Technical Information and Data of Conversion Factor - Important PDF

SAWTRI
SPECIAL PUBLICATION
Textiles: Some Technical Information

and Data 11: Conversion Factors,
Fibre Properties, Spinning Limits,
Typical Twist Factors, Weaving
Performance and Transfer Printing
Temperatures
by
L. Hunter
SOUTH AFRICAN
WOOL AND TEXTILE RESEARCH
INSTITUTE OF THE CSIR
P.O. B O X 1 1 2 4
PORT ELIZABETH
REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA
WOL 47
ISBN 0 7988 1360 1

Contents
Page
INTRODUCTION ........................................................... .; ... 1
CONVERSION FACTORSAND OTHER DATA .................................... 1
Recommended Textile Unit 1
General Conversion 13
Shoe-size Hosiery-si 16
Skein Strength 17
TYPICAL RING SPINNING TWIST FACTORS ..................................... 20
RING SPINNING LIMITS ........................................................................ 27
YARN BREAKAGES DURING WEAVING ............................................. 32
GENERAL FIBRE PROPERTIES ............................................................ 34
51
54
55
55
58
61
SOME POLYESTER FIBRE PROPERTIES ......................................... 70
CELLULOSICS ......................................................................................... 78
PROPERTIES O F SILK AND SILK-TYPE FIBRES ................................ 88
POLYPROPYLENE A N D POLYOLEFIN ............ :............................... 91
ACRYLIC A N D MODACRYLIC ............................................................ 94
NYLON ...................................................................................................... 98
BICOMPONENTS ................................................................................... 107
WATERSOLUBLE R B R E S ..................................................................... 109
TRANSFER PRINTINGTEMPERATURES ........................................... 110
HEATSETTING ........................................................................................ 118
REFERENCES
TEXTILES: SOME TECHNICAL INFORMATION A N D DATA 11:
CONVERSION FACTORS, FIBRE PROPERTIES, SPINNING
LIMITS, TYPICAL TWIST FACTORS, WEAVING
PERFORMANCE A N D TRANSFER PRINTING
TEMPERATURES
6.5, L. HUNTER
INTRODUCTION
The responx to Part I of this series has been so good that it was considered
worthwhile to extend the work to covera wider field. This nublication therefore
contains material not covered in Part 1, although it aiso supplements and
updates certain topics. It concentrates on conversion factors, general fibre
properties, spinning limits, typical twist factors and weavingperformance. Some
information is also included concerning transfer printing.
Subsequent parts willdeal with high performance fibres, cotton and wool
in more detail.
Most of the information has been reproduced in the words or form used
in the source from which the information was obtained. The author, therefore,
lays no claim to originality but has merely attempted to compile some facts and
figures which are often required in the textile industry.
CONVERSION FACTORS AND OTHER DATA

The trend throughout the world is towards the use of metric units, or
more particularly the SI units. Some of the units commonly encountered in the
textile industry together with the relevant conversion factors are, therefore,
given here.
RECOMMENDED TEXTILE UNITS
In what follows below it is to be understood that the recommended units
on the left can be obtained by carrying out the operation shown on the right on
the original units.
Count or Iineu Density (Frnness)

The tex unit (grams per 1 000 metres) is recommended, together with
decitex (dtex), millitex (mtex) and kilotex (ktex).
The above units can be obtained from other commonly used units as
SA WTRI Special Fublication - July, 1978 I

follows:
loo0
tex (mglm) = (Metric count = Nm)
metric count
- 886
tex worsted count (Worsted couni = Ne worsted)
- 590,6
tex (Cotton count = Ne)
English cotton count
tex = 0,1111 xdenier

tex = 0.1 x dtex
tex = 0,001 x mtex
= 1000 x ktex
dtex = 1,ll xdenier
ktex (glm) = 6.2 x (0215 yds)
ktex (glm) = 0,04845 x (dramsi40 yds)
ktex (glm) = 0,071 x (grainslyd)
To illustrate:
It is desired to convert a worsted count of 1/34's (or 34's worsted) into

tex.
886
From the above we have: tex =-= 26,1
34
... the linear density is 26,l tex.
Tenacity
, Two ways of expressing tenacity are being recommnded, viz.

cN/ tex and mN/tex o r even perhaps N/tex
2 SA WTRI Special hblication - July, 1978

where I cN/ tex= 10 mN/tex (i.e. toconvertfromcN/texto mN/ tex multiply by
10)
To obtain cN/tex from other units proceed as follows:
cN/tex = q'69 (thousand pounds per square inch)

P
where p = fibre density in g/cm3 or the relative density

(specific gravity) of the fibre.
For cotton this should lead to: cN/tex = 0,454 (Pressley in 1 000 psi) but in
general the following conversion is used:
cN/ tex = 0,486 (commercial Pressley in 1 000 psi)

cN/tex = 0.98 x (gltex)
= 0,98 x ($1 tex)
= 0.98 x (RKM)
= 8.83 x @/denier)
= 8.83 x ($/denier)
where gf denotes gram-force.

If mN/tex is required multiply the above by 10 and if N/tex is required
multiply by 0,01.
Tear Strength
Tear strength should be expressed in newtons (N).
where N = 0,98 (hectograms or hg)

= 4,448 x (Ihs force)
B M n g Strength (or Pressure)
Here it is recommended to use kPa or Pa where Pa = N/m2.
SA WTRI Special hblication - July, 1978

Pressure
It is recommended to use pascal (Pa) or kilopascal (kPa) for pressure
where Pa= N/m2.
Therefore:
kPa = 639 x (Ibf/in2)

= 98,07 x (kgf/cm2)
= 9807 x (kgf/ mm2)
= 1CP x (h bar)
= 0.1 x (m bar)
= 0,1333 x (mm of mercury)
= 0,2491 x (in of water)
= 0,098 x (cm of water)
= 3,386 x (in of mercury)
= 0,04788 x (Ibs/ft2)
= 10-4 x (dynes/cm2)
= 0,1333 x (tom)
Viscosity
Dynamic viscosity - P a s (pascal second)
P a s = 0,001 x (centipoise or cP)
= 0.1 x (poise or P)
Kinematic viscosity = m2/s

mzls = 1 0 - 6 x (centistoke)
Bending and Twisting Rigidity

mN. mm2 is used.
= 9.81 x (gf.mm3
Flexural Rigidity
It is recommended to use mN.mm
T o get mN.mm from mgf.cm multiply by 0,098
S d a c e Tension
It is recommended to use mN/m
4 SA WTRI Special Publicorion - July. 1978

To get mN/m from dyne/cm x by 1
To get mN/m from erg/cmZx I

Twist
Turns per metre (tums/m) have been recommended;
turns/m = 39.4 x tpi (where tpi is turns per inch)
Twist Factor or Twist Multiplier
The tex twist factor (iurns/cm m h a s been recommended although the twist
-
factor (= dtex) based on decitex has also been suggested' since it is numerically
.
equal to the metric twist factor=,,- - turnslm widely used in Europe.
JNm
We have;
tex twist factor (=& = 0,316 x = m

= 11.70 x Wonted twist factor
= 9.57 x English Cotton twist factor
= 0,316X=dtex
where
tpi
English Cotton twist factor == = tpi/ J E Cotton
~ ~Count
. = Nc
Worsted Twist factor = = w = tpi/ d ~ o n t e dCount
e.g. Convert a metric twist factor (lm) of 110 to a tex twist factor (.
tex )
From the above we bave:
= = 0,316 X = ~ = O , x~ 110
I ~
tex
= 34,76
i.e. tex twist factor = 34,76.
Similarly an English cotton twist factor of 4 equals a tex twist factor of 38,3.
SA WTRI Special ILblication - July. 1978 5

These calculations d o not allow for fibre density variations and it has been
suggested2 that, t o allow for such variations, the tex twist factor shall bedefined
as turns/cm &and the following table is presented.
Gelative density
TWIST FACTOR
English Cotton Tex

Twist Factor (=e) twist factor (= tex)
typical weft
typical warp
typical hard twist
Fabric Mass per Unit Area
Units of grams per square metre
(glm2) have been recommended:
The most important single calculation in textile design is regarded as the

determination of fabric mass per unit area (i.e. weighty.
Convert from ozslyd2 to gjm2 as follows:
Fabric mass per unit area (g/mz) can be calculated as follows3:
+
Fabr~cmasslunit area (g/m2) = 0.1 [(pickslcm) x (tex2) (ends,'cm) x (tex,)]
where tex, is thelineardens~tvofthewelt yarnand tex, isthe l~neardcnslty01 the
warp This cakulation, however, d k s not allow for warp and w;ft yarn
crimp; more corredy it should read:
g/m2 = 0.1 [(pickslcm) x (tex,) x (crimp3 f (endslcm) x (tex,) x crimp,)]

where crimp, is the weft crimp and crimp, is the warp crimp, both crimps being
expressed as a fraction (plus one).
6 SAWTRI Special Mlication - July. 1978

Breaking Load (Tensile Strength)
Either newton (N) milhewton (mN) orcentinewton (cN)can beused although it

appears that the first mentioned two are to be preferred. Nevertheless. for fibres
and yams ~Nispreferredsinceit isveryclose to thegfunit widely used in the past
(1 CN = 1.02 gf. i.e. to convert gf t o cN multiply by 0.98).
cN = 0.98 x (gf)
= 0,l x (mN)
= 444.8 x (Ibs-force)
= 100 x newtons
= 981 x (kgf)
= 27.8 x (02)
Fluidity
It is recornended to use mZ/(N.s) or I/(Pa.s) or Pa-'s-1. Toconvert from rhe or

reciprocal poise to I / P a s or ml/(N.s) multiply by 10.
It is recommended t o use kg/ m3
To convert g/cm3 to kg/m' multiply by 1000. The term specific gravity is being
replaced by relative density.
Work of Rupture
Generally N.m should be used although N.cm is less clumsy.

To obtain N.cm from gf.cm multiply by 0,00981.
Initial Modulus
Either mN/tex/ 100% extension (written mN/tex)
or cN/tex/ 100% extension (written cN/tex)
To obtain mN/tex/ 100% extension from gf/den/ 100% extension, multiply by

88.3.
SA WTRI Special hblirafion - Jd.v, 1978 7

To obtain mN/tex/100% from kgf/mm2 multiply by 9 , 8 / p
where p is fibre density (glcm3) or relative density
To obtain cNltex/ 100% from mN/tex/ 100% multiply by 0.1
Woven Thread Count .

Use number per centimetre.
To get picks/cm or ends/cm from pickslinch or endslincb multiply by 0,394.

Similary for courses and wales percentimetre and also for stitches per centimetre
(sewing).
Cover Factor
Woven cover factor (kc) is generally calculated as follows:
where Wp and Wf are the number of warp ends and picks per centimetre,
respectively, and the yam linear density (tex) is the same in both warp and weft
(filling) directions.
It has been suggested* that a nominal cover factor for a woven structure be
defined as:
4,O x 10-3 picks or ends/cm

JZz
Then the fraction of area covered = C, + Cr - C,Cz
Where C, = warp cover and C, is weft cover calculated as above.
Bayesz gives the following:
threads t x r centimetre x
Tex cover factor =
J spec& gravity of the fibre substance
SAWTRI Special Publication - July. 1978

In the table below three figures of openness of weave are given:
COVERFACTOR
Peke's paper Tex

(with cotton counts) cover factor
Open scrim
Fairly close
plain weave
Maximum cover
Fibre Idnear Density and Fibres in Yarn CrossSection

fibre linear density (in tex) can be calculated as follows:
linear density (tex) = 0,0007854 x d2 x (I + 0,0001 VdZ)p
where d is the fibre diameter in micrometre f ~ m )p, is the fibre density in g/cm3
or the relative density (specific gravity) and Vd is the coefficient of variation of
diameter in %.
For wool (P = 1.31) this reduces t o
and if we assume V, = 24.5% which is quite common then it reduces to:
Fibre linear density (tex) = 0,00109d2
SA WTRI Special Pkblication - July. 1978

APPROXIMATE DECITEX (dtex) VALUES FOR GWEN FIBRE
DIAMETERS
Fibre
Di8mdCr
(LJ@
-
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
20
27
28
29
I
If fibre obliquity (i.e. the effects of twist) is ignored then the average
number of fibres (u) in the y a m crosssection can be calculated as follows:
yam tex
n=
0,0007854 x d2 x p x (1 f 0,0001 Vd2)
which for wool becomes (i.e. P = 1,31)
972 x yarn tex

n=
+
d2 (1 0,0001 Vd2)
and if a CV of fibre diameter (Vd) of 24.5% is assumed, we have for wool:
917 yam tex

n=
d'
For cotton n = -
590600
CH
10 SA WTRl Special Mlication - July. 1978
where C is the English cotton count (Ne) and H is the fibre linear density in
mtex (i.e. mg/ km).
Ideal Irregularity
According to Martindale6 we have for the ideal or limiting yam irregularity

(CVI in %):
where the symbols have the same meaning as in the previous section. For wool
with a CV of fibre diameter of 24% this reduces to:
often 112 is used instead for wool7 while for cotton we have?
and for uniform (homogeneous) synthetics7:
perhaps 102 ~ - 0 , sif a CV of fibre diameter of 100/8 is assumed.

The following values of C have been compiled by WegeneP from the work
of various authors:
-
Fibre
Cotton
Wool 107,85 t o 114,13

Average 112
Average 110
107 to 117
SA WTRI Special fiblication - July. 1978

Merino and Crossbred 107.7 to 114,6
Average I I I
Carpet yam wools 134
Wool (Uster Calculator) 111,4
Flax (linen) 130
Flax and Hemp (not after wet spinning)l06 to 108
Hemp/Jute 114
Viscose 102
Synthetics 100 to 103
Dyson'O recommended the following approach to ideal irregularity (CVI ) to

allow for variations in fibre extent within the yam:
Consider now a modcl strand similar to Martindale's simplest model but one in
which the fibres all have the same linear density and the same extent, k, defined
as tbe ratio' of the axial length occupied by the fibre in the strand to the
straightened fibre length. This means that the effective fibre linear density in the
-c
strand is l / k times the actual linear density, and hence: CV - 100 becomes
1
By considering a more realistic model in which the variability of both fibre

fineness and fibre extent is introduced and hence the concomitant additional
variablity in effective fibre linear density, where these two sources of variation
a n independent, w o n concluded that by using k = 0.95 (from Hearle) for
carded cotton yam the ideal irregularity could be expressed
when n is the average number of f i b m per cross~eetion,calculated as the ratio

of fibre linear density to yam linear density.
The mean fibreextent in open-endspun yarns produced on a commercial
12 SA WTRI Spp~ialhblication - July, 1978

machine is of the order of 0,s and thus the ideal irregularity in this case is:
An example of the use of these two expressions is in the comparison of

ring- and open-endspun yam, particularly if the Index of Irregularity, I, is
calculated for each yam by means of the above expressions.
Consider a typical pair of such yams, for each of which n = 200 and the
coefficients of variation of linear density are:
CV (ring) = 15% ;CV (OE)= 11%

then using CVI = 1061 Jlrgives values of 1 of 2,00 and 1.47, respectively. By
comparison the use of 1091 jirand 1191figives values of I of 1,94 and 1,34,,
which indicates that the open-end-spun yam is an even closer approach to the
idealized, random, fibre array than it is if it is assessed in the former mannerlo.
GENERAL CONVERSIONS
(Units or abbreviations given in parenthesis)
To convert from multiply by

denier tex (tex) 0,111
denier decitex (dtex) 1.1 1
denier millitex (mtex) 11.1
grams force (g or gf) centinewton (cN) 0.98
grams force (g or gf) millinewton (mN) 93
grams per denier (gldenier) centinewtonl tex (cN/tex) 8,83
grams per tex centhewton/ tex (cN/tex) 0.98
(pltex or gfltex)
grams per denier (gldenier) millinewton/ tex (mN/ tex) 88,3
millinewton/ tex (mN/ tex) 9.8
centinernon/ tex (cN/ tex) 0.98
millinewtonl tex (mN/ tex) 93
pounds force (lbs-force) newton (N) 4,448
kilograms-force (kg or kgf) newton (N) 9.8
ounces (02) g r a m @) 28,35
pounds (lbs) kilogram Org) 0,4536
U K gallons litres ( 1 ) 4,546
litres cubi metres (m3) 0,001
SA WTRI Special bblication - July. 1978 13

grams per cubic centimetre kilograms/metre cubed loo0
(glcm3) (kg/m3)
pounds per cubic inch kiloarams/metre cubed
(Ibs/ in')
pounds per cubic foot
(Ibs/ft3)
dynes per square centimetre
(dvnes/cm2)
pounds per square foot pascal (Pa or Nlm3
(Ibslftz)
pounds per square inch pascal (Pa or N/ m2)
(Ibs/ inz)
kilograms force per square pascal (Pa or N/ m2)
centimetre (kgf/cm2 )
kilograms force per square pascal (Pa or N/rn2)
millimetre (kgf/mm2)
h bar pascal (Pa or N/m*)
bar pascal (Pa)
millibar (mbar) pascal (Pa)
millimetre of mercurv pascal (Pa)
(mmHg)
inches of water pressure pascal (Pa)
(in H20)
inches of mercury pressure pascal (Pa)
(in Hg)
newtons per square metre pascal (Pa) They are equivalent
(N/m2)
Kilonewtons per square pascal (Pa)
metre (kN/m')
kilopascal (kPa) pascal (Pa)
Atmosphea(atm) vascal (Pa)
Angstr6m (A) nom metre' (nm)
antipoise millipascal second (mPa.s)
Centistokes Square millimetre per
second (mm2l s)
Clo K m2/ W
grain gram (g)
Calorie (Gal) joule (J)
kiiocalo~ereferred to often
as Calorie in practice (e.g.
in calculating energy values joule (I)
of food and drink).
British Thermal Unit (Btu) joule (I)
horsepower (HP) watt (w)
14 SA WTRI Special hblication - Jdy. 1978

kilowatt-hour (kwh) megajoules (Ma
micro-inch nanometre (nm)
micron ( pm) micrometre (rfim)
millitorr millipascal (mPa)
viscosity (poise) pascal second (Pas)
Fluidity (rhe or reciprocal (pa.s)-1 or mZN-1s -1
poise)
ounces per square yard
(ozlyd2)
stokes mm2/ s
tablespoon millilitre (mt)
teaspoon . ,
millilitre (mt)
thou micrometre ( II m)
torr pascal (Pa)
watt-hour kiiojoules (kJ)
Twist (turns per inch) turns/ metre (turns/ m)
Twist Factors
(English cotton or a ) tex twist factor
e (turns/cm x Gi
(metric o r = ), tex twist factor
(turnslcm x
(wonted or = tex twist factor
wonted
(turnsjcm x 6
(Tex twist factor. tex) decitex twist factor (=dtex)
ends per inch (elinch) ends per centimetre (endslm)
picks per inch (picksjinch) picks per centimetre
(pickslcm)
newtons per metre (N/m)
590.6 - 590.6
tex (in mglm) =
English Cotton Count
- - Ne
Metric Count = Nm
English Cotton Count = Ne
SA WTRI Special MIication - July. 1978

The following tables have been given for shoe and hosiery sizes":
SHOE-SIZE/HOSIERYSIZE CHART
Shoe Size Boys & Hosiery Wearer's Foot

Children Men Ladies size Length (inch)
Sock Size Foot Length Shoe Size
Small (6-7) 14-17

Medium (7'/,-8'jZ) 17-21
Large (9-1 1 ) 21-26
SA WTRI Special hblication - J4.v. 1978

CONVERTING SOCK SIZE TO FOOT LENGTH IN CENTIMETRES
Sock Size Foot Size Sock Size Foot Size
Skein Strength (CSP)
Grover and Hamby12 give the following equation showing the

dependence of the skein strength on staple length for cotton yams processed on
the long draft system:
S=
- -
91.5 (L) 18,3 C 70,3
C
where S is the predicted skein strength in lbs, Lis thestaple length in 32nds of an
inch, C is the yam count (English cotton).
The value of 18,3 appearing in the formula represents the count-strength
correction. It has been suggested that the CSP results of carded yams be
corrected as follows:
where C, is the nominal yam count (English cotton)
S, is the required skein strength (lbs) at this count
C, is the actual measured count, and
S, is the actual measured skein strength.
SA WTRI Special Publication - July, 1978

Initially 21,7 was used as the constant instead of 18,3 and 17.64 has even
been suggested12.
I S 0 has recommended13 the use of skein breaking strength (SBT) as a
measure of yam strength. The breaking strength of a 50metre skein (Sowraps) is
determined and the SBT calculated as follows:
Breaking Load (in gf)

SBT =
100x yarn tex
Skeins of 100 metres (100 wraps) appear preferable".

Yarn Strength Index (YSI) has been defined as breaking strength (in gf)
of a 100-metre skein (100 wraps) divided by the yam h e a r density (in tex).
Values so derived are numerically very similar to the corresponding CSP
values.
If yam linear density does not diner by more than 10%fromthenominal
a correction can be applied to skein breaking strength as foUows14.
where
Sl = observed breaking load
S, = adjusted breaking load
T = observed yam count in a direct system
T2 = specified yam count in a direct system
C, = observed yam count in an indii system, and
C, = speciiied yam count in an indirect system.

More general equations (correction) applicable to cotton and valid overa
wide range of yam counts are:
where symbols are as before and K is a constant, usually 8 for load expressed in
kgf and 18 for Load expressed in lbsJ4.
18 SA WTRI Special I+blication - JNv, 1978

There are several variables such as twist, yam lineardensity and evenness
which influence the relationship between single thread and skein strength
resultsl2.
Normally for singles yam, if the single thread strength is multiplied by a
factor which ranges from 0.56 to 0.81 the skein strength (per thread) is obtained
while for two-ply yarns the range is 0,72 to 0.91. It has also been suggested that:
where K = 0,7 (74- Q
Skein strength is generally expressed in pounds and from this the Count-
Strength-Product (CSP) or break factor can be calculated.
The followingequations can be used as a general guide for relatingsingle
thread strength to skeln strength".
Carded Yarns: Ss = -6 + 119,5Sse

Combed Yarns: Ss = -6 + 132,l S,
where Ss = skein strength in lbs and Sse is the single thread strength also in
pounds.
It has also been skated thatt2:
Ss = (100 to 125) Ss, for single yams, and

S, = (120 to 140) Sse for two-ply yarns
To convert CSP to gf/tex divide by 208,3 and for CSP to cN/tex divide
by 212.6.
Elasticity is the tendency of a material in a deformed state, as a result of

stress, t o return to its original shape (or size) on removal of stress. Often
elasticity is taken to be the load (or strain) at which it will just return to its
original size when that load is removed. A measure of toughness is simply the
breaking strength of a material multiplied by the extension at break, divided by
200. This isa rough ap'proximation of the area underneath thestress-straincurve
and is based on the assumption that the stms-strain curve is a straight line.
SA WTRI Special hblication - 1d.v. 1978 19

Elastic limit is normally taken to be the yield point and can be expressed
as follows:
Load at yield point (in cN)

Yield stress (cN/tex) = tex
elongation at yield point
Yield strain (%) = x lo0
original length
Resilience is defined as theability of the fibre to absorb work without permanent

deformation and can be taken as the area under the stressstrain curve up to the
elastic limit (i.e. up to the yield point).
Modulus of resilience = load at yield point (in cN) x elongation a t yield
point/200 x tex.
where elongation at yield point is in %.
TYPICAL RING SPINNING TWIST FACTORS

Tbe roving twist factors to be used in the various counts for getting
satisfactory performance at ring frame are given below's. The twist factors
indicated are adequate to obtain satisfactory unwinding a t the ring frame
without resulting in stretch or breaks in the creel. Higher twist factors are many
times used in the mills to reduce the breakage rates at the speed frame.
Experience indicates that it is preferable to control thespeed frame breakages by
reducing the flyer speed than by increase of twist. speed frame efliciencics and
production can be maintained at a satisfactorv level bv such action. Use of false
iwist masters in the fly frame willalso help to maintainihe twist in the rovingata
lower level.
Thus, the spinning technician should try to use closer apron spacing at
the ring frame especiaIIy in short staple cottons and, if necessary, reduce the
roving twist if spinning performance gets adversely affected.
SA WTRI Special Publication - July. 1978

OPTIMUM TWIST FACTORS FOR ROVING15
1 English Conaa
Medium
Superfine
Most cotton knitting yarns have tex twist factors which lie within the
range 26.8 to 30,6 (2,8 to 3.2 English cotton count)although slightlyhighertwist
factors may be required for warp knits and certaindouble knits1b.The following
tables give some average values for the twist factors employed for various types
of yarnsl7.
Fine Spun Y w r =c =tex
Roving 2a-40 0.7 - 1.3 613

Fine yams 75-165 1.5 - 5.4 23-52
Coarse yams 6&110 2.0-3.6 19-35
Worsted yams 40-90

Wwllen spun M-IM 1.7-3.3
Carpet yarns 55-90 17-29
SA WTRI Special hblication - Jd.v. 1978

Cotton
Shon
Medium
Long
staple
Medium
* Weft Yarn Knittine (hosiery yam)
I
1
Lonu
E
zs wt = Tex Twist factor = (turnslcm)
6' turnslm
a = Metric twist factor =
m
I /Metric Count
.2
T
" YARN TWIST
9 = helix angle19 where T is the number of turns per unit length and D is the
yam diameter.
Some typical twist facton given inanotherarticlearealso given below for
several spun yams"?
Metric or mdtrx Trx units (,t Eoglirh m n o n units

(me)
Cotton:
low twist warp 35.9 3.75
ordinary warp 38.3 4.00
low twist weft 31.1 3.25
ordinary weft 33.5 3.50
hard twist yarn 43.1 4.50
ultra hard twist yarn 45.6 4.75
high grade knitting less than 19.1 less than 2
yam
ordinary knitting yarn
Worsted: Wonted units

grey single yarn 24
WY two ply y a m 23
dyed single yam 23
dyed two ply yarns 22
single grandxllc yarn 24
two ply grandrcllc 3.3
yam
single knitting yarn
two ply knitting yarns
hand knitting yarn
Woollcn:
ordinary wovcn yam
hard twist woven
yam
knitting yarn
SA WTRl Special PLblication - Jdv, 1978

In filament yams Twist Factor (k) = (turns/m)-.
The following figure relates yam twist factor to yam tenacity and
extension for viscose (high wet-modulus (HWM 333) and cotton and their
blends20. The viscose has a linear density of 1.7 dtex and a 40 mm staple length.
The cotton is a Peru carded cotton and the values are based on a 20 tex yam.
For acrylic weaving yams the following twist factors have proved
successful.
Smooth worsted y m s : =t = 31.6 (100 metric) for spinning

,t = 41 to 47 (130 to 1% metric) for plying
Smooth woolen yam: = t = 35 (1 10 metric) for spinning
= t = 47 (150 metric) for plying
The American Cotton Handbook21 gives the following twist factors for
cotton:
Hosiery 2.75-325 83-98 26.3-31.1

Filling (Weft) 3.25-4.00 98-121 31.1-38.3
Warp 4.00-s.00 121-151 38.3-47.9
Short cottons would, however, require higher twist factors than the
above".
For Indian hosiery yams the twist factors normally fall within the
following ranges:
=e = = =1
dtex m
Carded Yam 3.5-4.0 106-121 335-38.3

Cornbcd Yam 2.8-3.5 85-106 26.8-33.5

Some setting conditions for stabilising twist are given below19.
TWIST SETTING CONDlllONS OF VACUUM SETTING MACHIN
Yarn Tetoroa Tetoron Tetomn Tetws Tctamn
dter 33 33 56 56 56
Nrnr/m IODO 3W IMW) 800 300
Temperature ("0 110-120 70-80 100-110 W100 70-80
Time (min) 30 30 30 30 M
Tumslm MO 3W 3W IWO MO
Temperature ("0 70 70 100 90
E m c (mm) 30 40 40 40
Steaming method:
By using the steam from a boiler, for example:
Silk : . 90°C,20 min

Rayon : 100°C,20min
Acetate : 75OC.20 min
Polyester : 120°C,20 min
Nylon : 110°C,20 min

RING SPINNING LIMITS
A comparison of spinning speeds of various staple-fibre spinning systems

is made in the table belown:
TWlSTED
Coatiawls Spcrd* Br"k S@*

Ring I5 Roller varvx 503
Living ring 1846 Turbine 46
Pavena P a d I5 Elecuostat* 61
* Equivalent twist insertion speed in metres per minute

TWISTLESS
wet ( m 0 hrirt)
Integrated campsite
Aerodynamic bnkc Pavena P u t
Self-twist 99-183 TNO 152-365
). Equivalent Owist insertion spced in metres per minute I I
According to studies by Rieter AG, Winterthur, Switzerland, the

following average yam breakage rates occur in spinningz3:
Spinning
wool 80 end breaks/ 1 000 spindle hours
(*50%)
wool/ polyester 60 end breaks/ l 000 spindle hours
(*W o )
Heap12 states that, for cotton rotor (OE) yams the spinning limit lies
between about 80 and 120 fibres in the cross-sation whereas for ring yarns it is
about 50 fibres. Generally yams finer than about 12,5 tex arc spun on the
combed cotton system.
For cotton an end breakage rate of 40 per 1 000 spindle hours is often
taken as an average for ring spinning and 60per 1000 rotorhoursforrotor(0E)
SA WTRI Special Publicarion - July. 1978 27

spinning. Cotton yams are classified as follows:
Clus English Conon C o r n s of tex
Thick I to 10 60 to @XI
Coarse I1 to 22 27 to 54
Medium 23 to 46 13 to 26
Mediumifine 47 to 80 710 13
Fine 81 and over 7 and below
The highest count at which a yarn would be expected to give a lea (skein)
count strength product (CSP) of 2 000 (carded) or 2258 (combed) has been
defined as the highest standard count.
The following table gives some ranges of highest standard count for
various cottons25.
Highest Standard Counts
(fnrtirh cotton) I Equivalent tcr
Sea Island St Vincent V.135 148-176 combed

Egyptian Sudan GS 108-122 combed
Ashmouni 2441 carded
American Upland typc
Uganda BP 52 59-65 carded
Tanzania CLA 56-62 cardedd
Tanzania MZA . 37-47 carded
Nigeria NA I 2441 carded
USA 15/16 M 15-21 carded
The qualities of cotton fibre, based on upper limits of suitability of

spinning to various linear densities are given in the table belowz6:
THE QUALITIES OF FIBRE BASED ON UPPER LIMITS OF

SUITABILITY FOR SPINNING INTO VARIOUS YARNS
Approximate
TW sf.@ L-@ Yarn Comtr Tcr
(a) (mm) (N+)
Pima > 1.38 > 34.9 greater tha2l 70's C 8.4
A a l a 1517 1.13 to 1.16 28.6-29.4 50-7J's 8.4-1 1.8
SJ wries 1.W to 1.13 27-28,6 &Ws 11.8-14.8
Modal type I to 1.09 25.4-27.8 Z&UJ's 14.8-29.5
Shon m p l c <I < 25.4 I c u than M's > 19.7
28 SA WTRI Special Publication - July. 1978

YARN NUMBERS AND STAPLE LENGTHSZ'
I Srspk t Carded Yam 1

Filling
Up to 10s
42 to 59 10s to 20s
30 to 42 20s to 30s
20 to 30 30s to 36s
16,4 to 20 36s to 45s
11.8 ta 16.4 4% to Mh
8.4 to 11.8 60s to 80s
COMBED YARN
Source: Textile World Fact Fife. Volume 105, No. 9M (Mid-September,

1955), p.23
The following Limits have been given for the ring-spinning of cotton".
FIBRE FINENESS (dtn) APPROXIMATE LIMITS (tex

The following classification for American Upland Cottons according to
their spinning potential (limiting count) has been made2?
SPINNING POTENTIAL (LIMITING LINEAR DENSITY TEX)
--
Dwriptim Shod Staple Medium Stapk Long Staple
Low 15,l-I9,1 9,410.7 7.1-7.7

Average 12.3-14.8 8,2-9.2 6.6-7.0
High 10,412.1 7.3-8.1 6.1-6.3
The following table gives some spinning limits (ringspinning on cotton

system)? Number of fibres in yam cross-section given in parenthesis.
I . TYPE OF FIBRE
Acrylic
Fibre Viwov Nylon Spin.iog Polytn
Det~ik dter/Nrn dtcrl Nm Imk dtex/Nm
dtexlrnm dtex/Nm
2.4160 16514 (69) 145170 (60) 165IW69) 145170 (MI)

3.3160 250140 (76) 200150 (61) 210148(63) NX)/50 (61)
The optimum deliveries~forvarious yam linear densities (counts) and

material are shown below. This diagram is based on data collected in spinning
mills which have processed the most varied material on the Rieter worsted ring
spinning frame model H6. The values of front roll deliveries, marked in three
curves for spinning wool, wool/synthetic blends and pure synthetics therefore
represent average values which are actually achieved in normal operation?
SA WTRl Special Publicarion - Ju&, 1978

Exmmc tirnitr
Synlhcticr (acrylics)
On ring frames spinning limits for woolvary fromabout 36 to 50 fibresin

the yam cross-section depending upon the particular conditions".
Downes'z states that, for wool wonted yams, a number of spinning
experiments have shown that an end breakage rate of IOOper 1000 spindle hours
is achieved at an acceptable spinning speed when there arean average 36 fibres in
the yam crosssection. In industrial practice when spinning near limit counts-it
is customary to operate with a safety margin, having about 45 fibres in the yam
cross-section on average'=.
Some calculations of limit" values of tex for wools of different mean
diameter, based on assumed values for N of 37 and 45 (fibres in cross-section),
are given in the table below (assuminga typical CV of fibrediameter of 24,5%y'.
The limit" tex values thus calculated for the fine (19 pm) wool
conrspond well with the fine yam counts actually produced in commercial
quantities [e.g. 4.2% of Japanese weaving and knitting yam production in 1973
was 13.9 tex (72 metric count)]. Counts of 11,lO and even 9 tex are spun in the
Huddersfield fine suiting trade, using wools finer than 19um although the 1973
production statistics for Europe and North America do not include any count
finer than 17,9 tex32.
SA WTRI Special Publication - July. 1978 31

TEX VALUE
A v w g e Fibre Diameter ( p m) 21 23 25
N = 37 14.6 17.8 21.3 25.2
N = 45 17.7 21.6 26.0 30.7
Note: for wool the average number of fibres in the yam crosssection (N) can be
972T
calculated as follows: N = d2
0,0001V2)
+
where T is the yarn Linear density (tex)

d is the mean fibre diameter ism)
and V is the CV of fibre diameter (%)
If a typical CV of 24.5% is assumed the formula reduces to:
For wool the following spinning limits have also been given's:
AAA
AA
A
B
C
D
E
YARN BREAKAGES DURING WEAVING
According to studies by Rieter, the following average yam breakage rates

occur in weaving?
wool - warp 20 end breaks/ 100 000 picks (k50%)

- weft 16 weft breaks/ 100 000 picks (*50%)
32 S A WTRI Special Publication - July. 1978

Wool/polyester
- 8 end breaks/ I00 000 picks (*50%)

- 4 weft breaks/ 100 000 picks(* 50%)
Messrs Zellweger Uster Lid give the following experience values for the
frequency of short stops in cotton weaving3':
W u p Stops per I P cndr per IP picks

Type of Cloth
Single Shuttle
(plain) 2W 150 20
Muhishuttle
(Coloumd) MO 225 30
The following table compares warp breaks for rotor and ring yams on
various looms:
WARP BREAKS PER 10 000 PICKS'

PER 1 000 ENDS
30 tex (Nc 20) 0,198 0.124

Kova Airjct 25 tcr (Ne 24)
Automatic Loom 37 tcx (Nc 16) 0,153
SO x 2 tex 0,365
(Nc 1212)
SA WTRI Special PLblicarion - July. 1978

Some comparative rates of production fordifferent fabric manufacturing
systems are given below?
LinPr s p e d TYPM ~ . t cof a m

Roductim Proems of produdion width prodmion
(mamlmin) (m) (m2/min)
Weaving 0.1 1.5 0.15

Weft knitting 1.0 2.0 2.0
Warp knitting 0.5 3.0 1.5
Lace 1O. 3.0 3.0
Non-woven I5 2.0 30.0
Textiles-fromdlm 35 0.9 31.5
Spun-bonding 75 0.9 67.5
lntegrallysxtrudcd net 60 1.2 72.0
GENERAL FIBRE PROPERTIES
The specific gravities (or relative densities) of the principal fibres

arranged in order, a&. 1':
Fibre Relative Density (specific gravity)
~ o l ~ ~ r o ~ ~ l e ~ e
Polyethylene
Rubber fibres
Polyamide (Rilsan)
Nylon 6 and 66
Nylon 66
Nylon 6 1;18
Acrylic 1.18-1.19 and 1,14-1,42
Silk (boiled-off) 1.25
Wool 1:jl and 1.32
TriaEetate 1.32
Acetate 1.29-1.33
Silk (raw) 1.34
Modacrylic 1.34
Polpster 1.38
Polyvinyl chloride 1.4
Hemp and jute 1.48
Carbon fibre type 1 1,s
34 SA WTRI Special hblicofion - July. 1978
Relation Density
Fibre (Specific Gravity)
Linen 1.5
Rayon 1.50-1.53
Ramie 1.52
Cupprammonium filament 1.52
Cotton 1.53-1.54
Carbon fibre type 2 1,6
Vinylidene chloride co-polymer 1.7
Alginate 1,78
Glass fibre composite 1.9
Asbestos (chrysolite) 2.4-2.6
Glass filament 2.45-2.60
Triton ceramic 2.56
Aluminium L65 23
Titanium 4.5
Steel S97 7.8
Metal fibre (tinsel) 7.90
SAWTRI Special Publicaiion - July. 1978

FINENESS RANGES A N D FIBRE DIAMETERSOF VARIOUSTEXTILE
FIBRES (ASTM D629)
WOOL CLASSIFICATION
W m l Tap Cnd"
Army
HAIR RBPES AND SILK
Yic- 13.0 to 14.0 Culuntd

*ilk
~.rhrnrr 1 4 s to 19.0 ~ - h tin
Gmdh r 17.0 to Z1.0
Alpru 26.0 to 28.0
uunz m.0 to n . 0
SA WTRI Special hblication - July. 1978

Some crimp levels for various staple synthetic fibres?
Polymer Fibre
Polyester Mype
W-type
Converter tow
B-me
W-type
T-type
Polyacrylonitrile w-type
Polypropylene T-type
Cellulose w-type
Some tensile properties of common fibres":
r
I
Cotton
Normal virose
High tenacity viscose
Triaatate
Nylon 6.6
Polpter
Acrylic
Polyurethane elaston
Polypropylcnc

The following tables of general fibre properties have been given in one
article's:
SA WTRI Special fiblicafion - July. 1978

- --
Animal Vegetable Roban
Flbrn Fibres Treated Nomex Asbestos PVC PBI Kordolan
-
In' Wool e.g. Cotton
--
Cotton
-
Wety Factors
Flame resistance 1-2 2 1-2 I 2 I 1-2
Heat re~islancc I 1-2 3-4 I 3-4 3-4 2
Antistatic
Properties I 2 4 I 4 4 2
Performance
Water repellency 1-2 3 3 5 3 4 4
Abrasion resist 2-3 4 1-2 3-4 2 2 2
Shrink resist 4' 1-2 1-2 4 1-2 1-2 1-2
Wash prformancl 4' 3 1-2 5 1-2 1-2 1-2
Drycleaning
pcrtormance I 1 3 5 4 3 3
UV Stability 1-2 2-3 5 I 2-3 7 ?
Comfort
Warmth I 3 5 4 4 4 3
Moisture
Absorption I 2-3 5 4 4 5 3
Elasticity 1-2 4 3 5 3 4 3
Porosity 1-2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Permeability 1-2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Appcannce
Drape I 4 4 5 3 4 2
Texture 1-2 2 3 4 2 4 2
Colour 1-2 2 4 5 3 5 2
Crease resist 4 4 2 5 2 2 2
Wrinkle recovery
- 2
--4 4 5
-4 4 3
Performance can be improved by applying spcial treatments

% Ratings: l = Excellent 2 = Very Good 3 = Good 4 = Moderate 5 = Poor.
Cotton Nylon Acrylic
Absorbency Strength Bulk and Loft
Static Resistana Abrasm Reswtancc Stability
Retention Stabhty
Pilling Resislanc Absorbency Strength
Heat Resistance Abrasion Re~istancc
Stability
Good Strength Static Resistance Wrinkle Recovery Heat Resistance

Stability Abrasion PX68 (Wet) Wrinkle Recovery
Resistance Retention
Heat Resistance
Abrasion Rcdslanr Pilling Resistance Heat Resistance Static ~esistance Static Resistance
Bulk and Loft

Strength
Press (Wet)
Retention
I Bulk and Laft
Pilling Resistance
Heat Resistance
Bulk and Loft

Strength
Abrasion Resi~lancc
Absorbency
Wrinkle Recove! Stability Absorbency Absorbency
Press (Wet) Static Rcsistance
Retention
I Pillinn Resistance
COMPARISON OF FIBRE QUALITIES RELATING TO APPEARANCE RETENTION FOR
CARPETS"
Rellllenco
Nylon
Polyeater
Polypropylene
Rayon
Wool
Key: 1 = Excellent 2 = Very good 3 = Good 4 = Fair

The following tables gives a fair comparison of relative abrasion
resistance of different types of fibres (car upholste~y)~~:
Fibre type Relative Abrasion Resistance
Nylon
Polyester
Wool
Cotton
Acrylic
Viscose rayon
Acetate rayon
PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MAIN TYPES

OF TEXTILE FIBRES4)
Tcmik Ttmcily (cN/lcx) Elwytion (96) R a M a m e to

Type or uv Rchlive Smnm w.ohig in
Dmrily (Lgfl relative unitr
dry re1 dry wrt
1.28-1.33 I5 t o 25 1 3 7 to 12 25 to 40 M to 60 4M
Cotton 1.52 23 to 45 4 5 to 27 26 to 29 7 to 10 9 to 12 50
- 60 to 95 - - 2 to 3 20 to 25 -
(Viscose) rayo 1.52 161078 131022 7 1 0 1 1 1 5 t o M 251035 79
(CcUuloa)
acetate
trLzcnatc
Polyamide
(nylon 6)
Polycrtcr
nitrile
Polrinyl
42 SAWTRI Special hblication - July. 1978

TYPICAL FIBRE PROPERTIES4*
Polyacryllc I Vlrcos I Cotton
Rclatiw density '1.36-1.38 1.14 1.32

Moisturn absorption (9%) 0.20.5 3.54.5 15-17
Water retention(%) 3-5 10-15 4045
Melting tempenture(OC 250-256 6 255-260 -
6.6 215-220
Decomposition ('C) - 510430 250-360
renacity (cNltcx) N = 25-65 40-90 2045 10.20
T = 70-95
Extension at break (96) N = 15-40 N = 30-80 20-70 25-60
T = 10-20 T = 15-25
Acid resistance good, attacked Sufficient ood, dissol- pod, attacked
by conc. acids attacked b y ed i n conc ~yconc.acids
:one acids cids (exc.
ICL)
Alknlinc resistance attacked b y ~ o o dattacked ood-lair good good poor dcgra-
conc.lye by lG?6 N a O H tiacked by degradated attacked b y latcd by conc
0°C lye by 10% NaOH 10% NaOH Ye
Resistance t o light very good poor cry good poor poor loor
Static charger average average verage low low OW
Creating (dry) little little ~ediurn pronounced pronounced ittle

Washability PO& Bod wage good good vcrage
COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES OF NASLON (STAINLESS STEEL) AND OTHER FIBREW
A COMPARISON OF SOME FIBRE PROPERTIEF
SA WTRI Special Publication - July. 1978 45

The following comparison of fibre properties has been given
Wool
Relative density 1.32

Moisture Regain (%) 15.0
Dry Tenacity (cNl tex) 9-18
Dry elongation (%) 20-40
Young's Modulus 1 %2W
(kg/mm2)
Young's Modulus 11w146
(cN/tex)
TEXTILE TECHNOLOGICAL DATA OF DIFFERENT FIBRES47
tight Wether
rut- R&
nes h"CC
'olycster
4ylon 6.6
iylon 6
\crylie
V. good
Good
I
Good
Satisfactory
Good Satisfactory
Exmllcnt
Uool
:otton
Fair
hir 1E
SA WTRI SpeciaI hblication - July, 1978

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF FIBRES48
NsMI IC
- - -
a x C.rbw
conw 114 Carbon Cnphitr lbrw
- -
26.5-53 4.5-13.2 62 26.5-247 26.5-26
II Moisture absorption
2(PC 65% R H (76)
Heat endurance (DC)
6-10
Chars
a t 300
none
MO
2-14
4 m
none
4M0
none
4M0
9,543.5 up t o 2134 3.2-76 filament filament filament filament filament

12-25 10-30 0.02 10-40 any 8-10 6-9 6-10
-
psi
tenacity (&denier =
12 800 x density'
*here density is in g / c d or el% relative density (rpeeiftc gravity) can bc uud
6.89 x 10- psi

Tenacity (eN/tex) =
density
For cotton cN/tex = 0,486 (psi i~ 1000'r)
also Tenacity (cN/tex) = 9.8 x 10-3 x p-' x (kgf/cmz)
p = density (glm')
cN/tex = 8.83 x gf/denicr
The strength of Kcvlar is-191 cN/tex which is mom than twicc that of the strongest nylon*.
SA W T R I Special Publicorion - Juls. 1978

I
I
COMPARlSON OF PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF PRIACIPAL FIBRES4' ."
0 c
Tcmilc Tenacity Elongation Wet/Dw :=5
ea = Moirturr
Fibre
Rrldive
mmit),
Strength
(kg/mmz)
(cNItex) %
syly
~srtic
Recovery
nending
Strength
~ b m r i o n Softr~ling
Strength Point
Melting
Point
Effect
of
Eflcct
or Wutbcriag -
ZZ
n u
Dymbiit~
81
M O C ~
Wet DV Wet w) (= c ) Acids A U . ~ Resirtmn e%
-e: + 65% RH
Wool 1.26-1.33 9-25 8,3-13 7-12 610 3 W 7694 Excellent S W - - S W SW 430 Excellent 16
1.52
Cotton 1.54-1.55 2245 22,5-27 2629 25-55 9-12 102-110 Passable S FS - - W S SW M Good 7
Sdk 1.33-1.45 2635 - - 15-25 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Vinylon 1,261.30 33,344 - - 9-26 - 70-90 Good S S 22&239 - FS S S - Good 3.0-5.0
Nylon 6 1.14 35-84 3 145 2639 1660 25-90 83-92 Excellent S S 7 21s-220 FS S SW 640 Excellent 3.5-5.0
Polyvlnrlidenc cyamde 1.70 8-23 - - 18-33 - 100 Excellent S S 145-165 165-185 V. strong S S - Passable 0
- - - -
Acctatc (Cellulose) 1.32 10,560 10-13,2 7-9 17-35 28-35 60-67 Goad W W 2W230 260 SW SW SW 50 Good 6.0-7.0
Triacetatc (Ccllulow) 1.28 - 10.3-11 6-7 25 28-30 - - - - - - - - - - - -
Rayon 1.50-1.52 1678 13-22 7-11 7-30 25-35 4540 Passable W W -I - W SW SW 79 Excellent 12-14
Key: S - Stmng
FS - Fairly Strong
W - Weak
SW - Somewhat w a k
SA WTRI Speciol Publication - July. 1978

Fibre Flex Life
The resistana to flex abrasion of a fibre is important in determining its

wear life and also its pilling propensity. This is illustrated in the figures below
and illustrates how a pill resistant fibre is often engineered. The followinggraph
relates flex life to fibre fmeness (denier of dtexyl.
SA WTRI Specid ILbIication - July. 1978

EXTENSION % 53
Fibre Regain Values:
The following tables have been given for the regain of different
fibre34.JS.Jb.
SA WTRI Special Itrblication - July. 1978

The following regain vllvn have a h been given (at 24OCp:
I I !
The following table compares the regain and water retention levels for
various fibres57:
The following table has been presented for the regainand water retention
of different fibres58:
SA WTRI Special Mlication - July. 1978

Fibre Swelling:
The following table has been given for the smelling of fibres in water?
Cotton
Linen
Mcnxriscd cotton
Menxrised linen
Vsow rayon
Lilieafcld
viscose rayon
Cuprarnrnonium
rayon
Wool
silk
Nylon
SAWTRI Special Rhlication - July, I978

FIBRE CIRCULARITY
THE VARIATION IN CIRCULARITY OF DIFFERENT TEXTILE
FIBRESW
NO. Fibm
-
2
Msnmdr
Nylaa
Dacron
Anill
Casein
V~scoxRayon
Acrylic
Odon
Dyncl
Natonl
T dSi
Wool
Ramie
Cotton: Auburn 3
(65%maturity)
Cotton: NC 14
(2.5% maturity)
* These valuer are within the limiu of error in measurement.

The circukrity values (0,have been dncrmined employing Schlocmer's formula. C =4 UAI P,
where A is the zrca of morr-wction mearurcd witha polar planimeterand P,the perimetermeasured
with a map mas-. Mearmmenu on one hundred cras-sectiam of each type of fibre were
made.
Fibre Bending a d Stiffness Ropertie:

I -?!?!! '
Fibre Flexural rigidity (G) = F x 10-3 N.mm2
P
where q is the shape factor6'
E is the initial (or spaifif) modulus in N/tex
T is the fibre Linear density in tex

and p is the fibre density in g l a d
SAWTRI SpeciaI Publication - July. I978

We have, however,
T = 7,854 x 10-4 d2 (I + 0,0001 V2) p

where d is the fibre diameter in am
and V is its coefficient of variation in %.
It therefore follows that:

I
G = qnl)E P (7,854 x d4 (I + 0,0001 VZ)2
G = 4.9 x 10-8 qE P d4 (I + 0,0001 V2Y:
If we take (1 + 0,0001 V2)z = 1,I
i.e. V is assumed to be 22% then
G = 5.4 x 10-8 l)E p d4

The specific flexural rigidity (i.e. flexural rigidity per unit tex or the
flexural rigidity of a one tex fibre) can be calculated as foUows:
Specific flexural rigidity Rf = --4In ?-x

E
P
lo-' N.mrnzltex2
If d is the mean fibre diameter and V is the fractiod coefftcient of

variation of fibre diameter then the average fibre stiffness is approximately
propomonal to?
d4 (1 + 6 V2 + 3 V4).
56 SA WTRI Special Pkblication - July, 1978
FIBRE FLEXURAL, TORSIONAL, SHEAR AND TENSILE PROPERTIES*
(MORTON AND HEARLEY'
I High Tenvdty Fayon

P0ly"osL
A t a w 6 R H a n d 2 O D C ~ abcrrl.
s ~ To wn*cn cN/tex d c N . m m ' / ~ dto m f v / t n and mN.mrn'/uxl mspxivcly, multiply by 10.
SA WTRI Special ttrblication - Jdy. 1978

Orlon fibre linear densities (dtex) which give the same fabric handle a s
various wool qualities are given bel0w6~.
Fii- (Wml Sak)u follctim of

FibrcCtimp Commcd F8bric Fibre Crimp d Denier
rrpc O h VF ~adwy
33 dtex 6.6 dter 9 9 dtex
Pliant 21 Soft > 70's 5444's 48-52's

More rigid 23; 24 Crisp M)-7(Pr 48-54's 444's
Fibre torsional rigidity is related to fibre lineardensity (dtex) in the figure

below?.
ELASTIC RECOVERY PROPERTIES:

Nylon's recovery from elongation (elasticity or work recovery) improves
with increasing humidity and is far superior t o that of polyester at relative
humidities above about lo%, at high elongations (above about 2%in general and
in waterf?
i 58 SA WTRI Special hblication - July. 1978

PERCENTAGE RECOVERY FROM 15% STRAIN"
Type of strain
F i i
Bcnding Tcrailc
Nylon
Courtelle
Polypropylene'
Britch Wool
Evkan
Data from J.C. Guthric
Some elastic properties of various fibres an aIso given below"'.
SAWTRI Speck1 hblication - July, 1978

Some elastic recoveries at various elongations are shown in the figure
beloHP7 for various fibres:
SA WTRI Special Itrblication - July. I978

A comparison of some properties are shown for different fibres belo@:
Roprti~1 Nylon Polyeskr
Relauvc denuty 1.14 126

T e m t y (cN/tcd 35 9-15
Toughmess (cNltex) 7.9 5.3
* Uasuc Recovev - 81 36
1st eyck
6th ~yele 88 79
Recoven after 6th cyck 75 37
15% strain
meet of exposure, h a t and ndiatiw
The effect of sunlight on curtains*:
The following rating has been given for various fibres in order of increasing rate
of loss of strength on exposure to sunlight:
Fibreglass
Acrylics
Polyesters
CeUulose diacetate and tiicetate

Nylon 6 and 6.6
Linen
Cotton
Wool
Silk
One must remember that these fibres have verydiffercnt initialstreogtbs,
which
~ ~must
- - - be
- - - - ~into account as wdlas the rate of strength loss, when Crying
~ taken ~
to decide on the best buy from the point of view of light stability.
SAWTRI Special Publication - July. 1978

SAWTRI Special hblicarion - July. 1978
C N N U l X H13NZXI.S %
SA WTRI Spechl Pkblicafion - July. 1978

Percent loss in original breaking load (yam breaking loads were
measured on an Instron at 100 rnm/min constant rate of extension from a 100
mm-gauge length), 10tests were made on each exposed and unexposed sample?
-
florid.
21 WO
I-g-
Bright Nylon type 6.6

Semidull Nylon 6.6 no additive
Semidull Nylon 6.6
with additive
Semidull Nylon typc 6
Extradull Nylon 6.6
No additi~e
Extra-Dull Nylon 6.6
W~thadditive

LOSS OF STRENGTH ON PROLONGED EXPOSURE OF HIGH
TEMPERATURES b'
I Fibre
V i o s c rayon
At 1 W C
90
Cotton 92
Linen 70
Glass 100
Silk 73
I Nylon
Polyester. Tcrylcne
Acrylic. Orlon
Some details of the effect of radiation on textiles are givenin the table and
figures below":
Cotton
Rayon
Acctafe
Wool
Nylon 6 or 66 (polyamidcs)
Dyncl (modacrylic)
Orlon (acrylk)
Dacron (polprtcr)
Data o f Bolt and Carrol (I I)

.r Estimated by extrapolation; MIWP may not be realistic.
SA WTRI Special Publication - J ~ ! Y .1978

TOTAL DOSE DELIVERED
Depeodenee of change in degree of polymerization of cotton on total dose of radiation.
SAWTRI Speciol PubIication - July. 1978

E
0
LL
1.1. POLYESTER
-
0
Y.
a
m RAYON
0,s
F
o,, COITON
I ,O r-- RAYON
POLYESTER
0.6
TIME O F IRRADIATION - HOURS TIME O F IRRADIATION - HOURS TIME O R IRRADIATION - HOURS

Breaking loads, relative to unirradiated Breaking loads, relative to the Breaking loads. relative to the
materials, of yarns after exposure l a ""irradiated materials. of yarns aher irradiated controls (no acrylonitrile).
,?-radiation for different periods of exposure to Y-radiation for different o f yarns after cxpasure t o y-radiation
time i n an atmosphere o f nitrogen periods of time i n an atmosphere of for different periods of time i n an
saturated with water at 21°C. Dose nitrogen containing 10% acrylonitrile atmosphere of nitrogen containing
rate. 3 x 10' r hr. and 2.2% water at 20°C Pose rate. 10% acrylanitrile and 2.2% water at
3.8 x 10' r l h r . 20°C. Dose rate. 3.8 x 10' r/hr.
60 - YELLOWNESS
INDEX (%)
50 -
40 -
MOSI,YT"
MODAClll,.,<
*cm,.** 'I
-
...-.----- - --.---.--POI "LITER
Is0 IW 200 210
TEMPERATCRE " C
Effect of time and temperature on base

cotour uf variou.~.fihres.72 720s e.rposure) 72
The effect of time and temnerature on the base colour of a number of

fibres is illustrated in the figure above7*. It is easy to see that polyester is a good
performer showing almost no change in base colour under the conditions of the
printing operation. Also, the go& performance of Acrilan is demonstrated
compared to a competitive acrylic fibre. In our experience, the polyester and
polyamide fibres always perform similarly to this test, whatever the source. This
is not true of acrylic fibres, with results fromacceptable to non-acceptable being
obtained under the conditions of this test dependent on the source of the fibre.
SA WTRI Special h b l i c a t i o ~- Julv. 1978 69

The Percent Yellowness Index has been calculated as follows:72
The Yellowness Index has been calculated as follows:72
1,28X- 1,06H 100

YI (%) =
Y I
I where X, Y and Z are the CIE tristimulus values.
I
SOME POLYESTER FIBRE PROPERTIES
The following physical properties have been given for some Japanese
synthetic fibres and yarns7?
SA WTAl Specid ttrblication - July. I978

SOME DETAILS FOR TETORON STAPLE POLYESTER7'
TIC, TlW
TlW
Soper-Bright TIC for orpn end s ~ i n n i
Super-Bright T!C TIW
Semidull 1.33 TIC TlW
-p-
T / R T!W. T/Ram
Bright TIW. TIRam
El01
(Normal
shrinkage
type)
Anti-pilling
El04
s right
I 32
:
(High
shrinkage
tYF)
Bright 1 4.4
5.5
TI W
TIW
K26 1
(Cationic
dyeable)
K2M
(Cationic TIW
dyeable) TKO. TIW
KEY. T - Tetoron
W - Wool
R - Rayon
C -- Catton
SA WTRI Special Rhlicarion - July. 1978

II COMPARISON OF SOME TETORON POLYESTER FIBRE PROPERTIES73
TETORON CATIONIC DYEABLE STAPLE
TYPE I TMI+ I
~ 3 0 1 4 TM2' 1 1
~ 3 0 3TWAJ
~ T981 1 1981 1 T981 1 E101'-
1.37 1.67 2.2 1 3.5 6.7 3.3
Dry elongation (%I
No. of crirnpsicm 3.7

- -
3.5 4.1 3.9
Shrinkagr (%)
(Hot air a t 18000 1 6.0
* I or
below
-
*I or
below
-lor
below
.lor
below
Rektive density 1.38 -
Moisture regain (90) 0.4

7
Bending rtrcngh
+ Hard crepe cydcts are recommended when waving yarns spun from this fibre
SpeeificaUy uwd for cotton blending on rotor (OE) machines
Shrinkap in boiling water
** S u p Anti-Pilling Tetoron staple for knitted and woven goods, panicularly in blends
A Used for sewing thrnds
SA WTRI Special Rhlicarion - July. 1978

SEWING THREAD PROPERTIES (100%) TETORON"
Count
T-303
Tensile Strength (cN)
I Elongation (96) 1 22
Twist plying (turns/m)
Twist Singles (turns/m)
Young's Madulus(cN/tex) 238
I Dry Heat Shrinkage

( l8WC 20 min) (96) 1 4.0
"AMILAN" TORAY NYLON & "TORAY TETORON" POLYESTER FILAMENT YARN FOR INDUSTRIAL
MATERIALS]
YARN IDENTIFICATION SlCAL LOPE1RTI

-
Elon- water THot-air
pation ihrlnk hrinkagt Characterlstlcs
11 break It lSO°C
(%)
we
12 Fishing net. Tarpmlin
II High tenacity- Filter cloth
II Typc 130 : Bright Filter cloth
II
II
II
5
5
5
I High tenacity
Wssthcr-orool
Heal-mistsnt
Filtcr cloth
Filar cloth
Filter cloth
II 5 Type 781s : Bright Tyrr cord. Bclt. Rope
II 5 Super high tenacity
Weather-proof
Heat and fatiaue
-
7 Scwing thread
7 Scwing thrssd
7 Typc 702C: Bright S w i n g thrcad
7 Super high tcnaeity Scwing thrssd
7 High and fatigue Scwing thrcad. Tcnt
7 Rlter cloth
-
7 . II Tyrc cord. Bell hose
+ T o n y TETORON". "Amilan'snd "TORAYLON'arc rsgirtcrrd trademark8 of Toray Industries. Inc

COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT LOW PILLING POLYESTERS"
Fibre finenesr (dtex)

Tenacity (cN/tcx)
Extension ("a)
Loop tenacity (cN/tex)
Crimp (96)
Shrinkage ("a)
Whiteness ("a)
Loop abrasion cycles (Z)
THREE MARKETABLE POLYESTERS75
N-l PES
pure and blended with
natural or other
chemical fibres
Non-woveas.
I I€O~EO-O-(CHJ~*l n
home
texfilcr
Canicr-frce PTMT (PBT)

dyeable, for
home textiles
[~@@Co-o-CCHA+ln

For other (Unitika) polyester staple fibres the foUowing List ofproperties
has been given:
I---- dtcx x mm Terncity

n-1
Sbrinkrgc st
170°C for
(cN/tex) 15 mitt (46)
I Bright (626)
Semi-dull (547)
Semi-dull (526)
Semi-dull (536)
Bright (636)
Hollow Bright (H635)
Modified (P634)
Modified (545)
Anti-pill (555)
Hollow (H38F)
Hollow fH38Y)
The following table of fibre properties is given7?
Palyertcr W-type ' 1.38 40-M 3540 0,344

Low PiUing type polyester 1.38 2~~35 20-55 0.3-0.4
Acrylic 1.15-1,ta la32 m-60 1-1.5
Nylon 1.14 3263 15-70 445
Cotton 1.5 18-27 18-21, 13
Wool 1.32 9-18 25-45 13-15
Trevira type 350 is a pill-resistant polyestern. During processing its

~ r o ~ e r t iare
e s similar to those of the regular (type 220) and high tenacity (type
i21j types but afterdyeing the strength i f the type 350decreasesto that
assocktcd with pill resistant fibres. For example. thc tenacity and elongation of
the tvoe 220 were eiwn as 424 cN/tex and 45% res~ectivclv.while those for the
low-&ng type 5 0 are 30.9 cN/tex and 40% kpeniveiy. More important,
however, is the resistance toflexingwhichis 3MOcyclesforthetype 121,3200for
the type 220 and 450 to 750 cycles for the type 350. T h i s is advanced as
the reason for its low-pilling character. After dyeing its resistance to flexing
drops to 320 to 420 cycles. It can be used incotton/polyester b1ends.e.g. 2.8dtex
with a twist factor of 32.5 (3.4 English cotton) in 20 tex yamn.
76 SA WTRI Special PLblication - July, 1978

The properties of a new low dyeing type of polyester (Trevira Type 210)
are compared with other polyester fibres in the table below78:
*,"ice Ropde.3
C x a s xnsitivity
Abrasion mistance
Pilling tendency
Pleat stability
Shape retentivity
Strength (cN/tex)
Efongation (%)
Knifesdgc abrasion (revs)
Shrinkage a t boil (%)
Density (glcm3)
Melting point (OC)
Glass transition ump. (OC)
Sonic modulus (cN1drcx)
Thnmal shrinkage M(PC (96)
Rcl. knot strength (%)
Rel. loop strength (9%)
Angle of distortion a t b m k (%)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF E TYPE TETORON STAPLE

POLYESTER'9
Dry tenacity (cN/tex)

hy Elongation (46)
Bending Strength (cycle)
Number of Crimps
(crimplcm)
kgrec of Crimp (96)
Wet Shrinkage.(%)
SA WTRI Special Publicution - July, 1978
.~..
CELLULOSICS
The foilowing table relates chain leneth. orientation angle and

crystallinity to tensile properties80 for cellulosic fibres:
3045 1Y-40" 24
(depending on
stretch)
Fortisan 49 5- 143
Orientation denotes the average degree of inclination of crystallities to

the fibre axis. In this context, the higher strength for Fortisancan beascribed to
its much higher orientation. However, higher orientation means a sacrifice of
other properties required in fibres meant for apparel use, such as resilience,
pliability and.softness to touch. The dye absorption and lateral bending
properties of a fibre are determined by its non-crystalline fraction.
Cellulose crystal lattice has at least twocommon stableforms: Cellulose I
in which all natural fibres (with theminor exception of some marinealgae) exist,
and Cellulose 11, the form of all regenerated cellulose fibres and sheets.
Mercerization of natural cellulose causes the crystal lattice to change
from Cellulose I to Cellulose I1 configuration. The change is usually
accompanied by swelling and a substantial reduction in the degree of
crystallinity. During mercerization the lustre of fibres can be improved by
controlling mercerizingstretch. Additionally. however, thedegreeof orientation
- -
and crvstallinitv are also controlled. DeS~itethe hiph crvstallinitv and strenmh
of cotion, whick would make the fibre todrigid to be spun or din ah^^, like r a g e ,
the spiral orientation causes cotton to retain flexibility during processing and
use. Several attempts to spin rayons with a spiral orientation have failed to
simulate this quality of cotton. The extra chain length of cotton macro-
molecules finds expression in its endurance. Successive launderings of textile
goods reduce the average chain length, and this is where theextrachain length of
cotton acts as a reserve.
Likewise, successive mechanical wear reduces the degree of crystallinity
of all celluloses. Thus, while viscose with a degree of crystallinity of 3m
degrades into powdery shreds after limited use and washing, cotton with twice as
high crystallinity wears on. Apart from long chains, secondary interactions
78 SA WTRI Special hblicafion - July. 1978

between molecules are also essential. In wool the side chains consist of over 20
amino acid residues with sulphur linkages. In cellulose fibres, natural and
regenerated OH groups and Van der Waals forces hold the chains together.
Without side bonds the material tends to have plastic flow and dimensional
instability such as in Polythene.
Side chains also determine such important propenies as crease recovery
and permanent set. To illustrate this point, the treatment of cellulosefibres with
urea-formaldehyde condensates may be considered. This results in side linkages
as well as the introduction of a separate phase, consisting of the reagent, and
confers a degree of lateral stability on the textile product.
Acetylation of cellulose, on the other hand, introduces CH,COO-groups
instead of lighter OH-groups. The inertia of the side c h a m thus increases and
the material acquires attractive thermosetting and pleating qualitp.
Vincel has a dry tenacity of 37 cN/tex and when wet is stronger than an
American cotton under similar conditionssl.
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF RAYON STAPLE FTBRE.Y2
dtex (most common) 1.67 1.67 1.67 1.67

Tenacity, conditioned (cN/&) 25 35 31 39
Wet (cN/tcx) 16 23 20 28
Loop (cN/ ter) - 9 8 7 7
Knot (cN/tex) I3 13 13 15
Elongation (%) Conditioned 18.0 14.0 13.0 10.0
Wet 250 18.0 14.0 12.0
Wet modulu~(cN/tcx) 1.8 4.4 4.4 10;6
Water retention (%) 95 70 80 61
Degree of Polymrisauon (DP) 325 400 4% 5K
Solubility in 6.5% NaOH at %PC(96) 30 15 10 75
'PRIMA' is ITT Rayonieh Trademark for its high Crimp. High ust Modulus Rayon.
SA WTRI Special R~blicotion- July. 1978

C O M P A R I S O N O F P H Y S I C A L PROPERTIES O F VISCOSE.
POLYNOSIC, HIGH WET MODULUS(HWM) A N D COTTON FIBRES83
Cond. tenacity (cN/tex) 19-31 31-53 3 1-57 17.7-53

Cond. elongation (7%) 10-30 8-15
Wet tenacity (cN/tex) 4.4-19 22-41 26.5-57
Wet elongation (%) 22-35 15-22
Wet modulus (cN/tex) 26.5-35 79-22 1 177418 61.8432
Loop test (cN/tex) 2H,8 6.2-26.5 6.2-10.6 8.8-17.7
Moisture regain (%) 11-13 10-12 7-75
Water rcuntion (96) *I15 W-80 3-5
Cond. modulus (cN1te.x) 53&795 l(M971 1~1590
Deg. of polymerisation
240 320
(W
Cross wction Serrated Round Round ikan sham
Arca rhrinkap of woven
fabrics 1%) 20 I5 10-11 10-11
Solubility in 10% NaOH
51 42
at 2WC (7%)
COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES O F VISCOSE, VISCOSE ACETATE

. A N D CELLULOSE ACETATE FIBREW
I
Bnght r s c a r (1.67 dtcr)
Vmmw arrtatr 12.4 dlcr)
Vlr- acetate (2.4 dtcx)
Bright VirCMC.
VirMC acctatc
Bright + o a
V i o x acetate
V i r o w dull
Viscox acetau
CcUulov accptc (duW(3.3 dtex)
Tenacity d c c r r w s only due to i n m in dtex of virwMcetatc due to tcctylation.

** in parenthesis represent w t strength of vivow and vir- aaratc
80 SA WTRI Special Publication - Jdv. 1978

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF FIBRE PROPERTIE!Y6
HSO is a modified viscose; the HS stands for "hot stretch" which implies
increased molecular orientation and, therefore, improved fibre tenacity,and the
"0" is a pictorial representation of the tubular form which this fibre takes.
The objective of Courtaulds was two fold: if possible to increase the
"cover" given by viscose fibres, and secondly, to incline the handle of fabrics in
which the new HSO is used more towards a cotton type handle?.
The HSO fibre has been named Viloft.
COMPARATIVk: PROPERTIES O F VILOFT A N D STASDARD

V l S r l X F (CAL'RTACLDS)"
SA WTRI Special Publication - Jdy, 1978 81

In one test the air permeability through a Viloft fabric was 15.3 ft'/hr
compared with 19.4 of a matching all standard viscose fabric, while the
percentage of light transmitted through it was only 4.9compared with 8.1 for the
standard viscose cloth. Perhaps even more dramatic was a comparison made
between identical 100% Viloft and 100%cotton cloths, with theair permeability
being 10.8 ft3/hr for. Viloft and 15.1 for cotton, while light transmission was
only 1,9 with the new fibre, compared with 3.7 for cotton.
SOME VEGETABLE FIBRE PROPERTIES

COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF YUCCA
FIBRES WITH BAST F I B R E P
I
P b h l Ctuncter Fbx Hemp llunie Jute Yurm
filament length (mm) 211-1473 1057-3175 102-9271 1588-2743 295

Average diameter ( p m ) 15.37-26 25,5037.5 13.5-31.5 20.25-23 40.1
Elongation (%) 1.6 1.6 2.7 2.8 0.3
Tensile strength [kgf/mm3 83.8 90.0 45.5 44.1 37.9
COMPARISON OF CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF YUCCA

FIBRES WITH BAST FIBRES!
Cellulow (%)
Wax (%)
Ash (96)
77.3
238
1.01
83.21
0.22
2.66
77.7
3.48
0.82
I I I 63.01
0.38
0.68
77.9
. 0.56
0.73
I ComtiNmts I Jule I Wood I

Lignin
Pectic bodies & lignin
Alpha cellulose
Hemi-ccllulorc
DP of ~tllulow
82 SA WTUI Special Publicorion - J d v . 1978

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BANANA, MESTA, 'ALOE', MANILA
AND SISAL F I B R E 9
Mest,
Fibre
Single-fibre tenacity (cN/tex)

1 49
(17-77)
Sinpldibre tenacity (cN/ tex)

(after being wet over-
night)
Single-fibre extension a t
1 (16?74)
break (%) (1.5-3.4)
Single-fibre externion a t
Ftbre-bundle tenacity
(cN/ tcx) 1 (21?:2.7)
Fibre-bundle tenacity (cNltex)

(after being wet overnight) (17.C-30.4)
T e density (g/cm3)
A p p a m t density (glcm') 1 0.62
Fibre vomsitv (%) I 53
Uncombed linear density (tcx)

of 2-mm cut kngth (3.0-12.0)
€lexunl rigjdity (cN.mm2)
Moisture regain a t 65% RH (96) I 15.2
Length of raw fibre (cm)

I ,450,
FA WTRI Special Wlication - July. 1978

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES O F RAMIE
MuUer gives the following composition of Ramie9'.
Constituent Percentage
Ash 5,63
Water 10,15
Aq. extract 10.34
Fat and wax 0,59
Cellulose 61,22
Inter-cellular substances and pectins 12,07
-
100.00
The gummy matter consists of pectose, cutose and vasculose. It is a pure

cellulose and contains no colouring matter. Degumming followed by
hypochlorite (NaCIO) and sodium chlorite (NaC103 bleaching gives milky
white fibres. Very good resistance to microbial attack makes ramie a prominent
fibre among natural cellulosic fibres.
Ramie is the king of the natural cellulosic fibres due to its length,
strength, durability, colour and purity. It is eight timesstrongerthancottonand
has an enhanced wet strength. Wet ramie is 1% stronger than dry. In lustre, it
is next to rayon and silk. Ramie is a highly orientated fibre, has an orientation
nearly parallel to the axis of the fibres (specific index of birefringe is i-0,068). It
has a n enormous tensile strength but lacks torsional strengthand ability to stand
a knot
Ramie has less cohesion force and so is less spinnable. The hairiness of
the fibre makes it difficult for spinning. At least 25% moisture is required for its
spinning. Processing in a spun silk mill or jutelflax machinery is advisable. The
bast cells are 75 mm-228 mm long, the average being 203 mm-228 mm. The
diameter of the cells is not uniform, thick and thin places occurring at random.
The Specirk index of birefringences of ramie, as stated already is +
0,068, resulting in properties like (i) High tenacity, (i) Low elongation, (iu)
increased lustre, (iv) Low moisture absorption, (v) High chemical stability and
(vi) Low dyeing affinity.
Due to the high orientation of the molecular structure of Famie fibres,
the fouowing differences in physical properties of flax, cotton, silk and ramie
SAWTRI Special ttrblication - July. 1978

will be observed:
Fibres Tensile Strength Elasticity Torsion
Ramie 1 1 1
Flax 4 times less 1,5 times less 1,2 times less
Cotton 8 times less I (same as Ramie) 4 times more
Silk 7 times less 4 times more 6 times more
As a bast fibre, ifflaxis compared with ramie, from the spinning point of
view the following differences can be observed.
Ramie Flax
1. Tensile strength Superior to flax -
2. Cohesiveness - Superior to Ramie
3. Fineness -do- -
4. Uniformity - do-
5. Pliability - do-
The durability of the ramie fibre makes it a very prominent fibre among
cellulosic fibres. After washing 30 times in a fixed percentage of soda and soap,
ramie, flax and cotton yam of the same count show a decrease in tensile
strength to the extent of 6%. 64% and 15%, respective1y91.
PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF RAMIE FIBRE92
(R 1412)
P.I. London
'DcgummedF lbre
SA WTR1 SpciaI Publication - July. 1978 85

PHYSICAL PROPERTTES OF PINEAPPLE LEAF FIBRE, JUTE AND
Ultimate cells
LengIh (mm)
Breadth ( S m )
L/B ratio
Filaments
Cravimetric fineness (tex)
Tenacity (eNItex)
Extension at break (9%).
Modulus of tarsianal ngidity
(X 10" dyneicm?
Flexural rigidity (dyne/em2)
Tranrvcrw swelling in water (96)
Bundle
Tenacity (cN/tex)
True Density (g/cm3)
Apparent Density (g/cmJ)
Porosity (%)
M a i r t u ~regain at 65% RH
at 100% RH
SA WTRI Special Publicarion - I&. 1978

PROPERTIES OF SILK AND SILK-TYPE FIBRES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BELIMA AND SIDEREA

(SILK-LIKE FIBRES)94
Ropertin
Relative Lknrity
Tenacity dry
(cN/tex) wet
Elongation dry 25-33
(%) wet
Young's modulus
wmm2 8Nl-I Y
cNjtex 594-89 1
Elastic Recovery at 5%
Elongation (96) 1 95-97
Heat Shrinkage 1 5-10
Resistance to funlight Slightly Yellowin)

lower in and l o w
tenacity in tenacit
after after
long time long time
exposure exposure
In developing Chinon, Toyobo staff started with a basic study of silk

fibres. The natural fibre is a polymer formed of blmks of crystallisable fibrin
and non-crystallisable plastin. Characteristics of silk, including its lovely look
and feel, are created mainly by the non-crystalline part95. In producing Chinon,
casein - the same protein as that of silk -was therefore used for the non-
crystalline part, while acrylonitrile was adopted for the crystalline part
SA WTRI Special Pkblication - July. 1978

CHINON. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES COMPARED WITH SILK9'
m m Si
Dry tenacity (cN/tex) 31 t o 4 0 26 to 35
Dry elongation (9%) 15 to 25 I5 to 25
Wet tenacity (cN/tex) 28 to 37 19 t o 25
Moisture regain (96) 4,5 to 5.5 9
Relative Dendtv 12 1.33 t o 1.45
COMPARISON O F PHYSICAL PROPERTIESP6
Fibre strength (cN/tex) 26-35 4042 3547

Elongation (%) 15-25 32-33 25-35
Young's modulus (kg/mm2) 650-1200 950-1050 W900
Young's modulvr (cN/tcx) 455.840 670-743 460-660
Elastkity (at 3%) 54-55 (at 8%) 95-100 95-IW
~ e l t i n g ~ p o i (0
n tC) 223-223
Softening p i n t (OC) 197-201
'high temperature
.~..
Shrinkaec in heated water (%)
*norditempcratm - -
-
8-9
20-22
-
-
Moist- content (96) 11.0 0.4 0.4
Density (relative) 1.33-1.45 1,385 1.34
'Copolymerized polyntcr with benzoate (simulated silky fibre)
The Melting Point of A-TeU (238°C) is lower than that of polyester

(263'C). but it is higher than that of nylon 6 (215-22O"C) and near to that of
nylon 6.6 (250-260°C)%.
The comparative p 1 0 p e d ~of oak Tasar, traditional Tasar and mulberry

axe given in the following table97:
SA WTRI Special tlbiication - July. 1978 89

From the table it is clear that mulberry silk issuperiorin respect ofall the
desirable properties except elongation percentage to both the trad&onal as well
as oak-fed Tasar silk. Rut out ofthe two kindsof rasar., nakTacar
.--- - . icfarwnerinr
-. ...-..-r - - - - -
t o the traditional Tasar in respect of filament fineness and mechanical
properties, i.e. tenacity and elongation percentage. The higher tenacity of oak
Tasar silk may be due to higher orientation or longer molecular chain length.
The finer filament of oak Tasar can be well utilised for qualitative good
preparation with softness and lustrous effect. The higher tenacity will also
contribute much in different stages of processing".
Although the mulberry silk is finer than oak Tasar and has better
strength, there are certain limitations. For mulberry silk production on
industrial scale, a substantial farm area will berequired. To produce only 100kg
of silkabout 1-1'12hectares of mulberry field will be necessary. With theincrease
in world population, the demand for food is also increasing. AU the irrigated
land wilt be needed for food production to meet the world's food crisis.
Therefore, expansion of mulberry silk has some limitation. From the above
point of view it is far better to cultivate wild Antheria Proylei Tasar silk-worms
which can eat the leaves of wild oak plants readily available on hiU ranges9'.
The most important process before actual reelingar unwindingof silkfrom
oak Tasar is cooking. The purpose of cooking is to soften the glutinous
substance, sericin, present in the cocoon shell. The cooking of mulberry cocoons
is very easy and is generally done by boiling in water for= few minutis. Due to
the different nature of the sericin content. oak Tasar cocoons reouire rnroloneed
A
treatment of boiling and steaming as compared t o mulberry cocoons. Some

-
chemical treatments are also required in addition to boiling and steaming.
It has been found that a combination of boiling, steaming and soaking is
better than all the other methods9'.
COMPARATIVE STRENGTH AND MOISTURE REGAIN OF SILKS

AND SOME OTHER TEXTILE FIBRES'3
Terncity Tenacity
Fibre (cN/tex) (cN/tcx) Mohtvrr =.in (%)
Air dry (65% RH) Wet/W.trr at 65% RH
Silk 36 33 10.0
Cotton 35 39 7.0
Wool 15.5 10.8 17.0
Nylon 6.6 51 44 4.3
POI~CST~~ 50 91 0.4
Source: Fibre Data Summaries (Shirley Institute Pamphlet No. 91)

Note: The strength of fibres and filaments varies over a wide range from sample
to sample and, in the case of man-made or synthetic fibres, according to theend-
use requirements, e.g. fibres are produced with high or medium tenacity, high
modulus, etc. The above figures are fairly typical of fibres for apparel uses.
SOME DETAILS OF PROPERTIES O F DIFFERENT SPIDER WEBS99

BLACK WIDOWS WEB HAS HIGHEST TENSILE STRENGTH
BmLiog l a r d
Brown house 0.60.8

Golden garden 5.7-6.85
Black widow
Woods (Araneus) 2.3-2.67
* Single fhment
POLYPROPYLENE AND POLYOLEFIN
Both drawing ratio and temgerature have a considerable effect on the

tensile properties and shrinkage of polypropylene. Low shrinkage types (0 to
05% shrinkage) are on offer'w, e.g. for draw ratios increasing from 4:l to I2:I.
.-
tensile streneth trebled.extensiondecrcased fromabout 100%toabout .-
lWand
the shrinkage decreased from about 15% to about 7%lw.
Polypropylene's melting point lies between 160 and 170"Ccompared to
that of about 125 to 13YC for polyethylene'*. It becomes plastic at
approximately 140°C, softens a t approximately 150°C (1409 to 160°C) and
melts a t approximately 170°C (165" to 175°C).
Tumblinrr olefin sweaten for 10 minutes at 88°C should induce
relaxation shrinkage'O'. This olefin (Marvess 111) softens at temperatures above
149°C and tumblingtemperatures should be kept bel0w93~C.Home laundering
at 65OC and tumbling at about the same temperature are recommended.
Shrinkage is less than 1% in length 5% (reversible) in width after 5 machine
washings and tumble drying cycles if the sweater has been finished correctly'o'.
Dry cleaning should not be used since certain solvents e.g. perchloroethyhe,
makes olefin hard.
Compared with polyethylene, polypropylene shrinks less at a given
temperature, has higher tensile strength, is more inclined to split, and displays
better mechanical properties thanks to the particularly marked capacity for
molecular orientatibn of polypropylenel02. l i melting boint lies &ween 160
and 175°C, which is substantially higher than the 125 to 135"Cof polyctbykne.
On the other hand polyethylene is softer, more supple and more extensible than
SAWTRI Special Fubkation - July. 1978 91

polypropylene and therefore more amenable to processing. It bonds easier to
coating materials, bonding agents or printing pastes, and has better resistance to
ultra-violet light. Even very thin flat yams of polyethylene show little proneness
to splitting, so that surfacecovering fabrics can be produced from this material
with lighter mass and therefore cheaper than from polypropylene. From this it
follows that carpet backings are made exclusively from polypropylene, whereas
polyethylene is used chiefly for textile applications, for carpets and household
textiles, fabrics for the garden, leisure and camping, etc.1".
The following table and figure have been given for the physical properties
of various ropes"33:
Nylon (monofilammt)
linear
m
We=)
42
y
-
SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROPES (DIAMETER 8 mm)
laul
(N)
13230
9410
T e *
(cN/ter)
31,4
T
btio
to
nunim
32
e
Polypropykne 30 31.4 32
Polpthykne
(monafiament) 31.5 6860 21.6 2.2
Manilla 54 5292 9.8 1.0
Sisal 54 4802 8.8 0.9
Breaking load divided by mass per mus
SAWTRI Special hblicafion - m y . 1978

R~'nd4r'nn'o' Elongation of tope under losd
I - manilla, 2 - -
niaal. 3 polypropylene. 4 - polpthylana. 5 - nylon.
A8 shown above, theclonption alpolypropylcnclin

ncamt la that 01 sin1 and manill..
An entirely new family of low cost fibres and yams made from film have
thus come into commercial usage combining a relative simple fdm and fibre
forming operation with the excellent chemical, physical and mechanical
properties of polypropylene - itself a low cost fibre forming material.
F~brillationtechniques are also being refined further to give novel types
of polypropylene fdm fibres and yams: they are also being developed for
polyamides and polyesters.
ACRYLIC A N D MODACRYLIC
The most significant advance in acrylic fibres of late has been the
introduction of second-generation bicomponent fibreslD4. Such fibres should
not be confused with biconstituent fibres. A bicomponent fibre is composed of
two derivatives of the same genetic polymer. Biconstituent fibres are composed
of two generically different polymers spun side by side into the same fibre.
First-generation acrylic fibres are crimped by mechanical deformation
followed by heat setting, generally in a stuffer-box type of operation. The crimp
so formed is usually of the planar, semi-permanent zig-zag type. Second-
generation bicoinponent acrylic fibres are composed of two polymers spun side
by side in the same fibres; in some varieties the distribution of the two polymers
is the same in all fibres, in others it is random. Tke two polymers are almost
identical in all respects except thermal properties'".
The crimp development mechanism ismuch thesameas that operatingin
a bi-metallic strip, where, on heating, the two sides expand a t different rates
causing the strip to bend. Whensubjected todry heat, boiling wateror steam, the
two segments comprising each fibre, shrink to different degrees introducing a
helical threedimensionaf permanent crimplM.
The fibre bulk associated with such a crimped acrylic fibreapproximates
to the volume of a cylinder enclosing a helical coil rather than the volume of the
fibre itself. When the distribution of the two polymers within the fibres is
random, there is the additional advantage that the relatively low-crimp fibres
composed of either of the two polymers prevent crimp register and intermeshing
between the fibres of higher crimp, thus promotingmaximum bulk andcoverl".
Owing to large recovery forces, helical, bicomponent crimp resists
deformation more, and recovers more easily from deformation, than
mechanicauy crimped fibresBM.
Bicomponent acrylic fibres were initially developed for piecedyeing end
uses. Historically, crimp wash-out is the principal reason preventing the
production of piecedyed carpet from acrylic fibres. With carpets made from
bicomponent acrylic fibre, virtually aU the crimp washed out duringdyeing b
recnvered in~-~ ~~- .
finishhe. One
- -
nrobfem facine fibre manufacturers is to restrict the
crimp development to a level that will aUow the fibre to be spun without
excessive breakage. With bicomponent fibres, appr'oximatefy75% of the bulk is
94 SA WTRI Specbl PubItion - July. 1978

developed during hank dyeing and the remainder during finishing. Total
shrinkage is around 11% compared to 2-3% for a monocomponent fibre. An
acrylic fibre must have a composition of more than 85% acrylonitrile,
whereas a modacrvlic fibre mav have a low acrvlonitrile content of between50
and 85%lw. Flame-resistant acrylic fibres have various halogen compounds
incorporated in them at relatively low percentages, where as modacrylic fibres
have compounds such as vinyl or vin~lidenechloride in them, in considerably
higher proportions.
The physical properties of both the flame-resistant acrylic fibres and the
modacrylic fibres are similar to those of the standard acrylic fibres. Dyeing
properties are slightly different. As the halogen level increases, the thermal
stability decreases. Ingeneral,fibre yellowing owing t o thermaldegradationalso
increases as the halogen level increases. Dyes and dyeing auxiliaries have no
appreciable effect on the thermal stability, or on flammability. Dyeing is more
difficult as there are fewer dye-sites in the polymer and a careful selection of
basic dyes must be usedlw.
High shrinkage is a property which can be imparted toany acrylic fibre,
whether it be first, second or third generation. Normal shrinkage is
approximately 2-3% for a monocomponent fibre and 11% for a bicomponent
fibre. High-shrinkage fibres can have a shrinkage ranging from 25 to 40%
depending upon theind use of the fibre. The fibre'can eithe;be used in blends,
with normal shrinkage mono-/or bicomponent fibres or in 100%form, blending
with monocomponent fibres of normal shrinkage properties increases the bulk
and cover. The mechanically crimped monocomponent fibre minimises
intermeshing of the highly crimped highshrinkage fibre, imparting extra bulk
and cover'w.
Different effects can be achieved in blends by either stockdyeing or skein
dyeing. If the high-shrink fibres and regular fibres are blended and spun after
stock dyeing, then a bulky yam will result. If, however, the two fibres are
blended undyed, tufted into cut-pile carpet and piecedyed, one component will
shrink more than the other, imparting a special kind of effect. Furthermore, if
one component is aciddyeable and the other basicdyeable the tip of the tuft
appears as one colour and the base as another.
High-shrinkage fibres also have an application in woven carpets since
they can be used t o introduce sculptured effects which could not otherwise be
achieved. Two yams of different shrinkage are used to obtain this type of
effectlo*.
A number of polyacrylic fibres have been introduced which are co-
polymers of vinyl cyanide with other vinyl compounds. A modified acrylic fibre
is marketed which, while having a high proportion of acrylonitrile in the
polymer is not a co-polymer in the usual sense. The co-monomer itself is,
polymerised before a co-polymerisation with the acrylonitrile. The result is a
type of blockco-polymerand has been called by the maken,a "nitrilealloy". The
SA WTRI Special Publication - July, 1978 95

presence of the block in the polymer disturbs the regularity ofthe packing ofthe
acrylonitirile chains and opens up the molecular spacing. The alloy structure is
esxntialfy a continuous hydrophobic polyacrylonitrile backbone. containing
discreet volumes of a hydrophiic dye-receptive polymer'M.
The acrylics have the best resistance to sunlight and weathering of all
commonly used textile fibres70.In comparative Florida outdoor sunlight tests, it
took 19 months for acrylic fibres to lose 50% of their tensile strength, while
cotton and polyester fibres reached the 50% strength loss level in only 311,
monthsm.
Military sandbags are another application for acrylic fibres. During the
Vietnam conflict, t5ey prowd to have better durability than those made from
polypropylene ribbon yams. The most commonly used acrylic was a 6,7 dtex 76
mm green-pigmented fibre for the bags and a 6,7 dtex, 150 mm fibre for sewing
thread and tie strings.
Cotton fabric, in a mass range of 16-22 m/kg has been the traditional
material used for tobacco shade cloth. Acrylic fibreisalso now used, and has the
advantage of lasting a year longer, because of its superior sunlight and
weathering resistance.
Acrylic fibres are used in industrial filtration applications because of
their combhtion of good resistance to heat degradation under wet and dry
conditions and their resistance to hot, acid environments. Good resistance to a
wide range of organic solvents and chemicals is also an important property.
AcryIic fibres of the 100% polyacrylonitrile type like Dow Badische's
Type 500 and Bayer's Dralon T have superior resistance to chemicals and heat
when compared to the copolymer and terpolymer acrylic fibres. Acrylic-fibre
filters can be based on needle-felt constructions orcan be woven from yarn spun
on the cotton or woollen system^'^.
F i acrylic lo^
A 1.3 dtex Acrilan Type E l 6 introduced by Monsanto Textiles
obviously falls in the category of replacement-forsotton fibres: Its announced
usage is for topweight broadwovens and f i n e a t knits.
The spin limit of the new staple is rated at 10 tex. This may be contrasted
with a limit of 24texfor 3,3dtexacrylics. Asidefromcharacteristic acrylic hand,
lustre and easy-care performance, the 1,3 dtex Acrilan yams spun 100%and in
blends permit manufacture of fme-cut single knitsforshirts, blousesand dresses;
fine-xt interlock and double knit for sportswear, shirts and blouses; and
lightweight broadwovens for shirts, blouses and dresses. These are spring and
summer products.
A 12 tex yam spun from the 1,3 dtex fibre has a skein break factor of
2273, a 24% elongation, and exhibits boiling water shrinkage of 6,0%105.
% SA WTRI Special Ptrblication - July. 1978

In the U.S. acrylic fibres are defined as containing 85% or more
acrylonitrile, while modacrylics contain between 35 and 85%lo6.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TORAYLON (TORAY ACRYLIC)lo7
T-%2F
Physbl Ropntr Unit (32dtex)
Tenacity '33.6
Elongation 33.0
Number of Crimps 4.3 (8.7)
Demee of C r i m ~ l5,O (26,O)
shhn~agcin Bdiling
Water 3.0
Relative Density 1.17 1.17 1.17
Moist- Regain 2.0 2.0 20
Lustre Bright Bright Bright
Linear density 3.3 5,6 5,6
Fibre Lenmh 102 102 102
NOTE: the figure in parenthesis denotes the value after treatment in boiling water
SA WTRI Specid Publication - July. 1978

SECOND-ORDER TRANSITION TEMPERATURE FOR ACRYLIC
FIBRES'W
Differential calorimetry
Ran- 80.2-108 76.3-105 %I09
Mean 94.2 91 94.5
Dilatometry 90 87 93
NYLON
Nylon's recovery from elongation (elasticity or work recovery) improves

with increasing humidity and is far superior to that of polyester at RH's above
about 10%. at high elongations (above approximately 2%), in general, and in
wate65.
Zimmermanllo states that, for a given synthetic fibre, increased tensile
strength through increased orientation is generally accompanied by a loss in
toughness and extension. Furthermore, frequently
TE"= Constant
where T is tensile strength, E iselongation(extension)and n is of the order of 0.5.
SA WTRI Special hblication - J d v . 1978

effects of melt
TENSILE STRENGTH (cN/fex)
To achieve major increases in tensile strength of industrial yarns, it has

been necessary to move to a new type of polymer (e.g. Du Pont's Fibre B,DP-01
aromatic polyamide, where 176-194cNItex is nonnal). The slope of the tensile
strength vs temperature curve is mainly dependent upon the melting point of the
polymerll0.
The following curve"0 is an example:
TEMPERATURE ("CJ
SA WTRI Special Pkblicafion - July. 1978

Abrasion resistance of yams, as placed in a fabric before extensive use,
depends strongly on molecular weight and, to some extent, on fibre orientation
and morphologyll0. It can also depend upon the dtex (or denier) per filament,
fabric construction, nature and stress of the abrasive process and the coefficient
of friction. For the normal melt-spun fibres, a n increase in the average chain
length from 80 nm to 120 nm has given an approximate twofold increase in
abrasive cycles to destruction in several standard abrasion tests. Fibre flex
abrasion resistance is also strongly dependent upon molecular weight but is
adversely affected by filament diameter (in contrast to flat abrasion). It is
common to use a 0,6 @/denier (5.3 cN/tex) tension for single fibre flexing.
Durability is often strongly affected by degradation (e.g. photo-
degradation) during use, which reduces the molecular weight. A reduction of
only 20% in average molecular weight can reduce tensile strength by 50%, a
much greater reduction than if the original molecular weight had been 20% less.
All fibres are susceptible to strength loss when exposed to oxygen at elevated
temperatures, some more than others. Unprotected, aliphatic polyamides are
particularly vulnerable to free radical attack at the carbonadjacent to the amide
nitrogen. Addition of small concentrations of Cu-based anti-oxidants can have a
marked effect on inhibiting degradation'lo. Nylon industrial yams contain Cu
levels which give them a stability 40 or more times greater than that of
unprotected nylon. Unprotected polyester yams are considerably more stable
than unprotected nylon 6.6 and have similar stability to commercial nylon tyre
yams. Allaromatic polyamides (e.g. Fibre B or Nomex) are inherently much
more stable to oxidation thanaliphatic polyamidesandare superior to polyester
and protected nylon 6.6n0.
Caustic degradation of polyester 0,25 N NaOH a t the boil -718 hours.
Hamopolymtt Copolymer
Strength loss (%) 20 80
Mass lass (%) II 70
RV l a 0 0
Aliphatic polyamides (e.g. nylon 6.6), when subjected to high energy

electron irradiation, in the absence of oxygen, retain 65% of their strength with
Little change in break elongation after 200 Mrad exposure. However, for the
same radiation dose in air, strength retention is only about 20% while break
elongation decreases drastically (e.g. from 19% to 7%). In contrast, allaromatic
polyamide yarns such as Nomex or Fibre B retain 75 to over 90% of their
strength after 600 Mrads exposure in air (depending on the dose rate, the higher
values for higher dose rates). This high stability of aromatic polyamides is not
paralleled by a correspondingly high UV stability which is about the same as that
100 SA WTRI Special Arblication - July, 1978

of unmodifed nylon"0. Nomex is a heat resistant fibre which melts at 37I0C,
shrinks by only 2% when heated to 260°C and loses only half its strengfh when
heated to 300°C fora week"3. Qiana has a setting temperature of 140OC dry",.
Nylon 6 melts at 210°C

Nylon 6.6 melts at 250°C.
These values can be reduced by as much a s 70°C in the prewnce of

moisture. Nylon 6 has somewhat better elastic recovery, fatigue resistance and
resistance to degradation by light than nylon 6.6 Nylon retains 15%by mass of
water after spindrying compared with about 50% for cotton and 40% for wool.
Wearer trials have shown that the addition of about 20% of nylon to wool
increases the life of a stair carpet by about 50%112.
COMPARISON OF SOME PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF QlANA
1 1
NYLON, NYLON 6.6 AND A POLYESTER"'
'Oiaru' Nvlon 6.6 Nvlon "Dacron"Polvafn
Relative density - M
.:: 33:14
Interlace 5 to 10 cm 6 to 19
Elongation (%) M to 35 25 to 45
Tenacity (cN/ tex) 26.5 to M 44 to 53
Modulus (cNItex)
COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES IMPORTANT TO DYEING AND

FINISHING'g4
'Qiam" Nylon 6.6 Nybn 'Dacron" Polyestn
Chemical Resistance
Acid (IWr93'0 Insoluble Solvbk ~blsolublc
Alkali (40-Wr93T) Insoluble lasolvblc Solubk
Cotour ('b" MI~c) +
1.0 + TO f 0.8
Dye Raponvs
TYW Dir- Acid Di- Acid %perr~
Carrier Ycs No Ycs
SA WTRI Specid Atblication - July. 1978 101

NB: Gray Fabric to Finished Fabric
FIBRE PROPERTIES"% "6
Nvlon 6.6 Polvena
Softening Point
Melting Point
Modulus a t 65% RH-2OOC (cN/tex)
Modulus a t 93% RH-21°C (=Nitex)
Modulus a t 93% RH-149°C (cN/tex)
Relative Density
Moirturt Regain
Tenacitv (cN1te.x)
SETTING CONDITIONS"5
Nylon 6.6 Polyester
Dry Heat 2040 C 138°C to 1 7 P C

Steam 98°C(1300 F) 116°C
Water 98°C 116'C
Nylon is generally set before dyeing and polyester after dyeing since the
carrier and high temperature dyeing generally override much of the effect of
presetting.
Some properties of different polyamides (nylons) are given in the table
below"7:
Mcmhe Paid (OC) Rehtive Drnrifv
Polyamide 3 340 1.33

Palyamide 4 256 1.25
Polyamide 5 260 1.13
Polyamidc 6 215 1.12

Polyamidc 6.6 255 1.13
Polyamide 6.10 1.10

Polyamidc 7 1.10
Polyamide 8 1;09
Polyamide 9 1.09
Polyamide I I
Polyamidc 12
Arom. Polyamide
102 SA W'TRI Special Pkblicnrion - July, 1978

MOST IMPORTANT PROPERTIES A N D USAGE O F SOME
POLYAMIDE (PA) TYPE FIBRES
I Melting point, "C

I 3W
1 215-220 1 255-260 1 190 1 Decomposes at
370-4 10"C I
Regain (ZWC, 65% RH) 7.7 3.54.5 1.2-1.3 457.0
Water retention (9%) 22.1 10-15 6.5 unavailable
Nylon 6.6 4%
Nylon 6 4,5%
Nylon 4 7 to 8%
Holfeld and Shephardlxl presented the following review of the function

of water as a camer for nylon:
With today's nylons, bard due to variations in amine ends'or dye sites is
rarell'. Most dye-related b a d problems are now due to differences in fibre
"porosity" which determine accessibiliry of the dye sites. Porosity is determined
by the total tensiontemperature history of the fibre-fibre manufacturing, plus
texturing, heat setting, dyeing and finishing. Variations in porosity determine
the rate of dyeability with dyes such as the milling and direct types. These are
large molecules sensitive to differences in porosity and, therefore, are barn&-
prone. Because of the increased fashion demands for bright coloun and good
washfastness, the dyer is often forced to use sensitive dyes. Therefore, our work
emphasizes the mechanisms involved in dye-rate b a d with bright, "fashion
colours" which are often based on rate sensitive dyes"'.
Water has profound effects on the processingand performance of nylon.
For instance, nylon fabrics can be set with moist heat at 93 to 12IDC;80°C, or
more below the 196 to 210°C necessary to set thesame fabrics with dry heat! In
sham contrast, water (moisture) has very little effect on the heat setting of PET
(poliester) which isgenerally frameset at 163 to 177°C. ~urthermore,,nce set,
nylon, for all practical purposes cannot be set repeatedly by using successively
higher temperatu'res"l.
SAWTRI SpeciaI Publication - July. 1978

Why should nylon and PET differ so dramatically in their responses to
moisture and heat setting, when their softening (235OC) and melting points
(250°C) are virtually identical? Nylon, of course, bas moisture sensitive
hydrogen bonds which are absent in PET. But just what is the rBIe of moisturein
the behaviour of nylon in heat setting, in dyeing and in fibre manufacture?
In this article data is presented to support the following conclusions:
- Nylon and PETfibre properties and responses are surprisingly similar when
measured in the absence of moisture.
- Water is a potent carrier for nylon.
- Water, a t least by itself, is not an effective carrier for PET.
- Water provides "chemical energy" which is equivalent to about 1 W C of
thermal energy in its effects on a variety of nylon fitre properties.
- The dyeing of nylon in water is equivalent to dyeing polyester in 10%
camer i.e. solvent dyeing.
The present consensus is that carriers lower the Tg (glass transition

temperature) of a fibre, thereby increasing polymerchain segmental mobility
which increases dyeability (dye rate). Since free volume is temperature
dependent, one explanation of carrier effects is that they reduce the thermal
energy needed to achieve adequate free volume for dyeing. Water provides
"chemical energy" equivalent to about l W C of dry thermal energy in its effects
on a variety of nylon fibre properties. Water has much less effect on PET,
generally equivalent to about 20"Cof thermal energy. The Tg of Nylon 6.6at O?'&
RH isabout 80°C based on measurements of films. At 100%RH, Tg isdepressed
to -10 to -2iYC. Thus, water vapour lowers Tg of nylon by 90-1WC. Results
show that Tg is extremely sensitive to trace amounts of residual moisture. In
contrast, water lowers Tg of PET by only about 10-3O0C?1l.
Water, even water vapour, increases the segmental mobility of nylon
automatically reducing its modulus by merely changing RH (relative humidity)
at room temwrature. In contrast, a dry air temperature of about 120°C is
required to reduce the modulus t o the level meas&d in water at 21°C. Thus,
water provides chemical energy equivalent to about IW C of thermal energy in
its effect on lowering fibre modulus. The effect of water on PET modulus is
minimal.
It has been shown that, in general, carriers which are effective in
promoting the disperse dyeing of PET also caused significant fibre shrinkage.
SA WTRI Speeial hblication - July. 1978

SHRINKAGE OF NYLON AND POLYESTER AT DIFFERENT
TEMPERATURES
W Dry H a t SbrinL.g
Y8rn I dtcx lWC 17PC 1%-C
Nylon
Nylon
Nylon 4.6
Nylon 4.6 6.2
Nylon 1.9 3.1
Nylon 0.5 0.9 1.6
Polyester 1111 3.1 4.5 5.9
Polyester 1111 3.1 5,l
Polyester 1111 10.0 14.0 18.0
Polyester 1222 8,8 11.9 14.5
Polyester 933 12.7 14.0 15.8
*Boil-off Shrinkage
Water meets this criterion for nylon. The shrinkage of a range of nylon
fibres in water at 100°C is virtually identical to the dry heat shrinkage of the
same yams at 196°C. The data again shows that water has very little chemical
energy effect on PET, equivalent to only about 10-20°C of thermal energy (see
above table).
In air, nyldn 6.6 melts at about 250-2S0 C. In water, it "melts-at about
160-170°C. Thus water again provides chemical energy equivalent to about
100°C of thermal energy. Data for polyester were not available.
Humidity reduces WE (work to elongate) for nylon from 16.8 in air (8%
RH) to 3.5 cN cmltex cm x 100) in water a t 21°C. In dry air, atemperature of
about 13WC is required to reduce WE to 3 5 Thus water provides the chemical
energy equivalent of at least l W C of thermal energy. Water has little effect on
WE for PET :21.2 in air and 21.1 in water at 21°C. The WE for polyesterand
nylon in dry air are equivalent to IM°C, indicating again that nylon and PET
behaviour is similar when properties are measured in the absence of moisture.
Water reduces the stress value for nylon from 7.9 (cN/tex) in air at 8%
RH to 2.6 (cN1tex) at 21°C in water. There is no effect on polyester: 9.7 in air
and 9,7 in water. In dry air, about 1 W C is necessary to reduce stress to the 2.6
value obtained in water at 2I0C. Again, the value for PET in air is virtually
identical to that of nylon above about IW0C, where residual moisture would be
negligible.
The dependence of fibre properties on temperature is a general
characteristic of polymers. As temperature rises, interchain distances increase.
S A WTRI & m c l PLbIicafion - July, I978 105

This decreases interchain bonding forces and causes the loss in modulus and
other properties. However, the overall effect of water is more complicated as
indicated by the response of recovery properties to water. The work recovery of
nylon increases with increasing RH. In contrast, thereis very little effect on PET.
This difference between nylon and PET is magnified when fibre recovery is
measured in water. Nylon work recovery increased to 95% and tensile form
recovery is as high as 98% when water temperature is increased. while PET
recove6 decreas& significantly! Again, the g&cral response of PET in water is
very similar to its response inairand strikingly differentfrom that of nylon. This
improvement in nylon recovery properties suggests that water not only
substitutes for thermal energy but also reduces internal "friction" for nylon.
Therefore, we suggest that effective carriers, like water for nylon, help achieve
equilibrium dyeing by a dual mechanism:
(1) they provide chemical energy which helps the system reach thermodynamic
equilibrium and (2) they function as a "molecular lubricant", which facilitates
kinetic or rate processes. This combined effect is clearly lacking with water on
PET. The difference in response of nylon and PET to moisture has generally
been considered only a difference in degree, attributed to the lower absorption of
PET. Thus. ex. PETabsorbs onlv about 0.4%vs4.0%for
. - . nvlon 6.6at 65%-RH.,
24'C. ~ o w e w r the
, strikingly dkferent responses of nylon and PET recovery
properties to increases in RH and water temperature indicate that moisture
operates on nylon by a fundamentally different mechanism: water is a potent
carrier for nylon but is, at best, a very weak carrier for PET"'.
Nylon 4's melting point is slightly higher than that of nylon 6.6'89.
Tbennal degradation and yellowing of nylon'm
The mechanism of thermal degradation and photodegradation of nylon

fibres are broadly similar in that they include free - radical chain reactions in
which metbylene groups adjacent to carbonyl groups are attacked by peroxyl
radicals or activated oxygen. Nylon is susceptible to direct attack by the
activated oxygen because the marked degradation occurring on exposure in dry
air does not increase sienificantlv on increasine the humiditv. Yellowine of
nylon caused by thennal>eg~adat~onisverydiffi&tto ~emove.kometimes~~in
finishes or coning oils are responsible for yellowing of nylon. In this, the
lubricants applied to yams while processing, decompose slowly and their
decomposition products are mainly responsible for yellowing of nylon. This
decomposition process is enhanced in presence of humidity, temperature and
duration. Such yellowing, which is formed by decomposition of spin finishes or
coning oils, can be removed to a great extent by certain treatmentsrm.
106 SA WTRI Special MIication - July. 1978

BGCOMPONENTS
Bi-components are fibres containing two different polymers arranged

side by side along the length of a fibre and is obtained by extruding the two
polymer solutions or melts through a common spinnerette hole'2'. After
extrusion, they are cooled by a current of cool air, wound on bobbins and
stretched on draw-twist machines.
Bi-component fibres consist of two components divided along thelength
of the fibre, into two more or less distinct regions'z'. There are two types of bi-
component fibres manufactured (Side-byside bi-component fibres and sheath-
core bi-component fibres). It is possible ofcourse thata bi-componentfibre may
- -
van, in the lateral distribution of two comnonents alone the fibre lenpth. It is
also possible to prepare yams consisting of mixtures ofbi-component fibres and
monocomponent fibres.
Side-by-side bi-component fibres are those in which the two components,
either solutions or melts are fed directly to the spinnerette orifices, being
combined into bi-component fibres at or near the orifices. The bi-component
fibre "Creslan" made by Cynamid International used for carpets is an example of
the side-by-side bi-component fibre.
In sheath+ore fabrics, one of the components is surrounded by the
second component, the arrangement may be concentric or eccentric. For
manufacturing such fibres, special types of spinnerettes are used. The core
component is supplied from a reservoir and sheath component is supplied from
another reservoir to surround the core component as extruded at the outer
orifice. Kanegafuchi Spinning Company produces fibre WN 8, a sheath-core bi-
component fibre (the sheath is nylon 6 and the core is polyester).
EF-121 is a nylon/polyester (70/30%) biconstituent fibre (Matrix fibril
system) which was specifically tailored for the tyre cord market in 1964.
Examination of the data shown below shows that EF-121 at room
temperature has a higher tensile strength, modulus and yield point than nylon.
Otherwise, toughness, crystallinity, crystal orientation and zero strength are
equivalent to those of nylon 6.
S A W T R I Special Mlication - July, 1978

COMPARISON OF A BI-COMPONENT NYLONIPOLYESTER FIBRE
Ropdcs I EF-121Fibre Nylon 6
Strength (cN/tex)
Elongation at Break (%)
Yield point (eN/tex)
Initial modulus (cN/tex)
Crvstalline Orientation
G o strength Temp (OC) 233-235
I 230-U2
R . Y ~
ROP* bi-componnt
C-311
Tensile strength (cN!tex) 28.2
Tensile strrngth (wet) (cN/tex) 26,s
Uongation, dry (%) 11.0
Elongation, run (%) 14.0
The melting points do not vary much and usually have a value
intermediate between those of the components. For example melting point of
Orlon T-21 is 250°C while that of ordinary Orlon is 255°C. Information is now
available about the bi-component thermal-bonding fibre being introduced into
various international markets by Chisso Polypro F~berCo.135.
There are significant differences between the Japanese fibre and the
heterofd fibres produced by ICI Fibres. The latter have a sheath-core
configuration, whereas it is understood that the Chisso items have a basically
round crosssection formed by a core of polypropylene 'capped' for a large
proportion of the circumferenrx by a layer of polyethylene (see diagram right'35.:
The fiber producer states that the

polyethylene layer has a melting point of
130°C and acts as the thermal bonding
agent. The polypropylene maintains its
original form during and after the
hondingl35.
108 SA WTRI Special Publication - July, 1978

FIBRE PROPERTIES OF THE STANDARD CHlSSO ES FIBRE1'*
I Eloneation (%) I 40- 120 I

crimp1cm 3.9 - 5.1
Moisture Regain 65% RH. 25°C less than 1.0%
Shrinkage IOSOC. Dry heat less than 1.0%
I Softeninp. Point 1 110- I W C a n d 154- 160°C I
WATEPSOLUBLE FIBRES
GENERAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLVRON
(WATER-SOLUBLE POLYVINYL ALCOHOL FIBRE)ln
- - --
Tspc
Row*
SH SM SL SX
hy Strength (cNItex) 3533 17.5-26.5 17.5-35 17,5-35

Dry Elongatloo (%) 10.14 28-35 5 - 15-28
Wet Strength (cN/tcx) 16.5-26.5 4.4-8.8 -
-
-
-
Wet Elongauon (%) 22-24 25-30,
Dry Knot Strength
26.5-35 17.5-26.5 17.5-265 17.5-26.:
(cN/tcx)
hyiwp -'@' 35-44 44-53
(cN/tex) 35-53 26.5-34
Moisture regain (%) 3-4 4-5 5-6 5-6
Young's Modulw
1 m 1 8 M 60 5awc.l smlm
(kEfllmm2).
* To conmi kgf/mm' to cN/rcx multiply by 0,Mcnsity

MH 87-89
Monofhtnmt
ML 52-54
SL 55-65
Staple SX 45-3
SS 10-15
TRANSFER PRINTING TEMPERATURES
-I
APPLICABILITY OF VARIOUS FIBRES TO TRANSFER PRINTING123
ckaiitiaa I Sdtcning
Point 'C
Natural Cotton NIL NIL NA

Silk NIL
Wool NIL NIL
Reacnerated I Rayon I NIL NIL I NA I
Syathctie Polycrvr 238-240

Nylon 6 180
Nylon 6.6 WJ
PVA 220-UO
PVC 75
Acrylic IW-m
Polyvrrthans 175
Polypropykns 140.IM

Some recommended temperatures and times for transfer printing
different textilesare even below: The transfer orint temwraturesand times were
as follows for ~ublairintl":
Dicel (Courtaulds)
Trice1 (Courtaulds)
Tricelon (Courtaulds)
Courtelle Standard (Courtaulds)
Courtelle RR (Courtaulds)
Acrilan (Monsanto)
Orlon 42 (Du Pont)
Nomex (Du Pont)
Polyester (I C I)
Polyester/cotton: 70130 and 80/20
Lirelle (Courtaulds-polyester)
Spectran (Monsanto-polyester)
Polyester/ Lycra (Du Pont)
Celon (Courtautds-nylon 6)
Ultron (Monsanto-nylon)
Qiana (Du Pont)
Nylon 6.6/Lycra (Du Pont)
Dacron/ wool (Du Pont)
Polyester/cotton: 'Koratron' sensitised
Self-extinguishing Fibre S.E.F. (Monsanto)
Basic dyeable Dacron Type 65 (Du Pont)
Teklao (Courtaulds)
Aluminium-anodised
The temperatures and times are approximate and depend upon the fabrication
of the material.
Transfer Printing times as follows have been given for carpet.+?
Nylon 6.6 205-2100C

Nylon 6 195OC
Polyester 205-215°C
Acrylics 2W2100C
Printing times ranges bet- 60and 120 seconds and even up to 5 min
SA WTRI Special tlblication - July, 1978 111

The following values have also been givenlZ6:
Dice1 190-210°C for 15-30s

Trice1 190-210°C for 20-40s
Nylon 6 190-200°C for 20-40 s
Nylon 6.6 190-210°C for 20-40s
Polyester 200-230" C for 20-40 s
Acrilan, Orlon, etc. 200-220°C for 15-30 s
Wool Blends 200-220° C for 20-40 s
In one paper, Barks127dealt with the transferprinting of fabricsincluding
tricot power nets containing Lycra, the Du Pont elastomeric fibre. The best
results were obtained by keeping the tension in the Lycra low, he said, while in
printing it was be* to use the lowest possible temperature for the shortest time;
typical printing temperatures were:
Lycra/nylon 170°C-185°C
Lycralpolyester 18WC-190°C
Lycral Qiana 195°C-2050C
In transfer printing it was necessary to be more careful with fabrics

containing Lycra127.
C O N D I T I O N S O F APPLICATION: GENERAL G U I D E O F
RECOMMENDED TEMPERATURES AND TIMES FOR TRANSFER
PRINTING128
Secondary acetate
T-rate
Nylon 6
Nylon 6.6
Acrylic
Polyester
Polyntcr-wool
Polycster~Uulaic
Triacztate-nyhn hetero
Nylon hevrol nylon typc 472
& 473 (Qiana)
SAWTRI Special fiblication - Jdy. 1978

The effects of temperature and time on stiffness and transfer printing are
shown for polyester in the two figures below129.
900 -. Second Drda Tramition Tcmpnturc
-- -
2 90
Fine Order
E-
1
Tnnnition
111
Y1
Y 9 -
t
is
$
09 -
1
M 108 150 201 250
TEMPERATURE ( C )
SAWTRI Special tlblication - July. 1978

Thermosol conditions for polyester/cotton blends (woven)?
Listed below are the times and temperatures required for the various
machines together with the thermos01 temperatures for the BASF Palanil and
Cottestren dyestuffs. Dyestuffs selection: For polyester /cellulosic blends, as the
polyester is almost always dyed with dispersed dyestuffs it is predecided, whilst
the most important dyestuff groups for the ceUulosic component are:
1. Vat dyestuffs
2. Sulphur dyestuffs
3. Reactive dyestuffs
Without doubt there is a worldwide tendencv to utilise vat dvestuffs.

Tlemorol Proens
Tempraturn range: 200-22TC
R n c l i m time: 15 - 60 ua
1
Temp. ' C Time (s) Temp. OC T i e (I)
Hot air (stenter)
(Hot-flue. hfM-unit ) ~ ~ 2 1 5 6&30 215-221, 6030
Hot air conact
(Reinner RT-range) 2 W 2 15 45-20 2 15-225 4sm
Conact (cylinder) 215 15-30 22&225 1 S30
HEAT SETTING
Some heat setting details are given below for various fibre types'Jt:
Nonml b n t setting Rapid h r l t setting

T,pcoTtibibrr
THnpenhln W i n g time Tcmpnmre W i g time
("C) 6) ("0 (I)
Syntbrta 100-175 (g/mz)

Polyamrde Pcrlon 1W-192 20 1W-195 5-8
Polyamtde Yylon M5-215 18 2ILl-230 5-8
Polyntcr 22&230 M IW-210 5-8
Bkndr I50 (gl ml).
Polymer waollcn 185-190 M IW-210 10-12
Polyntcr ccllulorc 18SIW M 210 10-12
114 SA WTRI Special fiblication - July, 1978

SOME RECOMMENDED PRESETTING CONDITIONS FOR
I Hydrwsetting
on beams
1 125-130°C
15-20 min
1 125-130°C
15-30 min
125-130°C
15-30 min I -
Saturated rteam-setting 125-130°C 125-130°C 125-130°C
2.5-3 bar 25-3 bar 2.5-3-bar
15-30 min
Heat-setting
Stenter
SA WTRl Special fiblicarion - July, 1978

THERMAL DATA, OPTIMUM SETTING CONDITIONSIZ'
Optimum setting conditions
Flbre
Hot water
Temp.
' Saturated steam
Temp. Reasure
-
rime
I Hot alr
Temp.
Infn-red
selective
emitter
"C "C (kPa) :mln) "C
Nylon 6 3014 114 10-30 190 f 2

Nylon 6.6 '30 2 4 14 10-30 215 -t 8
Nylon I I 30f 4 141 10-30 170 f 5
Co-polymer 30 i 4 : 14 10-30 -
Polyester 140 '14 10-30 210-220
Polyester = 14
(Kodel) 30f 4 10-30 210-220
Polyester
(Vycron) 30*4 = 14 10-30 185
Acrylic, - - - -
Nytril - - - -
Vinylchloridc~
Vinylidcnc-
- - - 90-110
chloride
Vinylchloridel
Acrylonitrilc
- - - 115-120
Polyvinyl-
chloride
- - - 60-80
- - - 80
- - - -
- - - -
- - - 2 10-230
- - - 180-200
Y ! W l iapun
8u!(oo~pus m e m u! t u ~ u t a n sIn11
""'r .;lpun
PBOI ou r w n 3 . o ~ SU!IOOJpus J ~ D Ii s i ~ Bu!u!srls
p (!!I
1 8 q s r q i l p m buy em^ pto, 8u!u!ws (1) uqg qln~.uo[AmA(nd IU~A(O~-J!I~~~U&
Y!UII
5.081 0 ) 8u!,aw i3PUn lU!looJ Pus 3.081 18 8"!"!WlS I!')
LAPBu!u!ws (!) 31~1a19pOrolnlllJ
Y!WS
p0
.1 OY lop"" a u ! ~ l r f i dopun 8u!Llp puw 8 n Bu!u!n~.lls (!!I
LP
I B"!U!SJlS I!) "0i.1 .SO,S!A p,mu,as:
"!.,IS.,pun au!L,p
P0.1 OU I3PY" SY!113M PYU 13m BY!U!BJVAq I U " O U @ II8U9 A'% 1815
u!ann inpun 8u!ap

p m l ou mpun a u ! l m ~ pur i9.n BY!U!BW 64 l u n o u l l l w s UOllO5
u w m rrpun B u ! i ~ ppun m
n L!u!.ns (!I)
p-1 ou l r p u n a u ! n a ~ Arp .IY!O~ p y A omq. ~Y!Y!UIS (1) IODM lunlll
111A0118 I :Iq PUnvYI I * A W I m.1.

THERMAL PROPERTIES O F VARIOUS FIBRES'"
Softening
temp.
"C
Polyamide'6.6 235
Polyamide 6 170
Polyester 230-240
Polypropylene IM-155
Polyacrilonibile 235-350
Adheres at
2 q c
175-190
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117. Albrecht, W., MeN. Textilber., 58, No. 7, 528 (1977).
118. Beste. L.F. and Hoffman. R.M.. Text. Res. J... 20.. 441 11950).
119. ~non'., Colourage. an-~ade Textiles), 23 (24 June, 1976).'
120. Agnihotri, V.G., Colourage, 22, 25 (25 Dec., 1975).
121. Kothari, J.D., Man-Made Textiles India. 433 (Aug., 1975).
122. Uzumaki, M., Japan Text. News. NO. 257.43 (April, 1976).
123. Mount, W.J., Text. Inst. Ind., 13, 73 (March, 1975).
124. Vellins, C.E., Britt. Knitt. Ind., 47, 61 (Nov., 1974).
125. Anon., Chemiefasern/Textil-Industrie,27/79, E33 (March, 1977).
126. Doshi, S.M., Colourage, 22, 25 (20 March, 1975).
127. Barks, D.E., Text. Monrh, 96 (Nov., 1974).
128. Consterdine. K., Rev. Prog. Coloration. 7, 39 (1976).
129. Suchecki, S.M., Text. Ind.. 140. 25 (Aug., 1976).
130. Adcock, A., Text. J. Austr.. 49, 34 (Sept., 1974.
SA WTRI Special Publication - Julv. I978

131. Shetty, S.M. and Parikh, V.R., Colourage. 22, 59 (7 Aug., 1975).
132. Heimann, S. and Tobias, W., Inf. Dyir Texr. Printer. 153,463 (2 May,
1975).
133. ~osborough,EL, J. Text. Inst., 65, 133 (1974).
134. Sengupta, A.K., Ind. J. Texr. Res., 1, 53 (June, 1976).
135. Anon., NONWOVENS REPORT. 3 (November 1977).
WOL 47
P u b l M by
South *I&-W d lad Text& Raarth Imtitmle
P.O. Box 1124 Port UinM, h r h *Irk=.
lad pint& ia tbe Republic d Swtb Africa
by P.U.D. Rcpm (Ry) L I P P.O. Ear 44. Dnp.trL

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SAWTRI

Textiles: Some Technical Information

ISBN 0 7988 1360 1

CONVERSION FACTORS AND OTHER DATA

Count or Iineu Density (Frnness)

SA WTRI Special Fublication - July, 1978 I

tex = 0,1111 xdenier

It is desired to convert a worsted count of 1/34's (or 34's worsted) into

... the linear density is 26,l tex.

, Two ways of expressing tenacity are being recommnded, viz.

2 SA WTRI Special hblication - July, 1978

cN/tex = q'69 (thousand pounds per square inch)

where p = fibre density in g/cm3 or the relative density

cN/ tex = 0,486 (commercial Pressley in 1 000 psi)

where gf denotes gram-force.

Tear strength should be expressed in newtons (N).

where N = 0,98 (hectograms or hg)

Here it is recommended to use kPa or Pa where Pa = N/m2.

SA WTRI Special hblication - July, 1978

kPa = 639 x (Ibf/in2)

Kinematic viscosity = m2/s

Bending and Twisting Rigidity

T o get mN.mm from mgf.cm multiply by 0,098

4 SA WTRI Special Publicorion - July. 1978

To get mN/m from erg/cmZx I

Turns per metre (tums/m) have been recommended;

turns/m = 39.4 x tpi (where tpi is turns per inch)

Twist Factor or Twist Multiplier

tex twist factor (=& = 0,316 x = m

SA WTRI Special ILblication - July. 1978 5

English Cotton Tex

Fabric Mass per Unit Area

Units of grams per square metre

(glm2) have been recommended:

The most important single calculation in textile design is regarded as the

Convert from ozslyd2 to gjm2 as follows:

Fabric mass per unit area (g/mz) can be calculated as follows3:

g/m2 = 0.1 [(pickslcm) x (tex,) x (crimp3 f (endslcm) x (tex,) x crimp,)]

6 SAWTRI Special Mlication - July. 1978

Either newton (N) milhewton (mN) orcentinewton (cN)can beused although it

It is recornended to use mZ/(N.s) or I/(Pa.s) or Pa-'s-1. Toconvert from rhe or

It is recommended t o use kg/ m3

Generally N.m should be used although N.cm is less clumsy.

Either mN/tex/ 100% extension (written mN/tex)

or cN/tex/ 100% extension (written cN/tex)

To obtain mN/tex/ 100% extension from gf/den/ 100% extension, multiply by

SA WTRI Special hblirafion - Jd.v, 1978 7

where p is fibre density (glcm3) or relative density

To obtain cNltex/ 100% from mN/tex/ 100% multiply by 0.1

Woven Thread Count .

To get picks/cm or ends/cm from pickslinch or endslincb multiply by 0,394.

Woven cover factor (kc) is generally calculated as follows:

4,O x 10-3 picks or ends/cm

Bayesz gives the following:

SAWTRI Special Publication - July. 1978

Peke's paper Tex

Fibre Idnear Density and Fibres in Yarn CrossSection

For wool (P = 1.31) this reduces t o

and if we assume V, = 24.5% which is quite common then it reduces to: