Understanding metaphors in everyday language

Hauptseminar ”Introduction to Cognitive Grammarä

Christoph Haase
WS 2001/ 02

30. Ma rz 2002

Denise Reck

9. Semester, Magister
Contents

1. Introduction 2

2. Metaphors ’basic definitions 2

2.1 Definitions 2
2.2 Why using metaphors? 3
2.3 Further functions 4

3. Another metaphorical understanding 5

3.1 Structural metaphors 6
3.2 Orientational metaphors 7
3.3 Ontological metaphors 8

4. Areas of metaphors 9
4.1 Metaphors in politics 9
4.2 Metaphors in science 10
4.3 Metaphors in law 10
4.4 Metaphors in art 10

5. A concrete example: the concept of Politics in common

language 11

6. Conclusion 15

Appendix 16

Bibliography 17
1.Introduction

For many people, metaphors are a means of poets or writers, in other words,
creative people. Just a few people are aware of the fact that we actually use
metaphorical expressions every day. It depends on the view everybody has what
someone thinks about it.
The aim of this paper is to show that metaphors are omnipresent in our
everday language and that we are using them almost constantly, maybe
unconsciously. The focus is on the work of Lakoff and Johnson Metaphors we live by,
one of the first that brought the approach of omnipresent metaphors.
Before looking on this theory, there will be an overview of definitions as a start
into that topic. Functions of metaphors, where already the omnipresence of
metaphors will be indicated.
After presenting Lakoff…s and Johnson…s approach, there will be a presentation
of some fields where metaphors can be used and where, again, the presence of
metaphors is proved.
A last chapter is dedicated to an own little investigation of everday language
for metaphors which is suppose to be a support for the theory presented before.
The whole paper is supposed to introduce a picture of metaphors in our
everyday language and how they are used there.

2. Metaphors ’basic definitions

2.1 Definitions
Before we can start testing every-day life language for metaphors, one has to
define first what this language phenomenon actually means.
There are several definitions Metaphors are, above all, means of figurative
language, an indirect comparison without a word showing this comparison, e.g. the
word like.1 Aristotle who was first to provide a scholarly treatment of metaphors gives
a more detailed definition of the term metaphor.
He said that a metaphor ”consists in giving the thing a name that belongs to
something else; the transference being either from genius to species, or from species

1
Cf. Korte et al., Einfu hrung in die Anglistik: 113
to genus, or from species to species, or on the ground of analogy.ä 2 I. A. Richards
went further. He gave a terminology which is still used nowadays when talking about
metaphors. For him a metaphor has two terms, called topic and vehicle. The latter
one is the term used metaphorically. These two terms have a relationship called
ground.3 All these definitions have in common that they speak of two terms which a
related to each other because of the similarities they have. But they also limit the
function of metaphors to embellish the language.4
There are other analysts who broadened the functions, namely George Lakoff
and Mark Johnson in their investigation Metaphors we live by. They proved that
metaphors are omnipresent and indispensable in every-day-language.5 But before
going on to this specific topic, the question why using metaphors will be tried to
answered in the next chapter.

2.2 Why metaphors are used6

Scholars, e.g. Fainsilber or Ortony, have found out three reasons why
metaphors are used. First, there is the so-called inexpressibility hypothesis. That
means that metaphors are used for expressions that are not easy to explain with
literal language. This refers mostly to abstract ideas. An example would be: The
thought slipped my mind like a squirrel behind a tree.
Another example would be: Her eyes sparkled like the stars in the sky.7
The second reason is called compactness hypothesis. This hypothesis says
that people can express ideas more detailed and compact with metaphors. With the
sentence My love is like a blossom bouquet of roses, one can describe love as
sweet, beautiful,ö just by comparing it to flowers. With the other sentence Lawyers
can be like sharks,8 you can show that lawyers are dangerous, vicious and greedy
just by using one word which includes this characteristics compactly.
The last hypothesis, called vividness hypothesis, says that by metaphors,
expressions are made more clear and livened up. You can see this in the expression
My love is like a blooming bouquet of roses, with that you can see the experience

2
quoted in Gibbs, The poetics of mind: 210
3
cf. Gibbs: 211
4
Cf. Baldauf, Metapher und Kognition: 14
5
cf.Lakoff/Johnson, Leben in Metaphern: 11,12; Baldauf: 15
6
as long as there is no other indication, this chapter including examples is based on Gibbs: 124-126
7
own example
8
own example
(positive in that case) of the speaker more lively. The other example Lawyers can be
like sharks represent a bad experience in a more vivid and clear way.

2.3 Further functions

Besides the hypothesises presented above, there are other functions which
present the character of everyday language.
For example, metaphors are supposed to be helpful in learning and this for
some reasons. First, they can be a kind of mnemonic aid. Because you have a
figurative image in your mind, it is easier to remember information you have just
received. Secondly, using metaphors can provide ”semantic frameworks from long-
term memoryä 9. With this, new information can be applied to these frameworks. 10
In social life, metaphors also can be useful. They lead to a kind of an intimate
atmosphere between the speakers. This creates a link based on same or , at least,
similar experiences and interests. Therefore, not everybody gets an access to the
conversation between the two. 11
Relating to this, another function can be assumed. Sometimes, speakers want
their listeners to know about their attitudes or interests. This can also be done by a
”specialä language, a kind of indirect expressions. Slang is such a way in which you
can express your attitude by choosing your words. For example, there are several
metaphorical words for marijuana like grass, tea, pot, weed, dope or herb, each
representing different attitudes towards the topic. Weed can be used when someone
thinks that smoking marijuana would not be dangerous for your health, whereas tea
is seen as a mean to ”frustrate communicationä.12
This way of speaking is used for showing the attitude to a certain subgroup of
society, either sympathy or even membership or hostility to this group.
Slang can also be used to distance oneself from your emotions, e.g. when you do not
want to show frustration about someone like your parents or teacher or something
like your job.13
All these functions show that metaphors are omnipresent in our ever-day
communication and that they are useful in it.

9
Cf. Gibbs:134
10
Cf. Gibbs: 133,134
11
Cf. Gibbs: 134,135
12
Cf. Gibbs: 136
13
Cf. Gibbs: 137
3. Another metaphorical understanding

Now that some reasons for using metaphors were presented, we can return to
the metaphorical understanding, respectively the definition of metaphor. Whereas
the definition of Aristotle could be called the traditional understanding of metaphors,
Lakoff and Johnson…s view made a break of theories concerning this topic. They do
not just claim that metaphors are omnipresent in our ever-day-language but also that
they form systems and therefor structure certain fields of life in order to be able to
cope with our experience 14. With this, they built up a new definition of metaphor: ”The
essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of
anotherä.15
They assume that metaphors are not just part of literal language but also of
common language. Besides that, metaphors are not just part of language but also of
thinking and acting. Their main source is actually language because people
communicate via language and communication is a conceptual system under that
people think and act.16
Because people have to deal with a very complex world, they use the
possibility of conceptualisation to structure their experience which is normally not
concrete or tangible easily. These conceptualisations go back to metaphorical
processes.17 That means that everything which happens becomes an experience in
our mind. But because experience is such an abstract concept, we try to make it
more understandable by comparing it to something we know exactly and try to draw a
relationship between those two concepts, the abstract and the exact one. This
relationship is then metaphorical.
Lakoff and Johnson divided the metaphorical concepts into three groups
18
which are presented in the following, starting with structural metaphors, following
orientational and ontological metaphors.

14
Cf. Baldauf: 15
15
quoted in Baldauf: 16
16
cf. Lakoff/Johnson: 11,12
17
Cf. Baldauf: 16
18
ontological, orientational structural metaphors, Cf. Baldauf: 20
3.1 Structural metaphors
The group of structural metaphors is said to be the biggest group. Different
parts of experiences which are complex but too abstract are conceptualised with the
help of simple but known experiences, e.g. the example discussion is war19

a) a rhetorical fought out battle

b) a guerrilla warfare of words
c) He said he does not bang around but thinks aloud.
d) big rhetorical strategies
e) to defend an argument
f) the leader of the discussion
g) to loose/win the rhetorical fight
h) to attack the opponent with words20

In this example one tries to explain the abstract concept discussion with the help of
the concrete concept war and typical words which are linked to it.
Also an important feature in this group is the so-called highlighting/hiding
phenomenon. That means that certain aspects get special attention whereas other
ones are out of sight. In the example above, the feature of conflict is highlighted but
co-operation which can also be a feature of war, namely at the end of a war, is
hidden.21

3.2 Orientational metaphors

Another group are the orientational metaphors. Those metaphors are based
on the orientation in space. Therefor, a spatial relationship is made for a concept.
This relationship is normally based on our experiences of the physical space we
have.22
Examples are: being happy is high/being sad is down
Lakoff and Johnson see the physical state in the fact that someone who is sad has a
bowed posture and a happy person is upright.23 Another possibility could be seen in
the fact that heaven standing for happiness is high above us but hell meaning misery
is below us, so therefore down:

19
Cf. Baldauf: 23
20
a) to d) taken from Baldauf: 23, 218 ; e) to h) own examples
21
cf. Lakoff/Johnson: 23
22
cf. Lakoff/Johnson: 22
23
cf. Lakoff/Johnson: 23
 a) I am in a high mood.
b) I am down.
c) to liven things up
d) I am in low spirits.24

Another example is: mind is up/emotion is down

It is explained that human beings see themselves ”overä animals. So control means
up and, therefor, also mind.25 But there could be another explanation. Inside the
human body, the mind is in the brain, so in the head. But emotions are said to come
from the stomach. The head is, known to all, above the stomach and, therefor, up:

a) The discussion went down to the emotional level, but I brought it up again to
the rational level. 26

There are other examples like: much/more means high

The basis for this is the assumption that adding something means growing:27

a) high rates
b) high debates
c) big money
d) rising numbers
e) falling numbers

I think, in all these examples, the orientation in space became clear.

3.3 Ontological metaphors

The last group, the ontological metaphors, are based on the experience with
physical objects. Those experiences can be identified and categorised as entities
restricted by a surface. So we can categorise those things that normally do not have
such a boundary by using those entities. We set up artificial boundaries.28
There are many kinds of ontological metaphors with different purposes one of
them being the concept abstracts are things

a) a series of questions

24
a),b) taken from Lakoff/Johnson: 23; c),d) own examples
25
cf. Lakoff/Johnson: 26
26
a) taken from Lakoff/Johnson:25
27
cf. Lakoff/Johnson: 24
28
cf. Lakoff/Johnson: 35
 b) hold on to the same wish
c) an accumulation of problems
d) He had many dreams when he was young.
e) The world is full of art.
f) The solution was within reach.
g) The joy was seen in his face.29

Another concept are the container metaphors. According to Lakoff and Johnson,
human beings are containers with boundaries and an orientation of inside and
outside. This orientation is also used for other physical objects. But also non-physical
objects (e.g. events, actions, activities, states) can be understood by ”transformingä
them into physical objects with definite boundaries. 30
In the case of activities that could mean:

a) The problem will be dealt with in the next discussion.

b) You can see his feelings in his writings.
c) She could not get out of laughing.31

Besides that, states and emotions are containers, too:

a) He fell in love.
b) We will be out of the trouble soon.
c) He fell into a depression.
d) She fell into silence and said no more word.
e) She entered the bureau in fear.32

A very important group of ontological metaphors are those that describe something
as a person, a personification.33 There are innumerable examples like:

a) This theory explains everything.

b) The facts are against it.
c) Life betrayed me.
d) Love speaks through her words.
e) Their rules prohibit donations.
f) Sleep helps if you are ill.
g) The dream lives on.
h) The show must go on.34

29
a) to c) taken from Baldauf: 21,22 ; d) to g) own examples
30
cf. Lakoff/Johnson: 39-41
31
a) to c) own examples
32
a) to c) taken from Lakoff/Johnson: 42 ; d) to e) own examples
33
cf. Lakoff/Johnson: 44
34
a) to c) taken from Lakoff/Johnson: 44 ; d) to h) own examples
All these metaphors use our experiences of physical objects, as containers or as
persons, and help us to understand abstract phenomena like emotions, states and
activities.

4. Areas of metaphors

So far, some examples of metaphors were presented. But in which areas do

metaphors actually exist where they are not expected? This is shown in the following.

4.1 Metaphors in politics

One of the biggest field where metaphors are used is the field of politics.
Language about politics is full of metaphorical expressions, e.g. war or sports.
35
Since this is the topic of an individual chapter, this will be left out.

4.2 Metaphors in science

It is assumed that metaphors are not useful in the field of science. Science is
supposed to be specific whereas metaphors distort meanings. So both cannot come
together.
But some theorists claim that metaphor actually play a very important role in
science.36 A key part in science is namely the concept of a theory. According to
Lakoff/Johnson a theory can be seen as a building. So one can say:
a) Is that the foundation of your theory?
b) The theory is shaky.
c) We need to buttress the theory with solid arguments.
d) We have to put together the framework of the theory.
e) These facts are the bricks and mortar of my theory.37

4.3 Metaphors in law

35
Cf. Gibbs: 140
36
Cf. Gibbs: 169-171
37
Cf. Gibbs: 173,174
 Also in the field of laws, metaphors are present. An example can be found in
certain laws, e.g. the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States which
offers the ”right of free speechä. In earlier times, this law offered a flow of free ideas.38

4.4 Metaphor in art

Art can mean many things. It includes visual media as well a paintings. In
movies, there are scenes that can be understood metaphorically. Gibbs gives the
example of the movie Taxi Driver. The movie shows the loneliness of human beings
and their efforts to give sense to their lives by the figure of the cabby. 39
Concerning paintings, Gibbs referred to the era of surrealism where familiar
objects are used to ”reveal hidden similaritiesä 40
I think, especially in this field it is very difficult to differentiate between
metaphors and symbols. In addition to this, metaphors are means of language and
not of pictures, moving or static ones. Art could also include books or poems. But this
language is literal language and, therefore not subject of this paper.

5. A concrete example: the concept of Politics in common language

In this chapter, an investigation is presented. Therefore, several articles have

been examined for metaphorical expressions. These numbered articles can be found
in the appendix. The examples presented are indicated as the following: the first
number means the number of the article in the appendix, the second number means
the line.41 Those articles were examined because newspapers represent, in the
opinion of the author of this paper, the common language very well, it is not a
scientific language or a poetic one.
One area where every-day using of metaphors can be examined quite well is the
abstract concept of politics. Everybody has almost every day to deal with politics in
one or the other way but at the same time it is not easy to explain what politics
actually means.

38
Cf. Gibbs: 181,182
39
Cf. Gibbs: 184
40
Cf. Gibbs: 185,186
41
idea of indicating taken from Baldauf
Although the author of this paper was of the opinion that politics would be a perfect
topic to present the metaphorical use, the material available on this specific topic
showed that this is seemingly not the case. It is said that, in the field of cognitive
metaphorical theory, there are just a few metaphorical concepts that define a
restricted area within the concept of politics.42
One of this areas is the experience we have of games. So, one approach is
the concept: politics is a game
In the centre are two or more ”playersä with a certain target. To reach to this target
they have to take rules into account and they have to have the necessary luck to win.
Examples are:

a) Politically, nothing should be at stake.

b) Even John Major seemed to be touched by the fate of his opponent.
c) Jelzin played with high stakes.43

Also in the selected articles, such examples were found:

- 1/103: These high stakes make Kremlin officials particularly sensitiveö

- 3/113: ö the meeting turned into a slanging match between
modernizers and traditionalists.
- 4/19: His local party,ö won 17 out of 45 seatsö
- 4/20: ö besting all threeö
- 4/35: ö to play a key role in the formation of a new government coalition
- 4/74: He has played incessantly on distrust of Muslims

The next concept is politics is theatre

In this case, the picture in our mind is the following: there is a stage, where a
production is showed by actors and the audience can nothing do but watch, e.g.

a) In many electoral districts, this play was repeated.

b) the fuss of the Tory-Revival
c) ö the political stage44

This can also be seen in the own found examples:

42
Cf. Baldauf: 185
43
Cf. Baldauf: 185
44
Cf. Baldauf: 187
 - 1/6: ö Putin was entertaining NATO Secretary - General George
Robertson,ö
- 1/51: ö that there are no heroes in Russian politics.
- 2/9: but it has been considered too conservatives,ö ,to take on a
prominent national role.
- 3/47: Meanwhile The Flame and the Ashes marks the return to the
political stage of Dominique Strauss ’Kahn.
- 3/121: Henri Emmannuelli drew applause

A very obvious concept is politics is sport

The elements are ”athletesä or teams, rules and competition:

a) the contest about the White House

b) If Bush and Clintonö would get there neck to neck.
c) The race to the presidency.45

There are more examples found in the selected articles:

- 2/19: ö Angela Merkel, announced she was dropping out of the race,
leaving it to Stoiber to carry the conservative banner.
- 2/44: ö poll results have consistently shown him leading Merkel as the
favoured candidateö
- 2/78: ö who wonö the vote in a Hamburg mayoral raceö
- 2/111: and he…s entering the race when the conservatives are far
stronger than only a few short months ago.
- 3/ 4: France…s presidential race beganö
- 3/86: ö that entrepreneurs and risk takers provide the motor for society
- 3/114: ö the meeting turned into a slanging matchö
- 4/14: ö to a substantial victory in local electionsö

A further concept is politics is trade

In this context it is about trying to reach the best advantage out of something by
negotiating and making agreements. Examples are:

a) The every-day business of government.

b) compromises that are negotiated by politicians
c) the deal of his bossö 46

Furthermore, there are examples in the articles, too:

45
cf.Baldauf: 189
46
Cf. Baldauf: 190
 - 2/7: It is frequently called the junior sister of the opposition Christian
Democratic Union
- 2/14: the CSU…s chairman
- 4/71: Fortuyn has surely profited from a sense of public frustration
about the cozy consensus among established Dutch political parties.

The maybe most obvious and known concept is surely politics is war
War means an ”armed conflictä 47. It means, therefor, fight, rivals and loss or win.
There is such a variety of examples in the selected articles that these could serve as
the only source for this topic:

- 1/1: Putin…s Enemies Within

- 1/3: ö rumblings at home threaten to undermine his rule
- 1/17: ö Russia will once again be ruled by a group of faceless and
ruthless secret policemen
- 1/26: ö , Putin is caught up in his first serious power struggle
- 1/49: ö a fight more about power
- 1/69:ö dismissed the fight as a struggleö
- 2/1: Fighting for the right
- 2/23: ö Schro der looked unbeatable
- 2/55: ö she took over as CDU chairwomanö
- 2/65: ö to use against Schro der
- 2/81: ,ö had threatened to field candidates nation-wideö
- 2/84: Stoiber also takes a had line on immigration
- 2/90: ,ö it could change the political climate in Europe
- 3/3:ö lay out the battle lines for the upcoming presidential campaign
- 3/72: ö if France doesn…t abandon its defensive stance,ö
- 3/103: ö dangerous heresy
- 4/1: Hostage to Fortuyn
- 4/14: ö to a substantial victory
- 4/29: ö their own electoral mishap

After exploring ever-day language, in the form of articles, for metaphors for the
concept politics, what is the result?
It is obvious that the term politics is not easy to explain. It mainly has to do with the
government, the opposition, the relationship between the two and the relationship
towards the state and the people. These elements have to ”put acrossä with the help
of words and phrases from other areas used metaphorical.
The problem is that there is no specific metaphorical vocabulary for the term politics.
All these words and phrases presented above can also be used for other concepts.
Nevertheless, metaphors are very useful to explain an abstract term like politics in
ever-day language.

47
Cf. Lakoff/Johnson: 13
6. Conclusion

The aim of this paper was to show that metaphors are not only means by
literal language but that they are actually part of our every-day communication. The
basis for this approach was the theory of Lakoff and Johnson who dealt with this topic
in their work Metaphors we live by. This theory was presented and supported by a
number of examples of common language, either own found examples or given ones.
In addition to this, some fields where metaphors are present were shown.
Along with the functions the different areas of use and the numerous examples
it should become obvious that metaphors cannot be ignored in our common
language. Sometimes it is easier, maybe even better to use metaphorical
expressions to explain difficult terms. Sometimes it is even impossible not using
them.
All in all, one can say that metaphors are so omnipresent that we sometimes
do not even recognise phrase as being metaphorical. So one can say that metaphors
are not only part of our every-day language but also of our mind.
Appendix

Selected articles

Article 1: Quinn-Judge, Paul (2001). äPutin…s Enemies Withinä. Time 10.12., 51.
Article 2: Wallace, Charles P. (2002). Fighting for the Right . Time 21.01., 14.
Article 3: Le Quesne, Nicolas. (2002). ”From Books to Ballotsä. Time 04.03., 44.
Article 4: Graff, James. (2002). ”Hostage to Fortuynä. Time 18.03., 43.
Bibliography

Books
Baldauf, Christa, (1997). Metapher und Kognition Grundlagen einer neuen Theorie
der Alltagsmetapher. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang
Gibbs, Raymond W., (1994). The poetics of Mind. Cambridge: University Press
Korte, Barbara / Klaus Peter Mu ller / Josef Schmied, (1997). Einfu hrung in die
Anglistik. Stuttgart, Weimar: J. B. Metzler
Lakoff, George / Mark Johnson, (1998). Leben in Metaphern Konstruktion und
Gebrauch von Sprachbildern. Heidelberg: Carl ’Auer ’Systeme

Articles
Graff, James (2002). Hostage to Fortuynä. Time 18.03., 43
Le Quesne, Nicholas (2002). From Books to Ballots . Time 04.03., 44
Quinn ’Judge, Paul (2001). ”Putin…s Enemies Withinä. Time 10.12., 51
Wallace, Charles P. (2002). Fighting for the Right . Time 21.01., 14