Basic Climate Science

Glossary of Terms

Aerosols (volcano) – Suspended, fine, solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas. Volcanic
aerosols consist of a mixture of ash, and sulfur-containing gases emitted during an eruption.
When present in high levels, they produce a temporary cooling effect on the planet by
reflecting sunlight and affect cloud formation.

Albedo – A term used to describe the amount of incoming radiation from the sun that is
reflected from a surface back into space. It is measured on a scale from 0 for no reflecting
power of a perfectly black surface, to 1 for perfect reflection of a white surface. The average
albedo of earth’s surface is approximately 0.30 to 0.35; meaning that most of the incoming
radiation from the Sun is absorbed rather than being deflected back into space.

Arctic Sea Ice – Forms in the Arctic Ocean at the North Polar Region. This saltwater sea ice is
very dynamic, expanding and receding according to a seasonal cycle due to the action of winds,
currents and temperature fluctuations.

ARGO – An observation system for earth's oceans that provides real-time data for use in
climate, weather, oceanographic and fisheries research. Argo consists of a large collection of
small, drifting oceanic robotic probes deployed worldwide.

Atlantic Multi-decadal Oscillation (AMO) – Cyclical variability occurring in the North Atlantic
Ocean and which affects sea surface temperature. The AMO index is correlated to air
temperatures and rainfall over much of the Northern Hemisphere and North America. It is
associated with changes in the frequency of North American droughts and is reflected in the
frequency of severe Atlantic hurricanes.

Atmosphere – A layer of gases surrounding the planet earth held in place by earth's gravity. The
atmosphere protects life on earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface
through heat retention, and reducing temperature extremes between day and night.

Atmosphere-biosphere interaction – The interconnection between soil, vegetation, humans,

animals and all other environmental states.

1
Atmospheric gases – Air with either mixed or stratified layers of gases surrounding earth’s
surface. Dry air contains roughly (by volume) 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon,
0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. The atmosphere also contains a
variable amount of water vapor, on average around 1%.

Biogeochemistry – The study of the cycles of chemical elements, such as carbon and nitrogen,
and their interactions with and incorporation into living things transported through earth-scale
biological systems.

Climate – Average state of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation,

and other meteorological measurements over time periods from a few decades to millions of
years.

Climate change – The variation in global or regional climate over time compared to some
arbitrary baseline average. These changes can be caused by natural processes on earth,
external forces such as the sun, and human activities such as land use change.

Climate factors – Physical processes or systems that cause the climate to vary, such as oceanic
circulation systems, solar radiation received by earth, shifts in plate tectonics, and volcanic
eruptions.

Climate feedback – Will either amplify (positive climate feedback) or dampen (negative climate
feedback) the initial effect of a climate forcing. For example, when earth’s surface temperature
increases, more water vapor is released into the atmosphere due to evaporation. Since water
vapor is a greenhouse gas, more heat can be trapped in the atmosphere, thus increasing
surface temperatures even more. This is an example of positive feedback.

Climate forcing – A change in the global energy balance of earth which then causes a change in
climate. A positive forcing (increased solar radiation from the sun) warms the system, while
negative forcing (volcanic aerosols) cools it.

2
Climate projections – Predictions of future climate conditions usually simulated with highly-
complex computer programs called ‘general circulation models’ or ‘global climate models’.
Climate projections are not predictions comparable to tomorrow’s weather forecast. Rather,
they are hypothetical examples of how the climate might change under different scenarios, and
usually produce a range of possibilities as opposed to one specific outcome.

Climate proxies – Preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct
measurements (as statistical proxies), such as ice cores, tree rings, sub-fossil pollen, boreholes,
corals, and lake and ocean sediments. Climate proxies allow scientists to reconstruct the
climatic conditions that prevailed during much of earth's history. Reliable modern records of
climate only began in the 1880s, thus proxies provide a means for scientists to determine
climatic patterns before record-keeping began.

Climate reconstruction – An attempt to deduce past temperature, precipitation, vegetation,

streamflow, sea surface temperature, and other climatic or climate-dependent conditions using
climate proxies.

Climate variability – Decadal and seasonal shifts in weather trends due to natural phenomena
such as a change in wind patterns and sea surface temperatures, such as with the El Nino
Southern Oscillation.

CO2 – The chemical formula for carbon dioxide, a heavy, odorless gas formed during respiration,
and by the combustion and decomposition of organic substances. It is absorbed from the air by
plants in photosynthesis. It is also an important greenhouse gas – as it absorbs heat in the
atmosphere.

Coral reef – Underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. They are
colonies of tiny living animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Coral reefs are
most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and cold water
corals also exist on smaller scales in other regions. These structures are often used as a climate
proxy to reconstruct the past temperature and water conditions during the time they were
formed.

Correlation – A statistical measurement of the relationship between two variables. Correlations

are useful because they can indicate a predictive relationship that can be exploited in practice.
One example in economics is the correlation between demand and supply. In climatology, there
appears to be a correlation between temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.

3
However, statistical correlation does not always indicate causation – meaning just because two
variables correlate does not mean that one variable caused the other.

Cryosphere – The term which collectively describes the portions of earth’s surface where water
is in solid form, including sea ice, lake ice, river ice, snow cover, glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets,
and frozen ground (which includes permafrost). It is an important part of the global climate
system with linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and
moisture changes, clouds, precipitation, hydrology, atmospheric and oceanic circulation.

Deep sea sediment – Particles that accumulate on the seafloor, including volcanic, glacial
deposits, decomposed parts of dead organisms, precipitated particles from chemical reactions,
and particles of solar origin. They are important for scientists, as they record the past biological,
chemical, and physical history of the ocean, and are also used as proxies for climate
reconstruction.

Deforestation – The removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter
converted to a non-forest use. Trees are used or sold as fuel (sometimes in the form of
charcoal) or timber, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock, plantations of
commodities and settlements. Deforestation affects regional climate by altering the natural
hydrologic cycle and by changing the reflective properties (albedo) of the landscape to
incoming solar radiation.

Distance from sun – On average distance from earth to the sun is about 93 million miles (or 150
million kilometers). This is defined as 1 astronomical unit, or AU, and is equal to about 8.2 light-
minutes, as light from the Sun takes about 8 minutes to reach earth. Since earth's orbit is
actually not perfectly circular, the actual distance between earth and the sun varies slightly
over the course of the year, from 91 million miles (147.1 million kilometers) to 94.5 million
miles (152.1 million kilometers).

Earth’s orbital cycle – Also known as Milankovic Cycles, named after Serbian astronomer
Mulitan Milanković, it is the pattern of movement of arth around the sun which changes over
time depending on the gravitational interactions between the two bodies. Such changes in

4
movement and orientation alter the amount and location of solar radiation reaching earth.
Milankovic theorized that elliptical changes in earth’s orbit around the sun (called eccentricity),
the tilt of earth’s axis toward and away from the sun (called obliquity), and the wobble of
earth’s axis toward and away from the sun (called precession) determined climatic patterns on
earth.

Ecosystems – Communities of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction

with the non-living components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil),
that interact as a system. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors and
are subject to small changes in climate conditions.

El Niño /La Niña Southern Oscillation (ENSO) – A warming (El Niño) or cooling (La Niña) of at
least 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) averaged over the east-central tropical Pacific Ocean. Typically, this anomaly
happens at irregular intervals of 3–7 years and lasts nine months to two years. During the El
Niño phase, winters are usually warmer and drier than average in the Northwest, North-
midwest, and North-mideast United States, and those regions experience reduced snowfalls. La
Niña causes above-average precipitation across the North Midwest, the Northern Rockies,
Northern California, and the Pacific Northwest's southern and eastern regions. Meanwhile
there is below-average precipitation in the southwestern and southeastern states.

Elevation – The height above a fixed reference point. It is mainly used when referring to points
on earth's surface.

Evaporation – Vaporization of water that occurs on the surface of a liquid. Occurs when the
surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor. This vapor
can then rise up into the atmosphere and form clouds. Solar energy from the sun drives
evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, and other sources of water.

General circulation models – Complex computer simulations of the atmosphere and its
phenomena over the entire earth using the equations of motion, radiation, photochemistry,
and the transfer of heat, water vapor, and momentum. They are also referred to as ‘global
climate models’.

5
GISS – Abbreviation for Goddard Institute for Space Studies, a laboratory in the Earth Sciences
Division of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center and a unit of the Columbia University Earth
Institute. Research emphasizes a broad study of global change addressing natural and man-
made changes in our environment that occur on various time scales from one-time forcings
such as volcanic explosions, to seasonal and annual effects such as El Niño.

Glaciers – A large mass of ice that moves very slowly through a valley or spreading outward
from a center. Glaciers form over many years from packed snow in areas where snow
accumulates faster than it melts. A glacier is always moving, but when its forward edge melts
faster than the ice behind it advances, the glacier as a whole recedes.

Global warming potential (GWP) – A relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas
traps in the atmosphere. It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas
in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide. It is calculated
over a specific time interval, commonly 20, 100 or 500 years. For example, the GWP of methane
over a 100-year period is 25, meaning it traps 25 times more heat than an equivalent amount of
carbon dioxide.

Greenhouse effect – A process whereby sunlight passes through the atmosphere and warms
earth’s surface. This heat is radiated back into space. Most of the outgoing heat is absorbed by
heat absorbing molecules in the atmosphere and re-emitted in all directions, warming the
surface of earth and the lower atmosphere.

Greenhouse gas emissions – Heat absorbing gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous
oxide, water vapor, and ozone) that are released into the atmosphere from natural biological
processes and various human activities.

H2O – Chemical symbol for water, regardless of physical form (liquid, solid, or gas). Water vapor
is considered the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.

HadCRUT3 – The name given to a gridded dataset of global historical surface temperature
anomalies (or departures). Data are available for each month since January 1850, on a 5-degree
grid. The dataset is a collaborative product of the Met Office Hadley Centre and the Climatic
Research Unit at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom.

6
Human ‘footprint’ – The cumulative impact of human presence and actions on the
environment. This phrase is commonly used to describe the amount of greenhouse gas
emissions produced by human activities such as urbanization, burning fossil fuels, and
agriculture production.

Human ‘forcings’ – A phrase used to describe the activities carried out by people that cause a
change in weather, climate variability, and/or climate change. Examples include urbanization,
changes in the natural landscape and land management, and industrial and vehicular emissions
of greenhouse gases.

Hydrologic cycle – Describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the
surface of earth. Water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or
from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow.

Hydrosphere – The combined mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet.

Ice core – Sample of ice that is removed from an ice sheet, most commonly from the polar ice
caps of Antarctica, Greenland, or from high mountain glaciers. Wind-blown dust, ash, bubbles
of atmospheric gas, and radioactive substances contained in ice cores allow scientists to
reconstruct climate dating back thousands of years.

Ice extent – A measure of the growth or reduction of sea ice in polar regions. Reliable satellite
measurements of sea ice date back to the late 1970s.

Ice sheet – A mass of glacier ice that covers the surrounding terrain, also known as a
continental glacier. The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland.

Irrigation – The artificial application of water to the land or soil, used to assist in the growing of
agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and re-vegetation of disturbed soils in arid areas
and during periods of inadequate rainfall.

7
Jet stream – Fast flowing, narrow air currents that move in the upper atmosphere. The main jet
streams are located near the tropopause, the transition layer between the troposphere and the
stratosphere. Meteorologists use the location of jet streams to help forecast weather events.

Latitude – A geographic coordinate that specifies the north-south position of a point on earth's
surface. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east–west as circles parallel to the equator.
Latitude ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles. Latitude is used together with
longitude to specify the precise location of features on the surface of earth.

Luminosity – A measure of the brightness of or the total amount of energy emitted by the sun.
On average, the total power output of the sun is 3.846×1026 Watts.

Methane – A chemical compound with the chemical formula CH4. It is the main component of
natural gas and is a relatively potent greenhouse gas. Over a 100-year period, it retains about
25 times more heat than an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide.

Milankovitch cycles – Describes the manner in which earth rotates around the sun, and
wobbles and tilts about its axis. This theory was developed by Serbian geophysicist and
astronomer Milutin Milanković in the early 1900s.

Natural climate forcings – External factors such as the sun’s solar radiation, and internal factors
such as volcanoes, fluctuations in ocean circulations, and large-scale changes in the marine and
terrestrial biosphere and in the cryosphere that cause climate variability and climate change.

8
NCDC – Abbreviation for the National Climatic Data Center, a Center of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration. It is the world's largest active archive of weather data, and is
one of few sources of average global temperature data.

Nitrous oxide – A chemical compound with the formula N2O. It is a major greenhouse gas and
air pollutant. Considered over a 100-year period, it retains 298 times more heat than an
equivalent amount of carbon dioxide.

NOAA – Abbreviation for National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. It is a scientific

agency within the United States Department of Commerce that focuses on the conditions of the
oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas and skies, guides
the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve
understanding and stewardship of the environment.

Ozone – A molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms with the formula O3. Ozone is formed
from di-oxygen by the action of ultraviolet light and also atmospheric electrical discharges. It is
present in low concentrations throughout earth's atmosphere. The so-called ozone layer (a
portion of the stratosphere with a relatively high concentration of ozone) prevents damaging
ultraviolet light from reaching earth's surface, protecting both plants and animals.

Ocean currents – Movement of the oceans controlled by temperature differences in the oceans
and in the air, as heat is transferred from the equator to the polar regions.

Oceanic conveyor belt – A constant motion in the ocean due to differences in temperature and
salinity throughout the ocean. Cold, salty water is dense and sinks to the bottom of the ocean
while warm water is less dense and rises to the surface. The ocean conveyor starts in the
Norwegian Sea, where warm water from the Gulf Stream heats the atmosphere in the cold
northern latitudes. This loss of heat to the atmosphere makes the water cooler and denser,
causing it to sink to the bottom of the ocean. As more warm water is transported north, the
cooler water sinks and moves south to make room for the incoming warm water. This cold
bottom water flows south of the equator all the way down to Antarctica. Eventually, the cold
bottom waters are able to warm and rise to the surface, continuing the conveyor belt that
encircles the globe. It takes almost 1,000 years for the conveyor belt to complete one cycle.

Orography – The study of the formation and relief of mountains, hills, and other terrain.

9
Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) - A climate index based upon patterns of variation in sea
surface temperature of the North Pacific. Warm and cool phases of the PDO are well correlated
with many records of North Pacific and Pacific Northwest climate and ecology, including sea
level pressure, winter land–surface temperature and precipitation, and stream flow. The index
is also correlated with salmon landings from Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California.

Precipitation – Condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main
forms of precipitation include drizzle (or mist), rain, sleet, snow, and hail.

Prevailing wind – Winds that blow predominantly from a single general direction relative to a
particular point on earth's surface. A region's prevailing and winds are often affected by global
patterns of movement in earth's atmosphere. Generally, easterly winds occur at low and high
latitudes, and westerly winds occur at mid-latitudes.

Radiosonde – A mechanical device attached to the bottom of a weather balloon that measures
various atmospheric parameters (such as temperature and barometric pressure) and transmits
that information to a fixed receiver on the ground.

Relative humidity – A measure of the amount of water vapor being held in the atmosphere. It
is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in an air-water mixture to the saturated vapor
pressure of water at a given temperature.

RSS-MSU – Abbreviation for Remote Sensing Systems – Microwave Sounding Unit. RSS is a
private company that uses data collected by MSUs on-board satellite orbiting space to calculate
average global temperature for the lower stratosphere, upper troposphere, and lower
troposphere.

10
Satellite – An object which has been placed into orbit by humans. Common types of satellites
include military and civilian earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation
satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites.

(Mean) Sea level – A measure of the average height of the ocean's surface (such as the halfway
point between the mean high tide and the mean low tide.

SF6 – The chemical formula for sulfur hexafluoride. It is an inorganic, colorless, odorless, and
non-flammable greenhouse gas. It is commonly used in the electrical and semiconductor
industries. Once released into the atmosphere, SF6 traps approximately 22,800 times more heat
that an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide over a 100-year period.

Snowmelt – Surface runoff produced from melting snow. The term is also used to describe the
period or season during which such runoff is produced. Water produced by snowmelt is an
important part of the annual water cycle in many parts of the world, in some cases contributing
the majority of annual runoff in a watershed.

Stratosphere – The second major layer of earth's atmosphere, just above the troposphere, and
below the mesosphere. It is stratified in temperature, with warmer layers higher up and cooler
layers farther down. Commercial airliners typically cruise at altitudes 30,000–39,000 feet in the
lower reaches of the stratosphere to reduce air drag, optimize fuel efficiency, and to stay above
turbulent weather.

Sunspot – Temporary phenomena on the surface of the Sun that appear visibly as dark spots
compared to surrounding regions. They are caused by intense magnetic activity. Sunspot cycles
are frequently discussed in the context of climate change.

Surface weather station – An array of different weather instruments that measure

temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, solar radiation, and many other variables. NOAA
scientists collect data from approximately 1,500 surface weather stations, and along with sea
surface temperature, calculate average global temperature.

11
Temperature – A physical quantity that indicates degrees of hot and cold on a numerical scale
using a thermometer. Temperature is usually measured in degrees Fahrenheit or degrees
Celsius.

Temperature anomaly – A change (or departure) in temperature from a reference value or

long-term average. A positive anomaly indicates that the observed temperature was warmer
than the reference value, while a negative anomaly indicates that the observed temperature
was cooler than the reference value. Temperature anomaly is often used to describe changes in
climate, as opposed to using absolute temperature.

Terrestrial radiation – Long-wave electromagnetic (or thermal infrared) radiation originating

from earth and its atmosphere. It is determined by the temperature and composition of earth's
atmosphere and surface. We recognize terrestrial radiation as heat.

Topography – The surface shape and features of a land mass, including hills, mountains, slopes,
valleys, plateaus. Topography strongly influences local and regional weather and climate.

Troposphere – The lowest portion of earth's atmosphere. It contains approximately 80% of the
atmosphere's mass and 99% of its water vapor and aerosols. Most of the phenomena we
associate with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere.

UAH-MSU – Abbreviation for University of Alabama - Huntsville – Microwave Sounding Unit.

UAH uses data collected by MSUs on-board satellite orbiting space to calculate average global
temperature for the lower stratosphere, upper troposphere, and lower troposphere.

Urbanization – Term used to describe the physical growth of human population areas as a
result of rural migration and suburban concentration into cities. Urbanized areas tend to have
less vegetation and exposed soil. Thus, the majority of the sun’s energy is absorbed by urban
structures and asphalt creating what is known as the “urban heat island” effect.

12
Vegetation – Refers to the ground cover provided by plants, such as redwood forests, coastal
mangrove stands, sphagnum bogs, desert soil crusts, roadside weed patches, wheat fields,
cultivated gardens and lawns. Planting density, color, texture and other vegetation
characteristics affects the amount of incoming solar radiation reflected back to space, known as
albedo.

Weather – The state of the atmosphere, usually described in terms of temperature,

precipitation, relative humidity, wind speed, and degree of cloudiness. Weather generally
describes the condition of the atmosphere over short time periods, from hours to a few days.

Weather balloon – An inflatable device usually filled with either hydrogen or helium launched
from earth’s surface into the atmosphere. It carries instruments aloft to send back information
on atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity and wind speed by means of a small,
expendable measuring device called a radiosonde.

Weather extreme – An unusual, severe, or unseasonal weather phenomena or event, such as a

tornado, hurricane, drought, blizzard, flood, and extended period of above or below normal
heat or cold.

13