° with that for
v the resistance R. So
‹2
1
t 
the total impedance, i.e. reactance of capacitor and resistance together is R2 + and the
v ωC
‹2
1
t 
voltage drop of the circuit containing R and C is I R2 + which should be equal to input
ωC
voltage Vin . Thus
v
1 2
u  ‹
Vin = I R +
t
2 (1)
ωC
Now, if the output is taken across the resistance, we have

Vout = IR (2)
If, instead, the output is taken across the capacitance, we have

I
Vout = (3)
ωC
In the former case, i.e. equation (2), we obtain the gain as:

Vout IR
Gain = = Æ
Vin I R2 + (1/ωC)2
(4)
ωRC
=p
1 + (ωRC)2

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In the latter case, i.e. equation (3), we obtain the gain as:

Vout I/ωC
Gain = = Æ
Vin I R2 + (1/ωC)2
(5)
1
=p
1 + (ωRC)2

Equation (4) shows that the gain should increase with frequency when the output is taken
across the resistance (high pass filter). Equation (5) shows that the gain should decrease with
frequency when the output is taken across the capacitance (low pass filter).

Low Pass Filter (LPF): This type of filter allows all frequencies, upto the specified cut-off fre-
quency, to pass through it and attenuates all the other frequency above the cut-off frequency. The
cut-off frequency demarcates the pass band and stop band.

Figure 1: Low Pass Filter using an RC circuit

High Pass Filter (HPF: A high pass filter is the reverse of a low pass filter. This filter attenuates all
frequency below the cut-off frequency and allows other frequencies above the cut-off frequency
to pass through.

Figure 2: High Pass Filter using an RC circuit

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 50

Procedure
For Low Pass Filter (cut off frequency f c = 15.9 KHz):

1. The circuit configuration is studied for low pass filter printed on the front panel carefully.

2. R2 = 10 M Ω and C2 = 0.001 µF are connected in the circuit using patchcords.

3. The output of the audio frequency function generator is connected across signal input of
the LPF.

4. The function generator is set at sine wave signal of 2 V peak to peak amplitude and 100 Hz
frequency.

5. The frequency of the function generator is increased towards the 100 kHz range in small
steps and output voltage is noted down. All the observations are noted down in the corre-
sponding observation table. The decibel gain is calculated by using the formula:

Vout
 ‹
Decibel Gain = 20 log
Vin

6. A graph of decibel gain versus frequency is plotted by taking frequency along the X-axis and
the decibel gain along the Y-axis.

7. The cut-off frequency is calculated by using the formula:

1
fc =
2πRC

For High Pass Filter (cut off frequency f c = 15.9KHz):

1. The circuit configuration is studied for high pass filter printed on the front panel carefully.

2. R1 = 10 M Ω and C2 = 0.001 µF in the circuit are connected using patchcords.

3. The output of the audio frequency function generator is set at sine wave signal of 2 V peak
to peak amplitude and 1 kHz frequency.

4. The frequency of the function generator is increased towards the 100 kHz range in small
steps and output voltage is noted down. All the observations are noted down in the corre-
sponding observation table. The decibel gain is calculated by using the formula:

Vout
 ‹
Decibel Gain = 20 log
Vin

5. A graph of decibel gain versus frequency is plotted by taking frequency along the X-axis and
the decibel gain along the Y-axis.

6. The cut-off frequency is calculated by using the formula:

1
fc =
2πRC

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 51

Observations
A. To record decibel gain for LPF
Input voltage Vin = _____________ V

DecibelGain ‹=
S. No. Frequency f (Hz) Output voltage Vout (V) Vout
20 log
Vin
1
2
3
.. .. .. ..
. . . .

B. To record decibel gain for HPF

Input voltage Vin = _____________ V

DecibelGain ‹=
S. No. Frequency f (Hz) Output voltage Vout (V) Vout
20 log
Vin
1
2
3
.. .. .. ..
. . . .

Graph
The expected decibel gain curves for LPF and HPF are illustrated in figures 3 and 4:

Figure 3: Decibel gain curve for LPF Figure 4: Decibel gain curve for HPF

Result
The given RC circuit was studied for its functions as low-pass as well as high-pass filters and the
corresponding decibel gain curves were plotted.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 52

Precautions and discussions
1. All the patch cord connections should be made tight.

2. Since a very large number of readings need to be taken, and also the values are logarithmic,
it is impossible to plot the decibel gain curves on an ordinary graph paper.

3. Software like MS Excel, OpenOffice Calc, Origin, Gnuplot etc may be used to plot the graph.

4. Printout of the gain curves must be attached in the laboratory record.

Sources of error
1. Due to loose connections.

2. Due to input frequency fluctuations.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 53

APPENDIX I

Percentage of Error and Proportional Error

Measurements are the leading steps on which physics stands. A measurement of a fundamental
quantity involves the comparison of a fact with other already fixed in ’unit’ and ’number’. The aim
of performing an experiment in many cases is to find out the natural values, already determined.
It is seen that for various reasons correct results are not obtained. Students should pay more
attention to percentage of error than an actual error. For error calculation generally two methods
are followed:

a) Percentage of error: Suppose the actual result of an experiment is B whereas the experimen-
tally observed value is A. Then the percentage of error is expressed as

|actual value − observed value|

percentage of error = × 100%
actual value
|B − A|
= × 100%
B

b) Proportional error or log error: Suppose a physical quantity X depends on the observations
A, B, C in the following manner:
X = Ap B q C r
By log differentiation, we get
dX dA dB dC
=p +q +r
X A B C
Hence the maximum permissible error is expressed as:

dX dA dB dC
 ‹
× 100% = p +q +r × 100%
X A B C

For example, the surface tension of a liquid is given as

1
T = ρ g rh
2
where ρ and g are constants.
This gives

dT dr dh
= +
T r h
Now if the experimental errors committed in the values of r and h are 1.5 % and 2.3 % respec-
tively, then the maximum permissible error in the surface tension T is 1.5 % + 2.3 % = 3.8 %.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 54

APPENDIX II

What to write in your class copy?

The purpose of the class copy is to maintain a regular journal of all the experimental work done
in the laboratory. All observations along with the calculations, along with errors that one might
have inadvertantly committed in the laboratory, is expected to be recorded in the class copy. It is
mandatory for every student to carry the class copy with him/her during every laboratory session.

The following points summarise the experiment-wise contents of the class copy.

Serial No.

• The number denoting the order of the experiment.

• For instance, if this is the 1st experiment, the serial number is 1, if this is the 2nd experiment,
the serial number is 2, and so on.

Experiment No.

• The number assigned to that particular experiment, as per the order specified in this manual.

• For instance, if the experiment is Study of Photoemission then the experiment number is 6,
if the experiment is Study of RC Circuits then the experiment number is 12.

Date

• The date on which the experiment was started.

Aim

• The objective of the experiment as per this manual.

• Must be written in CAPITAL LETTERS.

Apparatus Required

• The apparatus requirements as mentioned in this manual.

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Theory

• Must contain the working formula (if any) along with the explanations of each quantity
and/or the circuit diagram (if any) and/or the ray diagram (if any).

• The detailed theory as discussed in this manual is not necessary.

Experimental Data

• All the observation tables are to be included here.

• Must contain appropriate units.

• The table must be drawn using pencil.

• The table must be filled up using a pen.

Graph

• Should be in proper scales and units.

• Must be drawn with pencil and on a centimetre graph paper.

• Only for experiment 12, the graph is meant to be plotted on a computer and printout of the
same to be taken.

• Suitable title must be given to the graph.

• Some experiments may not have graphs.

Calculations

• Should contain appropriate units.

• For some experiments, calculations may not be necessary.

Error Analysis

• Should contain the calculations involved in obtaining the percentage error.

• For some experiments, error analysis may not be necessary.

Result

• Must report the final outcome of the experiment.

• Must address the aim of the experiment.

• Must be written as per the result section mentioned in this manual.

• Should report the final result along with the percentage error.

• For those experiments that do not require calculations or percentage errors, suitable con-
clusions must be drawn.

SOT | Engineering Physics Lab Manual | Department of Physics | 56

APPENDIX III

What to write in your lab copy?

The purpose of the lab copy is to maintain a formal record of all the experimental work done in the
laboratory. As soon as an experiment is completed and duly signed by the laboratory supervisor,
one is expected to record the experiment in detail in the lab copy. It is mandatory for every student
to submit the updated lab copy whenever there is a laboratory evaluaion.

The following points summarise the experiment-wise contents of the lab copy.

Serial No.

• Same as in the class copy.

Experiment No.

• Same as in the class copy.

Date

• Same as in the class copy.

Aim

• Same as in the class copy.

Apparatus Required

• Same as in the class copy.

Description of the Apparatus

• Wherever necessary

Theory

• As mentioned in this manual.

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Diagram

• Must be accomodated on the left hand page.

• Must be drawn with pencil.

• Must be labelled properly.

Procedure

• As mentioned in this manual.

Experimental Data

• Same as in the class copy.

Graph

• The same graph as in the class copy.

• The same graph should be attached to the lab copy after it is duly signed by the lab super-
visor.

• Must be stapled/pasted on the left hand page.

Calculations

• Same as in the class copy.

• Must be filled in using a pen.

• Must be accomodated on the left hand page.

Error Analysis

• Same as in the class copy.

Result

• Same as in the class copy.

Precautions and Discussions

• As mentioned in this manual.

Sources of Error

• As mentioned in this manual.

• Included wherever applicable.

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